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 Instructor’s Manual for Forensic Psychology 67

CHAPTER 6
Child Victims and Witnesses

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Differentiate between techniques that decrease versus increase the likelihood of
accurate recall in child witnesses.
 Summarize children’s ability to recall/describe people’s appearances.
 Describe a lineup technique designed for children’s identification.
 Outline the courtroom accommodations available for child witnesses.
 Explain child maltreatment categories and related consequences.

OUTLINE

History of Child Witnesses

 In the early 1900s the prevailing negative attitudes towards child witnesses were
tested. Results indicated children were highly suggestible and capable of providing
inaccurate testimony; however the methods used in this research are not well known
(Whipple, 1909, 1912).
 Research in the area increased during the 1970s when expert testimony was gaining
acceptance, social scientists were interested in conducting research that applied to real
world problems, and adult eyewitness research was getting noticed. Finally, due to an
increase in the number of abuse cases with child victim/witnesses the legal
community was taking an interest in relevant behavioural science research (Ceci &
Bruck, 1993).
 Numerous cases of reported physical and sexual abuse in Canada and the United
States prompted researchers to better understand child victims and witnesses (see Box
6.1 for a description of the Martensville Case).
 When deciding whether child abuse cases will be prosecuted, police tend to rely on
the presence of corroborating evidence and whether the suspect denies the allegations
(Powell, Murfett, & Thomson, 2010). However, questioning technique is not heavily
considered.

Accuracy of Child Witness Reports

 More recent research indicates that children can recall events they witnessed, but it is
challenging to determine when they are recalling accurately and when they are
fabricating. However, the accuracy of their accounts depends largely on how they are
asked to recall (Ceci & Bruck, 1993).
 The impact of leading questions is influenced by age. Younger children are more
likely to be suggestible from leading questions compared to older children (Roebers,
Bjorklund, Schneider, & Cassel, 2002), although older children and adults are not
immune to suggestibility.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

 Instructor’s Manual for Forensic Psychology 68

 Free recall tends to produce more accurate information, however, not much
information is elicited in this manner. Direct questioning can increase fabricated
information or false claims, as can feedback from the interviewer. In addition,
children are more likely to have difficulty with yes/no questions compared to wh-
questions (Waterman, Blades, & Spencer, 2004).
 Recent research examining sexual abuse cases found that How-questions (i.e., how
did you feel?) elicited the most evaluative information (descriptions of cognitive,
emotional and physical reactions) (Lyon et al., 2012).
 Social compliance theory states that children’s increased suggestibility is due to their
trust and desire to cooperate with adult interviewers even if they do not understand
the question being asked.
 Another theory explaining children’s suggestibility is changes to the cognitive
system. There are developmental differences in the ways children and adults encode,
store, and retrieve information. Children can also “misattribute” where information
comes from.

Anatomically Detailed Dolls

 Use of props, such as anatomically detailed dolls, have been used by some mental
health professionals when children have difficulty providing a verbal account of
abuse. Anatomically detailed dolls are consistent with female or male anatomy. The
assumption is that a child’s play with the dolls reflects their experience.
 Research suggests that use of the dolls may be associated with more “fantastic”
details in both younger and older children (Thierry, Lamb, Orbach, & Pipe, 2005).
However, other studies have reported few differences in errors between verbal and
prop-assisted interviews (Goodman et al., 1997; Melinder et al., 2010).
 Several difficulties with the use of these dolls concern lack of standardization in the
appearance of the dolls, no consistent scoring of behaviours exhibited by children,
and no research on how different groups (i.e., abused/nonabused) play with the dolls.

Techniques for Interviewing Children

 Criterion based content analysis (CBCA) was developed to allow differentiation
between true and false statements made by children (Stellar, 1989). CBCA is part of
Statement Validity Analysis (SVA) that is divided into three components; a structured
interview, a systematic analysis of the child’s statements (i.e., CBCA), and
application of the statement validity checklist.
 CBCA relies on the assumption that there is a difference in the quality and content of
real and false statements. In particular, true events are more likely to contain the
criteria (e.g., unstructured production, contextual embedding, unusual details,
spontaneous corrections) rather than fabricated events. See Table 6.1 for a listing of
some of the CBCA criteria.
 Research appears to support the ability of SVA to correctly distinguish between
accurate and false statements (Parker & Brown, 2000; Stellar, 1989). However, it is
not without its critics. CBCA has been criticized for lacking standardization in the
criteria used to determine if a statement is true or false (Ruby & Brigham, 1997).
Also, research has shown that age of the interviewee is positively correlated with
scores on the CBCA (e.g., Buck, Warren, Betman, & Brigham, 2002). Pezdek et al.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

 Instructor’s Manual for Forensic Psychology 69

(2004) also note that scores are influenced by both how familiar the event is to the
child and the age of the child. Recent studies suggest that certain criteria may be more
useful in distinguishing true and false claims of sexual abuse: quantity of details,
interactions, and subjective experience (Roma et al., 2011).
 The stepwise interview begins by asking children free recall type questions and
moves towards more direct questions, as needed (Yuille et al., 1993). Research
indicates that this protocol helps to elicit information from children and is comparable
to other stepwise variations (Hardy & Van Leeuwan, 2004). See Table 6.2 for a
discussion of the Step-Wise Interview stages.
 With the narrative elaboration procedure, children learn to organize stories into
categories: participants, settings, actions, conversation/affective states, and
consequences (Saywitz & Snyder, 1996). Each category has an illustrated card that
acts as a cue. Children practice telling stories with the cards prior to being questioned
about the critical event. Although not used in many cases of sexual abuse (Faller et
al., 2011), research has found that it helps to increase the amount of accurate
information reported (Brown & Pipe, 2003) but prompts about the categories also
work well to elicit information (Quas et al., 2000).
 The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development also developed an
interview protocol for use with children. Interviewers use free recall questioning but
also have two types of prompts available to establish timelines as well cue prompts to
help children provide details (Sternberg et al., 2002). This protocol helps children
report detail, although use of multipart prompts is not recommended (Katz &
Hershkowitz, 2012).
 The cognitive interview (described in detail in Chapter 5) can be adapted for used
with child witnesses, and has been found effective for helping children recall accurate
information (e.g., Holliday & Albon, 2004).

Recall Memory Following a Long Delay

 There is debate regarding the ability to recover memories of child sexual abuse as an
adult. Some believe that child sexual abuse is so traumatic for some individuals that
they repress the abuse into their unconscious. Only as adults and with the help of
therapists are they able to recall the abuse. Others argue suggestive techniques used in
therapy result in false memory syndrome. That is, when a person comes to falsely
believe they were abused as a child.
 One of the main points of contention in this debate is whether it is possible to forget
traumatic memories, only to remember them years later (see Box 6.2 for a case
involving such claims).
 Any recovered memories should be interpreted with caution. Lindsay and Read
(1995) recommend five points to consider when assessing the validity of a recovered
memory, including: age of complainant at time of abuse, the techniques used to
recover the memories, consistency of reports across interview sessions, motivation to
recall, and time elapsed since the alleged abuse.
 Courts have begun to see a rise in the amount of cases dealing with historic child
sexual abuse (HCSA). This relatively new phenomenon refers to instances of sexual
abuse which allegedly occurred several years before prosecution, with the victim
having a continuous memory of the offence (Connolly & Read, 2006; see Box 6.3).

