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MECHANICAL
VIBRATIONS
FIFTH EDITION IN SI UNITS
SINGIRESU S. RAO
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page vii

CONTENTS vii

6.8 Equations of Motion of Undamped Systems in 7.8 Examples Using MATLAB 683
Matrix Form 581 Chapter Summary 686
6.9 Eigenvalue Problem 583 References 686
6.10 Solution of the Eigenvalue Problem 585 Review Questions 688
6.10.1 Solution of the Characteristic Problems 690
(Polynomial) Equation 585 Design Projects 698
6.10.2 Orthogonality of Normal Modes 591
6.10.3 Repeated Eigenvalues 594
6.11 Expansion Theorem 596 CHAPTER 8
6.12 Unrestrained Systems 596
6.13 Free Vibration of Undamped Systems 601
Continuous Systems 699
6.14 Forced Vibration of Undamped Systems Using 8.1 Introduction 700
Modal Analysis 603 8.2 Transverse Vibration of a String or
6.15 Forced Vibration of Viscously Damped Cable 701
Systems 610 8.2.1 Equation of Motion 701
6.16 Self-Excitation and Stability Analysis 617 8.2.2 Initial and Boundary Conditions 703
6.17 Examples Using MATLAB 619 8.2.3 Free Vibration of a Uniform
Chapter Summary 627 String 704
References 627 8.2.4 Free Vibration of a String with Both Ends
Review Questions 628 Fixed 705
Problems 632 8.2.5 Traveling-Wave Solution 709
Design Projects 653 8.3 Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod 710
8.3.1 Equation of Motion
CHAPTER 7 and Solution 710
8.3.2 Orthogonality of Normal
Determination of Natural Frequencies and Functions 713
Mode Shapes 654 8.4 Torsional Vibration of a Shaft or Rod 718
7.1 Introduction 655 8.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams 721
7.2 Dunkerley’s Formula 656 8.5.1 Equation of Motion 721
7.3 Rayleigh’s Method 658 8.5.2 Initial Conditions 723
7.3.1 Properties of Rayleigh’s Quotient 659 8.5.3 Free Vibration 723
7.3.2 Computation of the Fundamental Natural 8.5.4 Boundary Conditions 724
Frequency 661 8.5.5 Orthogonality of Normal
7.3.3 Fundamental Frequency of Beams and Functions 726
Shafts 663 8.5.6 Forced Vibration 730
7.4 Holzer’s Method 666 8.5.7 Effect of Axial Force 732
7.4.1 Torsional Systems 666 8.5.8 Effects of Rotary Inertia and Shear
7.4.2 Spring-Mass Systems 669 Deformation 734
7.5 Matrix Iteration Method 670 8.5.9 Other Effects 739
7.5.1 Convergence to the Highest Natural 8.6 Vibration of Membranes 739
Frequency 672 8.6.1 Equation of Motion 739
7.5.2 Computation of Intermediate Natural 8.6.2 Initial and Boundary Conditions 741
Frequencies 673 8.7 Rayleigh’s Method 742
7.6 Jacobi’s Method 678 8.8 The Rayleigh-Ritz Method 745
7.7 Standard Eigenvalue Problem 680 8.9 Examples Using MATLAB 748
7.7.1 Choleski Decomposition 681 Chapter Summary 751
7.7.2 Other Solution Methods 683 References 751
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page viii

viii CONTENTS

Review Questions 753 References 851

Problems 756 Review Questions 853
Design Projects 768 Problems 855
Design Projects 869
CHAPTER 9
Vibration Control 769 CHAPTER 10