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

 Instructor’s Manual for Forensic Psychology 70

 Research has examined the influence of various factors on the verdicts from judge-
only and jury trials for cases involving HCSA. Specifically, research has found that:
for younger complainants at the time of the prosecution, for abuse involving threats,
and for defendants who had a close relationship with the complainant, the more likely
a guilty verdict will be reached. In contrast, when the delay between the abuse and
reporting is longer, expert testimony is present, and when the complainant does not
report a repression of memory, the more likely an acquittal will be handed down
(Read, Connolly, & Welsch, 2006). Further, higher guilt ratings have been associated
with shorter delays between the incident and reporting, and when the defendant is
more closely related to the alleged victim (Pozzulo, Dempsey, & Crescini, 2010).

Recall for People

 Older children provide a greater number of details when describing a culprit than
younger children (Davies, Tarrant, & Flin, 1989). Height, weight, and age are often
mentioned descriptors and if not mentioned may be requested by police. Both
children and youth have difficulty with accurately stating these descriptors (Davies,
Stephenson-Robb, & Flinn, 1988; Pozzulo & Warren, 2003). In addition, exterior
facial features, such as hair, are more likely to be reported than interior facial features
such as shape of nose.
 Interviewers should be careful not to introduce their own biases and stereotypes when
questioning children, as this can influence their recall and susceptibility to
suggestions (Leichtman & Ceci, 1995; Memon, Holliday, & Hill, 2006).
 When asked to identify a culprit from a lineup children are comparable to adults in
their ability to identify the culprit from a lineup that contains the target (i.e., target-
present lineup). However, when a lineup does not contain the culprit (i.e., target-
absent lineup), children are more likely to identify an innocent person. Contrary to
research with adults, accuracy using the sequential lineup increases children’s false
positive rate compared to a simultaneous lineup (Pozzulo & Lindsay, 1998).
 Pozzulo and Lindsay (1999) created a lineup procedure (i.e., elimination lineup) for
children that decreases their false positive rate compared to simultaneous
presentation. With the elimination procedure, initially, all pictures in the lineup are
presented to the children and they are asked to select the one that looks most like the
culprit (relative judgment). Next, the child is asked to compare his/her memory to the
most similar lineup member they selected to determine if it is in fact the culprit
(absolute judgment). The elimination procedure increases the correct rejection rate for
children compared to the simultaneous procedure.
 In target-absent lineups, research suggests that social factors (i.e., feeling pressured to
make an indentification) may play a bigger role in erroneous identifications than
cognitive factors (i.e., memory deficits) (Pozzulo, Dempsey, Bruer, & Sheahan,
2010).

Testifying & Courtroom Accommodations

 Prior to Bill C-2 (2006) children under the age of 14 years were required to undergo a
competency inquiry before testifying in court in Canada as set out in section 16 of the
Evidence Act. This inquiry assessed the ability of the child to understand the

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

 Instructor’s Manual for Forensic Psychology 71

differences between truth and a lie, and made the child feel compelled to tell the truth.
In addition, the ability to communicate was assessed.
 Bill C-2 recognized that children’s actual truth-telling behavior was not related to
how well they understood the meaning of truth. Under section 16.1 of the Evidence
Act, children are still required to show competency for understanding and responding
to questions. Children must promise to tell the truth and testify under that promise.
Children are no longer questioned regarding their ability to distinguish between truth
and lie and abstract notions of promise or oath (Bala, Lee, Lindsay, & Talwar, 2010).
 Due to the stress and trauma children may experience from testifying in court, the
Canadian justice system has allowed for alternatives in any case where a child must
testify. These include having the child testify from another room via closed circuit
television, using a screen to separate the child and defendant, letting the child have a
support person present while testifying, video-recording interviews about the crime,
closing the courtroom to the public, and admission of initial disclosure statements
made by children into court as evidence.
 Bill C-2 also precludes children under the age of 18 from being cross-examined
personally by the accused.

Child Maltreatment
 There are different categories of child maltreatment defined by Health Canada;
physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect/failure to provide, and emotional maltreatment.
 Physical abuse occurs when force is applied to a child to cause injury such as,
shaking, biting, or poisoning (see Box 6.5 for a discussion of the distinction between
discipline or physical abuse). Sexual abuse occurs when an adult uses a child for
sexual purposes; this can include exploitation, exhibitionism, and fondling. Neglect
occurs when a child is not provided with requisite attention to meet the child’s needs.
Finally, emotional maltreatment includes either acts of commission or omissions that
could cause serious behavioural, cognitive, emotional harm to a child, or mental
disorders.
 In Canada (excluding the Yukon Territory), the law requires that children in “need of
protection” be reported to authorities. While most psychologists are aware of these
mandatory reporting laws (Beck & Ogloff, 1995), they may not comply with this
legislation due to lack of evidence or beliefs that child protection would not be able to
help.
 Incidence of child abuse refers to the number of new cases in a specific population
occurring in a given time period, usually a year. Prevalence refers to the proportion of
the population at a specific point in time that was maltreated during childhood.
 Surveys on the prevalence of child maltreatment indicate that the most prevalent
complaints are for neglect, exposure to domestic violence, and physical abuse, with
emotional maltreatment and sexual abuse representing a smaller proportion of
substantiated cases (Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect,
2008).
 There are various risk factors that have been identified for physical and sexual abuse
that increase the likelihood of emotional and/or behavioural problems. Some risk
factors for physical abuse include: young maternal age, history of physical abuse,
unplanned pregnancy, low SES. Some risk factors for sexual abuse include: poor