9.1 Introduction 770 Vibration Measurement and

9.2 Vibration Nomograph and Vibration Applications 870
Criteria 771 10.1 Introduction 871
9.3 Reduction of Vibration at the Source 775 10.2 Transducers 873
9.4 Balancing of Rotating Machines 776 10.2.1 Variable Resistance Transducers 873
9.4.1 Single-Plane Balancing 776 10.2.2 Piezoelectric Transducers 876
9.4.2 Two-Plane Balancing 779 10.2.3 Electrodynamic Transducers 877
9.5 Whirling of Rotating Shafts 785 10.2.4 Linear Variable Differential Transformer
9.5.1 Equations of Motion 785 Transducer 878
9.5.2 Critical Speeds 787 10.3 Vibration Pickups 879
9.5.3 Response of the System 788 10.3.1 Vibrometer 881
9.5.4 Stability Analysis 790 10.3.2 Accelerometer 882
9.6 Balancing of Reciprocating Engines 792 10.3.3 Velometer 886
9.6.1 Unbalanced Forces Due to Fluctuations in 10.3.4 Phase Distortion 888
Gas Pressure 792 10.4 Frequency-Measuring Instruments 890
9.6.2 Unbalanced Forces Due to Inertia of the 10.5 Vibration Exciters 892
Moving Parts 793 10.5.1 Mechanical Exciters 892
9.6.3 Balancing of Reciprocating 10.5.2 Electrodynamic Shaker 893
Engines 796 10.6 Signal Analysis 895
9.7 Control of Vibration 798 10.6.1 Spectrum Analyzers 896
9.8 Control of Natural Frequencies 798 10.6.2 Bandpass Filter 897
9.9 Introduction of Damping 799 10.6.3 Constant-Percent Bandwidth and
9.10 Vibration Isolation 801 Constant-Bandwidth Analyzers 898
9.10.1 Vibration Isolation System with Rigid 10.7 Dynamic Testing of Machines
Foundation 804 and Structures 900
9.10.2 Vibration Isolation System with Base 10.7.1 Using Operational Deflection-Shape
Motion 814 Measurements 900
9.10.3 Vibration Isolation System with Flexible 10.7.2 Using Modal Testing 900
Foundation 821 10.8 Experimental Modal Analysis 900
9.10.4 Vibration Isolation System with Partially 10.8.1 The Basic Idea 900
Flexible Foundation 822 10.8.2 The Necessary Equipment 900
9.10.5 Shock Isolation 824 10.8.3 Digital Signal Processing 903
9.10.6 Active Vibration Control 827 10.8.4 Analysis of Random Signals 905
9.11 Vibration Absorbers 832 10.8.5 Determination of Modal Data
9.11.1 Undamped Dynamic Vibration from Observed Peaks 907
Absorber 833 10.8.6 Determination of Modal Data
9.11.2 Damped Dynamic Vibration from Nyquist Plot 910
Absorber 840 10.8.7 Measurement of Mode Shapes 912
9.12 Examples Using MATLAB 843 10.9 Machine-Condition Monitoring
Chapter Summary 851 and Diagnosis 915
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page ix

CONTENTS ix

10.9.1 Vibration Severity Criteria 915 12.3.1 Bar Element 991

10.9.2 Machine Maintenance Techniques 915 12.3.2 Torsion Element 994
10.9.3 Machine-Condition Monitoring 12.3.3 Beam Element 995
Techniques 916 12.4 Transformation of Element Matrices and
10.9.4 Vibration Monitoring Techniques 918 Vectors 998
10.9.5 Instrumentation Systems 924 12.5 Equations of Motion of the Complete System of
10.9.6 Choice of Monitoring Parameter 924 Finite Elements 1001
10.10 Examples Using MATLAB 925 12.6 Incorporation of Boundary
Chapter Summary 928 Conditions 1003
References 928 12.7 Consistent- and Lumped-Mass Matrices 1012
Review Questions 930 12.7.1 Lumped-Mass Matrix for a Bar
Problems 932 Element 1012
Design Projects 938 12.7.2 Lumped-Mass Matrix for a Beam
Element 1012
CHAPTER 11 12.7.3 Lumped-Mass Versus Consistent-Mass
Numerical Integration Methods in Matrices 1013
Vibration Analysis 939 12.8 Examples Using MATLAB 1015
Chapter Summary 1019
11.1 Introduction 940
References 1019
11.2 Finite Difference Method 941
Review Questions 1020
11.3 Central Difference Method for Single-Degree-of-
Problems 1022
Freedom Systems 942
Design Projects 1034
11.4 Runge-Kutta Method for Single-Degree-of-
Freedom Systems 945
11.5 Central Difference Method for Multidegree-of- Chapters 13 and 14 are provided as downloadable
Freedom Systems 947 files on the Companion Website.
11.6 Finite Difference Method for Continuous
CHAPTER 13
Systems 951
11.6.1 Longitudinal Vibration of Bars 951 Nonlinear Vibration 13-1
11.6.2 Transverse Vibration of Beams 955 13.1 Introduction 13-2
11.7 Runge-Kutta Method for Multidegree-of- 13.2 Examples of Nonlinear Vibration Problems 13-3
Freedom Systems 960 13.2.1 Simple Pendulum 13-3
11.8 Houbolt Method 962 13.2.2 Mechanical Chatter, Belt Friction
11.9 Wilson Method 965 System 13-5
11.10 Newmark Method 968 13.2.3 Variable Mass System 13-5
11.11 Examples Using MATLAB 972 13.3 Exact Methods 13-6
Chapter Summary 978 13.4 Approximate Analytical Methods 13-7
References 978 13.4.1 Basic Philosophy 13-8
Review Questions 979 13.4.2 Lindstedt’s Perturbation Method 13-10
Problems 981 13.4.3 Iterative Method 13-13
13.4.4 Ritz-Galerkin Method 13-17
CHAPTER 12 13.5 Subharmonic and Superharmonic
Finite Element Method 987 Oscillations 13-19
12.1 Introduction 988 13.5.1 Subharmonic Oscillations 13-20
12.2 Equations of Motion of an Element 989 13.5.2 Superharmonic Oscillations 13-23
12.3 Mass Matrix, Stiffness Matrix, and Force 13.6 Systems with Time-Dependent Coefficients
Vector 991 (Mathieu Equation) 13-24
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page x

x CONTENTS

13.7 Graphical Methods 13-29 14.12 Response of a Single-Degree-of-

13.7.1 Phase-Plane Representation 13-29 Freedom System 14-28
13.7.2 Phase Velocity 13-34 14.12.1 Impulse-Response Approach 14-28
13.7.3 Method of Constructing 14.12.2 Frequency-Response Approach 14-30
Trajectories 13-34 14.12.3 Characteristics of the Response
13.7.4 Obtaining Time Solution from Phase- Function 14-30
Plane Trajectories 13-36 14.13 Response Due to Stationary Random
13.8 Stability of Equilibrium States 13-37 Excitations 14-31
13.8.1 Stability Analysis 13-37 14.13.1 Impulse-Response Approach 14-32
13.8.2 Classification of Singular 14.13.2 Frequency-Response Approach 14-33
Points 13-40 14.14 Response of a Multidegree-of-Freedom
13.9 Limit Cycles 13-41 System 14-39
13.10 Chaos 13-43 14.15 Examples Using MATLAB 14-46
13.10.1 Functions with Stable Orbits 13-45 Chapter Summary 14-49
13.10.2 Functions with Unstable Orbits 13-45 References 14-49
13.10.3 Chaotic Behavior of Duffing’s Equation Review Questions 14-50
without the Forcing Term 13-47 Problems 14-53
13.10.4 Chaotic Behavior of Duffing’s Equation Design Projects 14-61
with the Forcing Term 13-50
13.11 Numerical Methods 13-52 APPENDIX A
13.12 Examples Using MATLAB 13-53
Mathematical Relationships and Material
Chapter Summary 13-62
Properties 1036
References 13-62
Review Questions 13-64
Problems 13-67 APPENDIX B
Design Projects 13-75 Deflection of Beams and Plates 1039

APPENDIX C
CHAPTER 14 Matrices 1041
Random Vibration 14-1
14.1 Introduction 14-2 APPENDIX D
14.2 Random Variables and Random Processes 14-3 Laplace Transform 1048
14.3 Probability Distribution 14-4
14.4 Mean Value and Standard Deviation 14-6
APPENDIX E
14.5 Joint Probability Distribution of Several
Random Variables 14-7 Units 1056
14.6 Correlation Functions of a Random Process 14-9
14.7 Stationary Random Process 14-10 APPENDIX F
14.8 Gaussian Random Process 14-14
Introduction to MATLAB 1059
14.9 Fourier Analysis 14-16
14.9.1 Fourier Series 14-16
14.9.2 Fourier Integral 14-19 Answers to Selected Problems 1069
14.10 Power Spectral Density 14-23
14.11 Wide-Band and Narrow-Band Processes 14-25 Index 1077
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page xi

Preface

Changes in this Edition

This book serves as an introduction to the subject of vibration engineering at the undergraduate level. Favorable reac-
tions by professors and students to the fourth edition have encouraged me to prepare this fifth edition of the book. I
have retained the style of the prior editions, presenting the theory, computational aspects, and applications of vibra-
tion in as simple a manner as possible, and emphasizing computer techniques of analysis. Expanded explanations of
the fundamentals are given, emphasizing physical significance and interpretation that build upon previous experiences
in undergraduate mechanics. Numerous examples and problems are used to illustrate principles and concepts.
In this edition, some topics are modified and rewritten, many new topics are added, and several new features
have been introduced. Most of the additions and modifications were suggested by users of the text and by reviewers.
Important changes include the following:
1. Chapter outline and learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter.
2. A chapter summary is given at the end of each chapter.
3. The presentation of some of the topics is modified for expanded coverage and better clarity. These topics
include the basic components of vibration—spring elements, damping elements, mass or inertia elements,
vibration isolation, and active vibration control.
4. Many new topics are presented in detail with illustrative examples. These include the response of first-order
systems and time constant, graphical representation of characteristic roots and solutions, parameter variations
and root locus representation, stability of systems, transfer-function approach for forced-vibration problems,
Laplace transform approach for the solution of free- and forced-vibration problems, frequency transfer-function
approach, Bode diagram for damped single-degree-of-freedom systems, step response and description of
transient response, and inelastic and elastic impacts.
5. I have added 128 new examples, 160 new problems, 70 new review questions, and 107 new illustrations.
6. The C++ and Fortran program-based examples and problems given at the end of every chapter in the pre-
vious edition have been deleted.