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

 Instructor’s Manual for Forensic Psychology 72

parent-child relations, presence of stepfather, living without biological parent, poor

relationship between parents (MacMillan, 2000). Recent studies also have identified
that domestic violence, parental drug and alcohol use, prior child abuse and neglect,
being on public assistance, and child behaviour problems are related to a greater
likelihood of substantiated physical abuse (Dakil et al., 2012).
 Child maltreatment may result in both short and long-term harm to the child. For
physical abuse some short-term consequences include depression, perceptual-motor
deficits, aggression, heavy episodic drinking, and lower intellectual functioning
(Ammerman et al., 1986; Shin, Miller, & Teicher, 2012). In the long-term, children
who experienced physical abuse are more likely to perpetrate family violence, in
addition to being victimized by violence (Malinosky-Rummell & Hansen, 1993).
 Short-term consequences of sexual abuse include sleep disturbances, inappropriate
sexuality, eating disorders, and lowered self-esteem (Kendall-Tackett, Williams, &
Finkelhor, 1993). The long-term effects of sexual abuse include psychiatric disorders,
dysfunctional behaviours, and neurobiological dysregulation (Putnam, 2003). They
also may have a greater risk of being sexually abused as adults (Messman-Moore &
Long, 2003). See Table 6.4.
 The prevalence of child sexual abuse is approximately 10.14%, and other types of
maltreatment are more likely to have occurred in individuals that experienced CSA
(Perez-Fuentes et al., 2012). Adults with this history also may experience more
psychological disorders and suicide attempts (Dube et al., 2005).
 Despite possible negative after-effects of maltreatment, not all children who have
experienced maltreatment will have negative or lasting effects. Various protective
factors can help to insulate children from these negative consequences.
 Due to the high number of sexual predators on the internet (see Box 6.7), Canada has
made it illegal to communicate with a child for the purpose of committing a sexual
act.

SUGGESTED LECTURE ACTIVITIES

History
 Pick a notorious case of alleged child abuse, such as the Martensville Babysitting case
(R. v. Sterling, 1995), the McMartin preschool case, or the Wee Care Nursery School
case (with Kelly Michaels). Provide students with a detailed overview of the case.
Use this as a means to launch into a discussion of concepts such as false memory,
interviewing children, child suggestibility, etc. Alternately, divide the class into
groups to have them discuss how these concepts are evident and demonstrated in
these real-life cases.

Recall for Events

 Discuss the different forms of questioning children, using specific, open-ended,
forced choice, yes/no, or wh-questions. Have students seek out examples of these
types of questions on the internet (i.e., video clips) to share an example of each with
the class. Then have students discuss how certain question types may be good or bad

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

 Instructor’s Manual for Forensic Psychology 73

when applied to child victims and witnesses. What problems do they see with certain
forms of questioning? What are their suggestions for improving child questioning?

Techniques for Interviewing Children

 Divide the class into two groups. Have half defend the use of anatomical dolls in the
questioning of children who allege sexual abuse, and have half defend against the use
of these dolls. Tell each group to develop strong arguments before or against their use
and difficulties with procedures.
 Present students with the following scenario: During recess a teacher heard a
commotion on the playground and went to investigate. When the teacher arrived one
of the children was crying. The teacher takes the child inside to find out what
happened. What types of questions should the teacher ask?
- Break students into groups and assign each group with the step wise interview, or
narrative elaboration. Have them use their assigned technique to develop an
interview to use for the child in the above scenario.

Recall Memory Following a Long Delay

 Present the class with a real or fictitious case of historical child sexual abuse, and
have them assess whether they believe the memory to be true or false based on the
five criteria specified by Lindsay and Read (1995).
 Choose several articles on recall of historical child abuse (could be general or specific
to those written by Dr. Deborah Connelly) and have groups in the class present these
articles to the class as a whole.

Describing the Culprit

 Display a facial portrait to students for a few seconds. Ask students to state features
they remember about the person’s face. Tally the number of interior facial features
and exterior facial features. Ask students how these results compare to research with
children.
 Conduct your own “mini-experiment” with the class where you expose them to an
individual (i.e., someone who comes into class to repair a technical problem and ends
up yelling at the computer or something along those lines), and then divide them into
stereotype, suggestion, and control conditions. Use an online composite photo
program (such as Portrait Pad) to have each person in the class create a composite.
Compare these to determine if suggested or stereotypical features are presented on the
faces, and how they differ from the control group. Then discuss how different this
would be in children.
 A criminal justice professional argues that an identification made with a simultaneous
lineup by a child witness should be discounted because research demonstrates
children are likely to make false identifications. Divide the class in half, one half
debates that it should be allowed the other half debates that it should not be allowed.

Testifying in court
 Have students generate the pros and cons of each accommodation available for child
victims who need to provide testimony in courts. Consider the rights of the child
victim versus the rights of the defendant.

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 Instructor’s Manual for Forensic Psychology 74

Child Maltreatment
 Have students contrast the risk factors for child physical abuse versus child sexual
abuse. Brainstorm the reasons for the different risk factors.
 Have the students discuss what factors they think would be protective factors in two
different ways: protective to decrease chance of experiencing physical or sexual
abuse, or protective in terms of decreasing the negative after-effects of physical or
sexual abuse.
 Present students with the following scenario: David is ten years old. When he was six
he was removed from his home due to physical abuse and neglect. What are some of
the consequences of this maltreatment that David may be experiencing?

PEER SCHOLAR EXERCISE(S)

The discussion and research questions at the end of the chapter (located below) can be
used as peerScholar assignments (www.pearsoned.ca/peerscholar). Students are expected
to write a 500 word response to the question (using at least one empirical reference
incorporated into their response) and submit it online through peerScholar where an
anonymous and randomly-assigned group of their peers will review and evaluate it. Peers
will be required to read and provide constructive comments (and a grade out of 100
points, see Instructions and Tips) for three randomly assigned papers from questions
different from the one they themselves completed. Peer grades will be averaged and make
up a portion of the individual student’s grade (e.g., 5%). All students also will be given a
grade out of 100 points for their feedback on other papers according to the Instructions
and Tips specified by the instructor (see below) and this could count for another portion
of the overall student grade (e.g., 5%). Students will then receive feedback from their
classmates on their paper and have a chance to revise their paper prior to submitting to
the professor for a paper grade out of 100 points (worth say 5%) that is then combined
with the other grades for a total of 15% or some value as determined by each individual
instructor. This entire process will be anonymous. For more information about
peerScholar, contact your Pearson sales representative.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1) In your local community newspaper, you read of a 7-year-old boy who has been
physically abused and then abandoned. You wonder what difficulties this boy may
experience in the next couple of years and when he becomes an adult. Describe the
possible short-term and long-term effects of maltreatment.

2) Why is the use of anatomically correct dolls controversial when assessing child sexual
abuse?

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 Instructor’s Manual for Forensic Psychology 75

RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

1) After completing an undergraduate course in forensic psychology, you are interested in

telling your colleagues in the police department the best interview techniques to use with
child witnesses. What are some of the techniques you would use with child witnesses?

2) An 8-year-old girl has witnessed the abduction of her best friend by an adult male.
What procedures should the police use when conducting a lineup with this child witness?
What are some of the lineup techniques you would use with child witnesses?

INSTRUCTIONS AND TIPS (to be provided to students as grading criteria)

All students must leave at least 5 comments per paper they read. Comments must be
constructive (i.e., other things the student could consider, ways concepts could be
clarified) rather than destructive (i.e., this is a stupid argument, the writing sucks).
Remember that ALL students are also being evaluated on the QUALITY of feedback that
they provide to their peers – so make it count!

Consider the following questions when providing a grade for your peers, and assign a
grade of 20 points to each evaluation criteria, to provide a total overall paper grade out of
100 points.
a) Was the paper written clearly?
b) Did the author make clear arguments that are backed up with facts?
c) Did the author use additional resources (minimum one) to support their arguments and
was this done effectively?
d) Did the author answer the discussion/research question appropriately?
e) Overall impression (sentence structure, fluidity, grammar, spelling).

SUGGESTED READINGS

Fallon, B., Trocme, N., Fluke, J., Van Wert, M., MacLaurin, B., Sinha, V., … Turcotte,
D. (2012). Responding to child maltreatment in Canada: Context for international
comparisons. Advances in Mental Health, 11, 76-86.

Goodman, G. S., & Melinder, A. (2007). Child witness research and forensic interviews
of young children: A review. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 12, 1-19.

King, C. B., & Scott, K. L. (2013, in press). Why are suspected cases of child
maltreatment referred by educators so often unsubstantiated? Child Abuse &
Neglect.

Pozzulo, J. D., & Balfour, J. (2006). Children’s and adult’s eyewitness identification
accuracy when a culprit changes his appearance: Comparing simultaneous and
elimination lineup procedures. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 11, 25-34.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

 Instructor’s Manual for Forensic Psychology 76

Pozzulo, J. D., & Dempsey, J. L. (2013). Children’s identification accuracy of multiple

perpetrators: Examining the simultaneous versus elimination lineup. Psychiatry,
Psychology and Law, 20, 353-365.

Pozzulo, J. D., Dempsey, J., Bruer, K., & Sheahan, C. (2012). The culprit in target-absent
lineups: Understanding young children’s false positive responding. Journal of
Police and Criminal Psychology, 27, 55-62.

Saywitz, K. J., Esplin, P., & Romanoff, S. L. (2007). A holistic approach to interviewing
and treating children in the legal system. In M. E. Pipe, M. E. Lamb, Y. Orbach, &
A.-C. Cederborg (Eds.), Child sexual abuse: Disclosure, delay, and denial (pp.
221-249). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group.

Tommyr, L., Ouimet, C., & Ugnat, A.-M. (2012). A review of findings from the
Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect (CIS). Canadian
Journal of Public Health, 103, 103-112.

Trocmé, N., & Wolfe, D. (2001). Child maltreatment in Canada: Canadian incidence
study of reported child abuse and neglect : selected results. Ottawa, ON: Health
Canada.

Westcott, H. L., Davies, G. M., & Bull, R. (2002). Children's testimony: A handbook of
psychological research and forensic practice. Sussex, England: John Wiley &
Sons.

Zajac, R., Garry, M., London, K., Goodyear-Smith, F., & Hayne, H. (2013).
Misconceptions about childhood sexual abuse and child witnesses: Implications
for psychological experts in the courtroom. Memory, 21, 608-617.

SUGGESTED ONLINE VIDEO RESOURCES

1) Margaret Kelly Michaels Interview (Oprah, 2003). Interview of Kelly Michaels in the
Wee Care Daycare case, and was falsely accused and imprisoned for 5 years (segment
approximately 13 minutes).
LINK: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pz5UiZ0c7pk

2) Indictment: The McMartin Trial (HBO TV, 1995). The McMartin family's lives are
turned upside down when they are accused of serious child molestation. The family run a
school for infants. An unqualified child cruilty "expert" videotapes the children
describing outrageous stories of abuse. One of the most expensive and long running trails
in US legal history, exposes the lack of evidence and unprofessional attitudes of the
finger pointers which kept one of the accused in jail for over 5 years without bail
(2:11:46).
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxUv3mgJgkU

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 Instructor’s Manual for Forensic Psychology 77

NOTE: You could break this up into segments or have your class watch this on their own
time and bring it into discussion for one of the activities discussed above or as general
discussion about child victims/witnesses and questioning procedures.

3) Truth and Consequence (2012). At Cornell University, renowned psychologist Stephen

Ceci studies the accuracy of children's courtroom testimony, particularly in cases alleging
physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect. "Truth and Consequence" is a short
independent documentary that focuses on Professor Ceci's research and three court cases
in which he testified as an expert witness (37:23).
LINK: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q-B4AsF1ma0

4) Dr. Joanna Pozzulo (Carleton University, 2012). Dr. Joanna Pozzulo, Psychology
Department, discusses the study of eye witness identification and how well a witness can
pick out a perpetrator from a line up, what factors can impact accuracy and inaccuracy
(2:16).
LINK: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2EKqqZjrp4Y

5) The Child Witness (Child Witness Center, 2008). The audience will be part of a
journey through the eyes of a 6-year-old child victim who visits the Child Witness Center
and gets ready to go to court and testify. The child's dialogue represents the voices of
many children who have been helped by the Centre through the years and is taken
directly from statements and transcripts (6:03).
LINK: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WKhKVoQfG5Y

6) Can You Always Believe the Children? (1993). W5 discussion of cases and the
research of Ceci & Bruck about child suggestibility and imagination, including the Sam
Stone study (16:33).
LINK: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vVh22znRd2Q

7) Canada Falling Short on Foster Care, Maltreatment Rates Remain High (2012). A
study published recently by Dr. Marni Brownell and colleagues in the Lancet examined
information from six different countries, including Canada, and found that despite
concerted government intervention, there has been no real reduction in child
maltreatment, including abuse, neglect or family violence. One of the indicators of child
maltreatment examined in the study was involvement with child protection agencies --
how many kids are in care. According to information from the Centres of Excellence for
Children's Well-Being (CECW), there were 67,000 children in out-of-home care in
Canada on one day in 2007, which translates into one of the highest rates in the world
(5:08).
LINK: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eFNnb9WeTBk

SUMMARY OF COURT CASES

R. v. Kliman (1998)
Facts:

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

 Instructor’s Manual for Forensic Psychology 78

 Michael Kliman, a teacher from British Columbia, was arrested and charged with
the sexual abuse of two female students.
 Both of the complainants (‘A’ and ‘B’) claimed they suffered from memory loss
following the traumatic events.
 At appeal, the jury was unable to reach a verdict, and at Kliman’s third trial he
was acquitted due to the improbabilities associated with the complainants’
testimonies.
Summary:
This case displays the difficulties associated with laying criminal charges based
on recovered memories of traumatic events, such as instances of sexual abuse. ‘A’
claimed to have recovered several memories of sexual abuse by Kliman while undergoing
therapy after being hospitalized for an eating disorder;, however, ‘B’ had no memory of
the abuse until she was questioned by police following ‘A’’s disclosure. During trial, Dr.
Elizabeth Loftus testified that there was no scientific evidence to support the idea that
several incidents of trauma could be repressed and recovered at a later time, and that
suggestive questions could taint memory of events. Contrastingly, Dr. John Yuille stated
that research does exist that supports the existence of dissociative amnesia. At his third
trial, Kliman was acquitted. Regardless of the memory issues, the court concluded that
many improbabilities existed that made it difficult to rely on the testimony of the
complainants.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