Features of the Book

• Each topic in Mechanical Vibrations is self-contained, with all concepts fully explained and the derivations
presented in complete detail.
• Computational aspects are emphasized throughout the book. MATLAB-based examples as well as sev-
eral general-purpose MATLAB programs with illustrative examples are given in the last section of every
chapter. Numerous problems requiring the use of MATLAB or MATLAB programs (given in the text) are
included at the end of every chapter.

xi
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page xii

xii PREFACE

• Certain topics are presented in a somewhat unconventional manner—in particular, the topics of Chapters
9, 10, and 11. Most textbooks discuss isolators, absorbers, and balancing in different chapters. Since one
of the main purposes of the study of vibrations is to control vibration response, all topics related to vibra-
tion control are given in Chapter 9. The vibration-measuring instruments, along with vibration exciters,
experimental modal analysis procedure, and machine-condition monitoring, are presented together in
Chapter 10. Similarly, all the numerical integration methods applicable to single- and multidegree-of-free-
dom systems, as well as continuous systems, are unified in Chapter 11.
• Specific features include the following:
• More than 240 illustrative examples are given to accompany most topics.
• More than 980 review questions are included to help students in reviewing and testing their understand-
ing of the text material. The review questions are in the form of multiple-choice questions, questions with
brief answers, true-false questions, questions involving matching of related descriptions, and fill-in-the-
blank questions.
• An extensive set of problems in each chapter emphasizes a variety of applications of the material cov-
ered in that chapter. In total, there are more than 1,150 problems. Solutions are provided in the instruc-
tor’s manual.
• More than 30 design-project-type problems, many with no unique solution, are given at the end of vari-
ous chapters.
• More than 25 MATLAB programs are included to aid students in the numerical implementation of the
methods discussed in the text.
• Biographical information about 20 scientists and engineers who contributed to the development of the
theory of vibrations is presented on the opening pages of chapters and appendixes.
• MATLAB programs given in the book, answers to problems, and answers to review questions can be
found at the Companion Website, www.pearsoned-asia.com/rao.
• The Instructors' Resources offer a Solutions Manual, an Image bank and PowerPoint slides, available
under "Instructors' Resources" at www.pearsoned-asia.com/rao. The Solutions Manual with solutions to
all problems and hints to design projects is available to instructors who adopt the text for their courses.
The Image Bank contains illustrations, diagrams, and photos found in the textbook. Instructors can use
these images to customize their lesson materials. Unique to the SI edition, the PowerPoint slides include
an outline for each chapter and present concepts and theories using examples and diagrams from the
book. They are fully editable and can be used for frontal teaching.

Units and Notation

The SI system of units has been used in the examples and problems. A list of symbols, along with the associated
units in the SI system, appears after the Acknowledgments. A brief discussion of SI units as they apply to the field
of vibrations is given in Appendix E. Arrows are used over symbols to denote column vectors, and square brack-
ets are used to indicate matrices.

Organization of Material
Mechanical Vibrations is organized into 14 chapters and 6 appendixes. Chapters 13 and 14 are provided as down-
loadable files on the Companion Website. The reader is assumed to have a basic knowledge of statics, dynamics,
strength of materials, and differential equations. Although some background in matrix theory and Laplace trans-
form is desirable, an overview of these topics is given in Appendixes C and D, respectively.
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page xiii