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 Fig. 232. Davallia aculeata. (⅖ nat. size.)
It is noteworthy that while certain vegetative features may in some
cases be cited as family-characters, such features are not usually of
much value from a taxonomic point of view. While the typical tree
ferns are practically all members of the Cyatheaceae, a few
members of other families, e.g. Todea barbara (Osmundaceae) and
the monotypic Indian genus Brainea (Polypodiaceae), form erect
stems several feet in height; but these differ in appearance from the
Palm-like type of the Cyatheaceous tree ferns. On the other hand,
the thin, almost transparent, leaf of Hymenophyllum tunbridgense
and other filmy ferns is a character shared by several species of
Todea, Asplenium resectum, and Danaea trichomanoides
(Marattiaceae); the filmy habit is essentially a biological adaptation.
The form of frond represented by certain species of Gleichenia,
characterised by a regular dichotomy of the axis and by the
occurrence of arrested buds, is on the whole a trustworthy character,
though Davallia aculeata (bearing spines on its rachis) (fig. 232) and
Matonia sarmentosa have fronds with a similar mode of branching
and also bear arrested radius-buds. A limited acquaintance with
ferns as a whole often leads us to regard a certain form of leaf as
characteristic of a particular species, but more extended enquiry
usually exposes the fallacy of relying upon so capricious a feature.
The form of leaf illustrated by Trichomanes reniforme is met with also
in Gymnogramme reniformis and is fairly closely matched by the leaf
of Scolopendrium nigripes. The fronds of Matonia pectinata (figs.
227, 228) bear a close resemblance to those of Gleichenia
Cunninghami, Adiantum pedatum, and Cheiropteris
[704]
palmatopedata .

The habit, leaf-form, and distribution of Ferns.

The full accounts of the structure and life-history of the common
Male Fern, given by Scott in his Structural Botany and by Bower in
the Origin of a Land Flora, render superfluous more than a brief
reference to certain general considerations in so far as they may
facilitate a study of fossil types.
In size Ferns have a wide range: at the one extreme we have the
filmy fern Trichomanes Goebelianum[705], growing on tree stems in
Venezuela, with leaves 2·5 to 3 mm. in diameter, and at the other the
tree ferns with tall columnar stems reaching a height of 40 to 50 feet
and terminating in a crown of fronds with a spread of several feet. A
common form of stem is represented by the subterranean or
creeping rhizome covered with ramental scales or hairs: the remains
of old leaves may persist as ragged stumps, or, as in Oleandra,
Polypodium vulgare and several other species, the leaf may be cut
off by the formation of an absciss-layer[706] leaving a clean-cut peg
projecting from the stem. As a rule the branches bear no relation to
the leaves and are often given off from the lower part of a petiole, but
in a few cases, e.g. in the Hymenophyllaceae, it is noteworthy that
true axillary branching is the rule[707]. In the typical tree-fern the
surface resembles that of a Cycadean trunk covered with persistent
leaf-bases and a thick mass of roots. Among epiphytic ferns highly
modified stems are occasionally met with, as in the Malayan species
Polypodium (Lecanopteris) carnosum and P. sinuosum[708].
The leaves of ferns are among the most protean of all plant
organs; as Darwin wrote, “the variability of ferns passes all
bounds[709].” The highly compound tri- or quadripinnate leaves of
such species as Pteris aquilina, Davallia and other genera stand for
the central type of fern frond; others exhibit a well-marked
dichotomy, e.g. Lygodium, Gleichenia, Matonia, etc., a habit in all
probability associated with the older rather than with the more
modern products of fern evolution. Before attempting to determine
specifically fossil fern fronds, it is important to familiarise ourselves
with the range of variability among existing species and more
especially in leaves of the same plant. A striking example of
heteromorphy is illustrated in fig. 233. Reinecke[710] has figured a
plant of Asplenium multilineatum in which the segments of the
compound fronds assume various forms. In Teratophyllum
aculeatum var. inermis Mett., a tropical climbing fern believed by
Karsten[711] to be identical with Acrostichum (Lomariopsis)
sorbifolium,—an identification which Goebel[712] questions,—the
fronds which stand free of the stem supporting the climber differ
considerably from the translucent and much more delicate filmy
leaves pressed against the supporting tree. From this fern alone Fée
is said to have created 17 distinct species. In this, as in many other
cases, differences in leaf-form are the expression of a physiological
division of labour connected with an epiphytic existence. Some
tropical species of Polypodium (sect. Drynaria), e.g. P. quercifolium
(fig. 234 and fig. 231, D), produce two distinct types of leaf, the large
green fronds, concerned with the assimilation of carbon and spore-
production, being in sharp contrast to the small slightly lobed brown
leaves which act as stiff brackets (fig. 234, M) for collecting humus
from which the roots absorb raw material. Similarly in Platycerium
the orbicular mantle-leaves differ widely from the long pendulous or
erect fronds fashioned like the spreading antlers of an elk. In
Hemitelia capensis, a South African Cyatheaceous species, the
basal pinnae assume the form of finely divided leaves identified by
earlier collectors as those of a parasitic Trichomanes (fig. 235). In a
letter written by W. H. Harvey in 1837 accompanying the specimen
shown in fig. 235, he says, “Apropos of Hemitelia, be it known
abroad that supposed parasitical Trichomanes ... is not a parasite,
but a part of the frond of Hemitelia.” The delicate reduced pinnae
remain on the stem and form a cluster at the base of the fronds[713].

Fig. 233. Polypodium Billardieri Br. (¼ nat. size.) Middle Island, New
Zealand. From specimens in the Cambridge Herbarium.
 Fig. 234. Polypodium quercifolium. (Much reduced: M, Mantle-leaves.)
In many species the sporophylls are distinguished from the sterile
fronds by segments with little or no chlorophyllous tissue, as in
Onoclea struthiopteris[714] in which, each year, the plant produces a
funnel-shaped group of sterile leaves followed later in the season by
a cluster of sporophylls; or, as in many other genera, the fertile
leaves are distinguished also by longer petioles and thus serve as
more efficient agents of spore-dissemination. In Ceratopteris the
narrow segments of the taller fertile leaves are in striking contrast to
the broader pinnules of the submerged foliage leaves. Leaf-form is in
many cases obviously the expression of environment; the
xerophilous fern Jamesonia[715] from the treeless paramos of the
Andes[716] is characterised by its minute leaflets with strong revolute
margins and a thick felt of hairs on the lower surface; in others,
xerophilous features take the form of a covering of overlapping
scales (Ceterach), or a development of water-tissue as in the fleshy
leaves of the Himalayan fern Drymoglossum carnosum. In the
Bracken fern Boodle[717] has shown how the fronds may be classed
as shade and sun leaves; the former are spreading and softer, while
the latter are relatively smaller and of harder texture (fig. 236, a and
b). Even in one leaf six feet high, growing through a dense bush of
gorse and bramble, the lower part was found to have the features of
a shade leaf, while the uppermost exposed pinnae were xerophilous.

Fig. 235. Hemitelia capensis R. Brown. Nat. size. a, Pinna of normal frond.
[From a specimen in the British Museum. M.S.]
 Fig. 236a. Pteris aquilina.
Part of leaf from greenhouse. (¼ nat. size.) After Boodle.
PTERIS

The resemblance between some of the filmy Hymenophyllaceae

and thalloid Liverworts[718] is worthy of mention as one of the many
possible pitfalls to be avoided by the palaeobotanical student. The
long linear fronds of such genera as Vittaria and Monogramme might
well be identified in a fossil state as the leaves of a grass-like
Monocotyledon, or compared with the foliage of Isoetes or Pilularia.
The resemblance of some fern leaves with reticulate venation to
those of Dicotyledons has led astray experienced palaeobotanists; it
is not only the anastomosing venation in the leaves of several ferns
that simulates dicotyledonous foliage, but the compound leaves of
many dicotyledons, e.g. Paullinia thalictrifolia (Sapindaceae) and
species of Umbelliferae, may easily be mistaken for fronds of ferns.

Fig. 236b. Pteris aquilina.

Leaf from the same plant grown out of doors. (¼ nat. size.)
After Boodle.
RECENT FERNS
 The dichotomously lobed lamina of some Schizaeas, e.g. S.
dichotoma and S. elegans (fig. 222), bears a close resemblance to
the leaves of Baiera or Ginkgo[719]. The original description by
Kunze[720] of the South African Cycad Stangeria paradoxa as a
Polypodiaceous fern illustrates the difficulty, or indeed impossibility,
of distinguishing between a sterile simply pinnate fern frond and the
foliage of some Cycads. The deeply divided segments of Cycas
Micholitzii[721] simulate the dichotomously branched pinnae of
Lygodium dichotomum, and the leaves of Aneimia rotundifolia (fig.
223) and other species are almost identical in form with the Jurassic
species Otozamites Beani, a member of the Cycadophyta.
There are certain facts in regard to the geographical distribution of
ferns to which attention should be directed. Mr Baker in his paper on
fern distribution writes: “With the precision of an hygrometer, an
increase in the fern-vegetation marks the wooded humid regions[722].”
If in a collection of fossil plants we find a preponderance of ferns we
are tempted to assume the existence of such conditions as are
favourable to the luxuriant development of ferns at the present day.
On the other hand, we must bear in mind the wonderful plasticity of
many recent species and the fact that xerophilous ferns are by no
means unknown in present-day floras.
Ferns are admirably adapted to rapid dispersal over comparatively
wide areas. Bower[723] estimates that in one season a Male Fern may
produce about 5,000,000 spores: with this enormous spore-output
are coupled a thoroughly efficient mechanism for scattering the
germs and an unusual facility for wind-dispersal. When Treub[724]
visited the devastated and sterilised wreck of the Island of Krakatau
in 1886, three years after the volcanic outburst, he found that twelve
ferns had already established themselves; the spores had probably
been carried by the wind at least 25 to 30 miles. It is not surprising,
therefore, to find that many ferns have an almost world-wide
distribution; and, it may be added, in view of their efficient means of
dispersal, wide range by no means implies great antiquity. Prof.
Campbell[725] has recently called attention to the significance of the
wide distribution of Hepaticae in its bearing on their antiquity; the
spores are incapable of retaining vitality for more than a short period,
and it is argued that a world-wide distribution can have been
acquired only after an enormous lapse of time. If we apply this
reasoning to the Osmundaceae among ferns, it may be legitimate to
assume that their short-lived green spores render them much less
efficient colonisers than the great majority of ferns; if this is granted,
the wide distribution of Osmundaceous ferns in the Mesozoic era
carries their history back to a still more remote past, a conclusion
which receives support from the records of the rocks.
The Bracken fern which we regard as characteristically British is a
cosmopolitan type; it was found by Treub among the pioneers of the
New Flora of Krakatau; in British Central Africa, it greets one at
every turn “like a messenger from the homeland[726]”; it grows on the
Swiss Alps, on the mountains of Abyssinia, in Tasmania, and on the
slopes of the Himalayas. The two genera Matonia (fig. 228) and
Dipteris, which grow side by side on Mount Ophir in the Malay
Peninsula, are examples of restricted geographical range and carry
us back to the Jurassic period when closely allied types flourished
abundantly in northern latitudes. Similarly Thyrsopteris elegans,
confined to Juan Fernandez, exhibits a remarkable likeness to
Jurassic species from England and the Arctic regions.
The proportion of ferns to flowering plants in recent floras is a
question of some interest from a palaeobotanical point of view; but
we must bear in mind the fact that the evolution of angiosperms,
effected at a late stage in the history of the earth, seriously disturbed
the balance of power among competitors for earth and air. The
abundance of ferns in a particular region is, however, an unsafe
guide to geographical or climatic conditions. Many ferns are
essentially social plants; the wide stretches of moorland carpeted
with Pteris aquilina afford an example of the monopolisation of the
soil by a single species. In Sikkim Sir Joseph Hooker speaks of
extensive groves of tree ferns, and in the wet regions of the Amazon,
Bates[727] describes the whole forest glade as forming a “vast
fernery.” In a valley in Tahiti Alsophila tahitiensis is said to form “a
sort of forest almost to the exclusion of other ferns[728].” In the
abundance of Glossopteris (figs. 334, etc.) fronds spread over wide
areas of Permo-Carboniferous rocks in S. Africa, Australia, and
India, we have a striking instance of a similar social habit in an
extinct fern or at least fern-like plant.
Acrostichum aureum, with pinnate fronds several feet long, is an
example of a recent fern covering immense tracts, but this
species[729] is more especially interesting as a member of the
Filicineae characteristic of brackish marshes and the banks of
tropical rivers in company with Mangrove plants and the “Stemless
Palm” Nipa. This species exhibits the anatomical characters of a
water-plant and affords an interesting parallel with some Palaeozoic
ferns (species of Psaronius) which probably grew under similar
conditions.

The Anatomy of Ferns.