PREFACE xiii

Chapter 1 starts with a brief discussion of the history and importance of vibrations. The modeling of practical
systems for vibration analysis along with the various steps involved in vibration analysis are discussed. A description
is given of the elementary parts of a vibrating system—stiffness, damping, and mass (inertia). The basic concepts and
terminology used in vibration analysis are introduced. The free-vibration analysis of single-degree-of-freedom
undamped and viscously damped translational and torsional systems is given in Chapter 2. The graphical represen-
tation of characteristic roots and corresponding solutions, the parameter variations, and root locus representations
are discussed. Although the root locus method is commonly used in control systems, its use in vibration is illus-
trated in this chapter. The response under Coulomb and hysteretic damping is also considered. The undamped and
damped responses of single-degree-of-freedom systems to harmonic excitations are considered in Chapter 3. The
concepts of force and displacement transmissibilities and their application in practical systems are outlined. The
transfer-function approach, the Laplace transform solution of forced-vibration problems, the frequency-response,
and the Bode diagram are presented.
Chapter 4 is concerned with the response of a single-degree-of-freedom system under a general forcing func-
tion. The roles of Fourier series expansion of a periodic function, convolution integral, Laplace transform, and
numerical methods are outlined with illustrative examples. The specification of the response of an underdamped
system in terms of peak time, rise time, and settling time is also discussed. The free and forced vibration of two-
degree-of-freedom systems is considered in Chapter 5. The self-excited vibration and stability of the system are
discussed. The transfer-function approach and the Laplace transform solution of undamped and dampled systems
are also presented with illustrative examples. Chapter 6 presents the vibration analysis of multidegree-of-freedom
systems. Matrix methods of analysis are used for presentation of the theory. The modal analysis procedure is
described for the solution of forced-vibration problems in this chapter. Several methods of determining the natural
frequencies and mode shapes of discrete systems are outlined in Chapter 7. The methods of Dunkerley, Rayleigh,
Holzer, Jacobi, and matrix iteration are discussed with numerical examples.
While the equations of motion of discrete systems are in the form of ordinary differential equations, those
of continuous or distributed systems are in the form of partial differential equations. The vibration analysis of
continuous systems, including strings, bars, shafts, beams, and membranes, is given in Chapter 8. The method
of separation of variables is presented for the solution of the partial differential equations associated with con-
tinuous systems. The Rayleigh and Rayleigh-Ritz methods of finding the approximate natural frequencies are
also described with examples. Chapter 9 discusses the various aspects of vibration control, including the prob-
lems of elimination, isolation, and absorption. The vibration nomograph and vibration criteria which indicate
the acceptable levels of vibration are also presented. The balancing of rotating and reciprocating machines and
the whirling of shafts are considered. The active control techniques are also outlined for controlling the response
of vibrating systems. The experimental methods used for vibration-response measurement are considered in
Chapter 10. Vibration-measurement hardware and signal analysis techniques are described. Machine-condition
monitoring and diagnosis techniques are also presented.
Chapter 11 presents several numerical integration techniques for finding the dynamic response of discrete and
continuous systems. The central difference, Runge-Kutta, Houbolt, Wilson, and Newmark methods are discussed
and illustrated. Finite element analysis, with applications involving one-dimensional elements, is discussed in
Chapter 12. Bar, rod, and beam elements are used for the static and dynamic analysis of trusses, rods under tor-
sion, and beams. The use of consistent- and lumped-mass matrices in the vibration analysis is also discussed in this
chapter. Nonlinear vibration problems are governed by nonlinear differential equations and exhibit phenomena that
are not predicted or even hinted at by the corresponding linearized problems. An introductory treatment of nonlin-
ear vibration, including a discussion of subharmonic and superharmonic oscillations, limit cycles, systems with
time-dependent coefficients, and chaos, is given in Chapter 13. The random vibration of linear vibration systems
is considered in Chapter 14. The concepts of random process, stationary process, power spectral density, autocor-
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page xiv

xiv PREFACE

relation, and wide- and narrow-band processes are explained. The random vibration response of single- and mul-
tidegree-of-freedom systems is discussed in this chapter.
Appendixes A and B focus on mathematical relationships and deflection of beams and plates, respectively. The
basics of matrix theory, Laplace transform, and SI units are presented in Appendixes C, D, and E, respectively.
Finally, Appendix F provides an introduction to MATLAB programming.

Typical Syllabi
The material of the book provides flexible options for different types of vibration courses. Chapters 1 through 5,
Chapter 9, and portions of Chapter 6 constitute a basic course in mechanical vibration. Different emphases/orien-
tations can be given to the course by covering, additionally, different chapters as indicated below:
• Chapter 8 for continuous or distributed systems.
• Chapters 7 and 11 for numerical solutions.
• Chapter 10 for experimental methods and signal analysis.
• Chapter 12 for finite element analysis.
• Chapter 13 for nonlinear analysis.
• Chapter 14 for random vibration.
Alternatively, in Chapters 1 through 14, the text has sufficient material for a one-year sequence of two vibra-
tion courses at the senior or dual level.

Expected Course Outcomes

The material presented in the text helps achieve some of the program outcomes specified by ABET (Accreditation
Board for Engineering and Technology):
• Ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering:
The subject of vibration, as presented in the book, applies knowledge of mathematics (differential equa-
tions, matrix algebra, vector methods, and complex numbers) and science (statics and dynamics) to solve
engineering vibration problems.
• Ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems:
Numerous illustrative examples, problems for practice, and design projects help the student identify various
types of practical vibration problems and develop mathematical models, analyze, solve to find the response,
and interpret the results.
• Ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering practice:
• The application of the modern software, MATLAB, for the solution of vibration problems is illustrated in
the last section of each chapter. The basics of MATLAB programming are summarized in Appendix F.
• The use of the modern analysis technique, the finite element method, for the solution of vibration prob-
lems is covered in a separate chapter (Chapter 12). The finite element method is a popular technique
used in industry for the modeling, analysis, and solution of complex vibrating systems.
• Ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data:
The experimental methods and analysis of data related to vibration are presented in Chapter 10. Discussed
also are the equipment used in conducting vibration experiments, signal analysis, and identification of sys-
tem parameters from the data.
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page xv

Acknowledgments

I would like to express my appreciation to the many students, researchers, and faculty whose comments have helped
me improve the book. I am most grateful to the following people for offering their comments, suggestions, and ideas:
Ara Arabyan, University of Arizona; Daniel Granger, Polytechnic School of Montreal, Canada; K.M. Rao,
V.R.S. Engineering College Vijayawada, India; K. S. Shivakumar Aradhya, Gas Turbine Research Establishment,
Bangalore, India; Donald G. Grant, University of Maine; Tom Thornton, Stress Analyst; Alejandro J. Rivas,
Arizona State University; Qing Guo, University of Washington; James M. Widmann, California Polytechnic State
University; G. Q. Cai, Florida Atlantic University; Richard Alexander, Texas A & M University; C. W. Bert,
University of Oklahoma; Raymond M. Brach, University of Notre Dame; Alfonso Diaz-Jimenez, Universidad
Distrital “Francisco Jose de Caldas,” Colombia; George Doyle, University of Dayton; Hamid Hamidzadeh, South
Dakota State University; H. N. Hashemi, Northeastern University; Zhikun Hou, Worchester Polytechnic Institute;
J. Richard Houghton, Tennessee Technological University; Faryar Jabbari, University of California, Irvine; Robert
Jeffers, University of Connecticut; Richard Keltie, North Carolina State University; J. S. Lamancusa, Pennsylvania
State University; Harry Law, Clemson University; Robert Leonard, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University; James Li, Columbia University; Sameer Madanshetty, Boston University; Masoud Mojtahed, Purdue
University, Calumet; Faissal A. Moslehy, University of Central Florida; M. G. Prasad, Stevens Institute of
Technology; Mohan D. Rao, Michigan Tech; Amir G. Rezaei, California State Polytechnic University; F. P. J.
Rimrott, University of Toronto; Subhash Sinha, Auburn University; Daniel Stutts, University of Missouri-Rolla;
Massoud Tavakoli, Georgia Institute of Technology; Theodore Terry, Lehigh University; David F. Thompson,
University of Cincinnati; Chung Tsui, University of Maryland, College Park; Alexander Vakakis, University of
Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; Chuck Van Karsen, Michigan Technological University; Aleksandra Vinogradov,
Montana State University; K. W. Wang, Pennsylvania State University; Gloria J. Wiens, University of Florida; and
William Webster, GMI Engineering and Management Institute.
I would like to thank Purdue University for granting me permission to use the Boilermaker Special in Problem
2.104. My sincere thanks to Dr. Qing Liu for helping me write some of the MATLAB programs. Finally, I wish
to thank my wife, Kamala, without whose patience, encouragement, and support this edition might never have
been completed.

SINGIRESU S. RAO
[email protected]

xv
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page xvi

List of Symbols

Symbol Meaning SI Units

a, a0, a1, a2, Á constants, lengths

aij flexibility coefficient m/N
[a] flexibility matrix m/N
A area m2
A, A0, A1, Á constants
b, b1, b2, Á constants, lengths
B,! B1, B2, Á constants
B balancing weight N
c, c' viscous damping coefficient N # s/m
c, c0, c1, c2, Á constants
c wave velocity m/s
cc critical viscous damping constant N # s/m
ci damping constant of ith damper N # s/m
cij damping coefficient N # s/m
[c] damping matrix N # s/m
C, C1, C2, C1œ , C2œ constants
d diameter, dimension m
D diameter m
[D] dynamical matrix s2
e base of natural logarithms
e eccentricity m
! !
ex, ey unit vectors parallel to x and y directions
E Young’s modulus Pa
E[x] expected value of x
f linear frequency Hz
f force per unit length N/m
f
'
, f unit impulse N#s
F, Fd force N
F0 amplitude of force F(t) N