The text-book accounts of fern-anatomy convey a very inadequate
idea of the architectural characters displayed by the vascular
systems of recent genera. When we are concerned with the study of
extinct plants it is essential to be familiar not only with the commoner
recent types, but particularly with exceptional or aberrant types. The
vascular system of many ferns consists of strands of xylem
composed of scalariform tracheae associated with a larger or smaller
amount of parenchyma, surrounded either wholly or in part (that is
concentric or bicollateral) by phloem: beyond this is a pericycle, one
layer or frequently several layers in breadth, limited externally by an
endodermis, which can usually be readily recognised. The vascular
strands are embedded in the ground-tissue of the stem consisting of
thin-walled parenchyma and, in most ferns, a considerable quantity
of hard and lignified mechanical tissue. The narrow protoxylem
elements are usually characterised by a spiral form of thickening, but
in slow-growing stems the first-formed elements are frequently of the
scalariform type.
A study of the anatomy of recent ferns both in the adult state and
in successive stages of development from the embryo has on the
whole revealed “a striking parallelism[730]” between vascular and
sporangial characters in leptosporangiate ferns. For a masterly
treatment of our knowledge of fern anatomy from a phylogenetic
point of view reference should be made to Mr Tansley’s recently
published lectures: within the limits of this volume all that is possible
is a brief outline of the main types of vascular structure illustrated by
recent genera.

Fig. 237.
A. Matonia pectinata (petiole).
B. M. pectinata (stem).
C. Gleichenia dicarpa (stem): p, petiole; pp, protophloem; position
of protoxylem indicated by black dots.
D. Matonidium.
E. Trichomanes reniforme: pp, protophloem.
(C, E, after Boodle; D, after Bommer.)
To Prof. Jeffrey[731] we owe the term protostele which he applied to
a type of stele consisting of a central core of xylem surrounded by
phloem, pericycle, and endodermis. While admitting that steles of
this type may sometimes be the result of the modification of less
simple forms, we may confidently regard the protostele as
representing the most primitive form of vascular system. The genus
Lygodium affords an example of a protostelic fern; a solid column of
xylem tracheae and parenchyma is completely encircled by a
cylinder of phloem succeeded by a multi-layered pericycle and an
endodermis of a single layer of cells. In this genus the stele is
characterised by marginal groups of protoxylem; it is exarch. An
almost identical type is represented by species of Gleichenia, but
here the stele is mesarch, the protoxylem being slightly internal (fig.
237, C). Trichomanes scandens (fig. 238) has an exarch protostele
like that of Lygodium; but, as Boodle[732] has suggested, the
protostelic form in this case is probably the result of modification of a
collateral form of stele such as occurs in Trichomanes reniforme (fig.
237, E). A second type of stele has been described in species of
Lindsaya[733] in which the xylem includes a small group of phloem
near the dorsal surface. This Lindsaya type is often passed through
in the development of “seedling” ferns and may be regarded as a
stage in a series leading to another well-marked type, the
solenostele. The solenostele[734], a hollow cylinder of xylem lined
within and without by phloem, pericycle, and endodermis, occurs in
several genera belonging to different families, e.g. Dipteris, species
of Pteris, species of Lindsaya, Polypodium, Jamesonia, Loxsoma,
Gleichenia and other genera. In a smaller number of ferns the stele
consists of what may be called a medullated protostele similar to the
common form of stele in Lepidodendron: this type is found in species
of Schizaea and in Platyzoma (fig. 239). It is important to notice that
in the solenostele and as a rule in the medullated protostele when a
leaf-trace passes out from the rhizome stele the vascular cylinder is
interrupted by the formation of a foliar gap (Platyzoma[735], fig. 239, is
an exception). This fact has been emphasized by Jeffrey[736] who
draws a distinction between the Lycopodiaceous type of stele, which
is not broken by the exit of leaf-traces, and the fern stele in which
foliar gaps are produced: the former he speaks of as the
cladosiphonic type (Lycopsida) and the latter as the phyllosiphonic
(Pteropsida).
 Fig. 238. Stele of Trichomanes scandens: px, protoxylem; s, endodermis.
From Tansley, after Boodle.

Fig. 239. Platyzoma microphylla. l.t., leaf-trace; i.e., internal endodermis.

(After Tansley; modified from Boodle.)
The transition to a hollow cylinder of xylem from a protostele may
be described as the result of the replacement of some of the axial
conducting tracheae by parenchyma or other non-vascular tissue
consequent on an increase in diameter of the whole stele and the
concentration of the true conducting elements towards the
periphery[737].
The occurrence of the internal cylinder of phloem, pericycle, and
endodermis in a solenostele is rendered intelligible by a study of fern
seedlings and by a comparative examination of transitional types
connecting protosteles and solenosteles through medullated
protosteles and steles of the Lindsaya type. A further stage in stelar
evolution is illustrated by what is termed the dictyostele, the
arrangement of vascular tissue characteristic of Nephrodium Filix-
mas, Cyathea (fig. 240), Polypodium vulgare and many other
common ferns.