xvi
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page xvii

LIST OF SYMBOLS xvii

Symbol Meaning SI Units

Ft, FT force transmitted N

F!t force acting on ith mass N
F force vector N
',F
F impulse N#s
g acceleration due to gravity m/s2
g(t) impulse response function
G shear modulus N/m2
h hysteresis damping constant N/m
H1iv2 frequency response function
i 1- 1
I area moment of inertia m4
[I] identity matrix
Im( ) imaginary part of ( )
j integer
J polar moment of inertia m4
J, J0, J1, J2, Á mass moment of inertia kg # m2
k, k' spring constant N/m
ki spring constant of ith spring N/m
kt torsional spring constant N-m/rad
kij stiffness coefficient N/m
[k] stiffness matrix N/m
l, li length m
m, m ' mass kg
mi ith mass kg
mij mass coefficient kg
[m] mass matrix kg
M mass kg
M bending moment N#m
Mt, Mt1, Mt2, Á torque N#m
Mt0 amplitude of Mt1t2 N#m
n an integer
n number of degrees of freedom
N normal force N
N total number of time steps
p pressure N/m2
p(x) probability density function of x
P(x) probability distribution function of x
P force, tension N
qj jth generalized coordinate
!
q# vector of generalized displacements
!
q vector of generalized velocities
Qj jth generalized force
r frequency ratio = v/vn
!
r radius vector m
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page xviii

xviii LIST OF SYMBOLS

Symbol Meaning SI Units

Re( ) real part of ( )

R1t2 autocorrelation function
R electrical resistance ohm
R Rayleigh’s dissipation function N # m/s
R Rayleigh’s quotient 1/s2
s root of equation, Laplace variable
Sa, Sd, Sv acceleration, displacement, velocity spectrum
Sx1v2 spectrum of x
t time s
ti ith time station s
T torque N-m
T kinetic energy J
Ti kinetic energy of ith mass J
Td, Tf displacement, force transmissibility
uij an element of matrix [U]
U, Ui axial displacement m
U! potential energy J
U unbalanced weight N
[U] upper triangular matrix
v, v0 linear velocity m/s
V shear force N
V potential energy J
Vi potential energy of ith spring J
w, w1, w2, vi transverse deflections m
w0 value of w at t = 0 m
# #
w0 value of w at t = 0 m/s
wn nth mode of vibration
W weight of a mass N
W total energy J
W transverse deflection m
Wi value of W at t = ti m
W(x) a function of x
x, y, z cartesian coordinates, displacements m
x0, x102 value of x at t = 0 m
x0, x102
# # #
value of x at t = 0 m/s
xj displacement of jth mass m
xj value of x at t = tj m
# #
xj value of x at t = tj m/s
xh homogeneous part of x(t) m
xp particular part of x(t) m
!
x vector of displacements m
! !
x# i value of x# at t = ti m
! !
x$ i value of x$ at t = ti m/s
! !
xi value of x at t = ti m/s2
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page xix

LIST OF SYMBOLS xix

Symbol Meaning SI Units

x1i21t2
!
ith mode
X amplitude of x(t) m
Xj amplitude of xj1t2 m
!
X1i2 ith modal vector m
1j2
Xi ith component of jth mode m
[X] ! modal matrix m
Xr rth approximation to a mode shape
y base displacement m
Y amplitude of y (t) m
z relative displacement, x - y m
Z amplitude of z (t) m
Z1iv2 mechanical impedance N/m
a angle, constant
b angle, constant
b hysteresis damping constant
g specific weight N/m3
d logarithmic decrement
d1, d2, Á deflections m
dst static deflection m
dij Kronecker delta
¢ determinant
¢F increment in F N
¢x increment in x m
¢t increment in time t s
¢W energy dissipated in a cycle J
e a small quantity
e strain
z damping ratio
u constant, angular displacement
ui ith angular displacement rad
u# 0 value of u# at t = 0 rad
u0 value of u at t = 0 rad/s
™ amplitude of u1t2 rad
™i amplitude of ui1t2 rad
l eigenvalue = 1/v2 s2
[l] transformation matrix
m viscosity of a fluid kg/m # s
m coefficient of friction
mx expected value of x
r mass density kg/m3
h loss factor
sx standard deviation of x
s stress N/m2
t period of oscillation, time, time constant s
A01_RAO8193_05_SE_FM-N2.QXD 4/6/11 6:42 PM Page xx

xx LIST OF SYMBOLS

Symbol Meaning SI Units

t shear stress N/m2

f angle, phase angle rad
fi phase angle in ith mode rad
v frequency of oscillation rad/s
vi ith natural frequency rad/s
vn natural frequency rad/s
vd frequency of damped vibration rad/s

Subscripts

Symbol Meaning

cri critical value

eq equivalent value
i ith value
L left plane
max maximum value
n corresponding to natural frequency
R right plane
0 specific or reference value
t torsional

Symbol Meaning

12
# d1 2
dt
d21 2
$
12
dt2

1 2
: column vector ( )