Fig. 240. Cyathea Imrayana. (From Tansley after de Bary.) (Sclerenchyma

represented by black bands.)
If a solenostele is interrupted by leaf-gaps at intervals sufficiently
close to cause overlapping, a transverse section at any part of the
stele will show apparently separate curved bands of concentrically
arranged xylem and phloem, which on dissection are seen to
represent parts of a continuous lattice-work or a cylinder with the
wall pierced by large meshes. The manner of evolution of the
dictyostele has been ably dealt with by Gwynne-Vaughan[738] and
other authors. In a few ferns, e.g. Matonia pectinata[739], a transverse
section of the stem (fig. 237, B) reveals the presence of two or in
some cases three concentric solenosteles with a solid protostele in
the centre: this polycylic type may be regarded as the expression of
the fact that in response to the need for an adequate water-supply to
the large fronds, ferns have increased the conducting channels by a
method other than by the mere increase of the diameter of a single
stele. Fig. 237, A, shows the vascular tissue of a petiole of Matonia
in transverse section.
The two genera of Osmundaceae, Todea and Osmunda, are
peculiar among recent ferns in having a vascular cylinder composed
of separate strands of xylem varying considerably in shape and size,
from U-shaped strands with the concavity facing the centre of the
stem and with the protoxylem in the hollow of the U, to oval or more
or less circular strands with a mesarch protoxylem or without any
protoxylem elements (fig. 221, A, B). These different forms are the
expression of the change in contour or in structure which the parts of
the lattice-work undergo at different levels in the stem[740]. Beyond
this ring of xylem bundles is a continuous sheath of phloem of
characteristic structure. A transverse section of a stem of Osmunda
regalis may show 15 or more xylem strands; in O. Claytoniana there
may be as many as 40. In Todea barbara (fig. 221, B) the leaf-gaps
are shorter, and in consequence of the less amount of overlapping
the xylem cylinder becomes an almost continuous tube. The recent
researches of Kidston and Gwynne-Vaughan[741] have resulted in the
discovery of fossil Osmundaceous stems with a complete xylem ring,
the stele being of the medullated protostele type; in another extinct
member of the family the stele consists of a solid xylem core. The
Osmundaceous type of stele is complicated in O. cinnamomea (fig.
221, A) by the occurrence of local internal phloem and by an internal
endodermis, a feature which leads Jeffrey to what I believe to be an
incorrect conclusion that the vascular arrangement found in
Osmunda regalis has been evolved by reduction from a stele in
which the xylem was enclosed within and without by phloem. New
facts recently brought to light enable us to derive the ordinary
Osmundaceous type from the protostele and solenostele. It is worthy
of remark that the Osmundaceae occupy a somewhat isolated
position among recent ferns; their anatomy represents a special
type, their sporangia differ in several respects from those of other
leptosporangiate ferns and in some features Osmunda and Todea
agree with the Eusporangiate ferns. The possession of such
distinguishing characters as these suggests antiquity; and the facts
of palaeobotany, as also the present geographical range of the
family, confirm the correctness of this deduction.
Before leaving the stelar structure of leptosporangiate fern stems,
a word must be added in regard to a type of structure met with in the
Hymenophyllaceae. In this family Trichomanes reniforme (fig. 237,
E) may be regarded, as Boodle suggests, as the central type: the
stele consists of a ring of metaxylem tracheae, the dorsal portion
having the form of a flat arch and the ventral half that of a straight
band. This flattened ring of xylem encloses parenchymatous tissue
containing scattered tracheae some of which are protoxylem
elements. In Trichomanes radicans the rhizome is stouter than in T.
reniforme and the stele consists of a greater number of tracheae.
The stele is cylindrical like that shown in fig. 238, but the centre is
occupied by two groups of protoxylem and associated parenchyma.
In Hymenophyllum tunbrigense the stele is of the subcollateral type;
the ventral plate of the xylem ring has disappeared leaving a single
strand of xylem with endarch protoxylem and completely surrounded
by phloem. Trichomanes muscoides possesses a still simpler stele
consisting of a slender xylem strand with phloem on one side only.
Reference has already been made to the occurrence in this family of
the protostelic type. The Hymenophyllaceae afford a striking
illustration of the modification in different directions of stelar structure
connected with differences in habit, and of the correlation of demand
and supply as shown in the varying amount of conducting tissue in
the steles of different species.
The leaf-trace in a great number of ferns is characterised by its C-
shaped form[742] as seen in transverse section: this in some genera,
e.g. Matonia (fig. 237, A), is complicated by the spiral infolding of the
free edges of the C; in other ferns (e.g. some Cyatheaceae) (fig.
278, C) the sides of the C are incurved, while in some species the
xylem is broken up into a large number of separate strands.
An elaborate treatment of the leaf-traces of ferns was published a
few years ago by MM. Bertrand and Cornaille[743] in which the
authors show how the various systems of vascular tissue in the
fronds of ferns maybe derived from a common type. As Prof.
Chodat[744] justly remarks this important work has not received the
attention it deserves, the neglect being attributed to the strange
notation which is adopted[745].
The roots of ferns are characterised by a uniformity of plan in
marked contrast to the wide range of structure met with in the stem
and to a less extent in the leaves. The xylem may consist of a plate
of scalariform tracheae with a protoxylem group at each end, or the
stele may include six or more alternating strands of xylem and
phloem.

II. Marattiales (Eusporangiate isosporous Filicales).

The Marattiaceae, the single family of ferns included in the
Marattiales, comprise the genera Angiopteris, Archangiopteris,
Marattia, Danaea, and Kaulfussia, which are for the most part
tropical in distribution. These genera are characterised by
eusporangiate sori or synangia, the presence of stipules at the base
of the petioles, and by the complex arrangement of the vascular
tissue. In view of the fact that many fossil ferns show a close
resemblance to the recent Marattiaceae, the surviving genera are
briefly described. The prothallus is green and relatively large.
Angiopteris. This genus occurs in Polynesia, tropical Asia, and
Madagascar; it is characterised by a short and thick fleshy stem
bearing large bipinnate leaves which occasionally show a forking of
the rachis[746], a feature reminiscent of some Palaeozoic fern-like
fronds. One of the large plants of Angiopteris evecta in the Royal
Gardens, Kew, bears leaves 12 feet in length with a stalk 6 inches in
diameter at the base. The sessile or shortly stalked and rather
leathery linear or broadly lanceolate pinnules have a prominent
midrib and dichotomously branched lateral veins. The surface of an
old stem is covered with the thick stumps of petioles enclosed by
pairs of fleshy stipules (fig. 241, A) and bears numerous fleshy roots,
which hang free in the air or penetrate the soil. The young fronds
(fig. 220, A) exhibit very clearly the characteristic circinate vernation.
The proximal part of each primary pinna is characterised by a
pulvinus-like swelling. The sporangia, in short linear elliptical sori
near the edge of the pinnules, consist of free sporangia (fig. 242, A–
D) provided with a peculiar type of “annulus”[747], in the form of a
narrow band of thicker-walled cells, which extends as a broad strip
on either side of the apex. An examination of sections through the
sporangia of Angiopteris in different planes[748] illustrates the difficulty
of determining the precise nature of the annulus in a petrified
sporangium which is seen only in one or two planes. Many of the
sporangia from the English Coal-Measures, compared by authors
with those of Leptosporangiate ferns, are in all probability referable
to the Marattiaceous type.

Fig. 241.
A. Angiopteris evecta. (Considerably reduced.)
B. Marattia fraxinea. Stipule. M.S.
The vascular system[749] of the stem constitutes a highly complex
dictyostelic or polycylic type which may consist of as many as nine
concentric series of strands of xylem surrounded by phloem, with
large sieve-tubes and a pericycle which abuts on the
parenchymatous ground-tissue without any definite endodermal
layer. A peculiarity in the vascular strands is that the first-formed
elements of the phloem lie close to the edge of the xylem, the
metaphloem being therefore centrifugal in its development. The
ground-tissue is devoid of mechanical tissue and is penetrated by
roots, a few of which arise from the outer vascular strands while
others force their way to the surface from the more internal
dictyosteles. Leaf-traces, consisting of several strands, are given off
from the outermost cylinder and a segment of the second dictyostele
moves out to fill the gap formed in the outermost network, while the
gap in the second cylinder receives compensating strands from the
third. A few layers below the surface of the petiole there is a ring of
thick-walled elements (s, fig. 243), and in both petiole and stem
numerous mucilage ducts and tannin-sacs occur in the ground-
tissue. It has been shown by Farmer and Hill[750] that in some of the
vascular strands in an Angiopteris stem a few secondary tracheae
are added to the primary xylem by the activity of the adjacent
parenchyma. The vascular bundles in the petiole form more or less
regular concentric series; they have no endodermis and are
characterised also by the large size of the sieve-tubes (st, fig. 243).