[] matrix

[ ]-1 inverse of [ ]

[ ]T transpose of [ ]
¢1 2 increment in ( )
l12 Laplace transform of ( )
l 12-1
inverse Laplace transform of ( )
M01_RAO8193_05_SE_C01-N.QXD 4/7/11 10:06 AM Page 1

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), an Italian astronomer, philosopher, and professor

of mathematics at the Universities of Pisa and Padua, in 1609 became the first
man to point a telescope to the sky. He wrote the first treatise on modern dynam-
ics in 1590. His works on the oscillations of a simple pendulum and the vibration
of strings are of fundamental significance in the theory of vibrations.
(Courtesy of Dirk J. Struik, A Concise History of Mathematics (2nd rev. ed.), Dover
Publications, Inc., New York, 1948.)

C H A P T E R 1

Fundamentals
of Vibration

Chapter Outline
Chapter Outline 1 1.9 Damping Elements 45
Learning Objectives 2 1.10 Harmonic Motion 54
1.1 Preliminary Remarks 2 1.11 Harmonic Analysis 64
1.2 Brief History of the Study of Vibration 3 1.12 Examples Using MATLAB 76
1.3 Importance of the Study of Vibration 10 1.13 Vibration Literature 80
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration 13 Chapter Summary 81
1.5 Classification of Vibration 16 References 81
1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure 18 Review Questions 83
1.7 Spring Elements 22 Problems 87
1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements 40 Design Projects 120

This chapter introduces the subject of vibrations in a relatively simple manner. It begins
with a brief history of the subject and continues with an examination of the importance
of vibration. The basic concepts of degrees of freedom and of discrete and continuous
systems are introduced, along with a description of the elementary parts of vibrating

1
M01_RAO8193_05_SE_C01-N.QXD 4/7/11 10:06 AM Page 2

2 CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF VIBRATION

systems. The various classifications of vibration—namely, free and forced vibration,

undamped and damped vibration, linear and nonlinear vibration, and deterministic and
random vibration—are indicated. The various steps involved in vibration analysis of an
engineering system are outlined, and essential definitions and concepts of vibration are
introduced.
The concept of harmonic motion and its representation using vectors and complex
numbers is described. The basic definitions and terminology related to harmonic motion,
such as cycle, amplitude, period, frequency, phase angle, and natural frequency, are given.
Finally, the harmonic analysis, dealing with the representation of any periodic function in
terms of harmonic functions, using Fourier series, is outlined. The concepts of frequency
spectrum, time- and frequency-domain representations of periodic functions, half-range
expansions, and numerical computation of Fourier coefficients are discussed in detail.

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, the reader should be able to do the following:

● Describe briefly the history of vibration

● Indicate the importance of study of vibration
● Give various classifications of vibration
● State the steps involved in vibration analysis
● Compute the values of spring constants, masses, and damping constants
● Define harmonic motion and different possible representations of harmonic motion
● Add and subtract harmonic motions
● Conduct Fourier series expansion of given periodic functions
● Determine Fourier coefficients numerically using the MATLAB program

1.1 Preliminary Remarks

The subject of vibration is introduced here in a relatively simple manner. The chapter
begins with a brief history of vibration and continues with an examination of its impor-
tance. The various steps involved in vibration analysis of an engineering system are out-
lined, and essential definitions and concepts of vibration are introduced. We learn here that
all mechanical and structural systems can be modeled as mass-spring-damper systems. In
some systems, such as an automobile, the mass, spring, and damper can be identified as
separate components (mass in the form of the body, spring in the form of suspension, and
damper in the form of shock absorbers). In some cases, the mass, spring, and damper do
not appear as separate components; they are inherent and integral to the system. For exam-
ple, in an airplane wing, the mass of the wing is distributed throughout the wing. Also, due
to its elasticity, the wing undergoes noticeable deformation during flight so that it can be
modeled as a spring. In addition, the deflection of the wing introduces damping due to rel-
ative motion between components such as joints, connections, and support as well as inter-
nal friction due to microstructural defects in the material. The chapter describes the
M01_RAO8193_05_SE_C01-N.QXD 4/7/11 10:06 AM Page 3

1.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF VIBRATION 3

modeling of spring, mass and damping elements, their characteristics, and the combination
of several springs, masses or damping elements appearing in a system. There follows a pre-
sentation of the concept of harmonic analysis, which can be used for the analysis of gen-
eral periodic motions. No attempt at exhaustive treatment of the topics is made in Chapter
1; subsequent chapters will develop many of the ideas in more detail.

1.2 Brief History of the Study of Vibration

1.2.1 People became interested in vibration when they created the first musical instruments, proba-
Origins of bly whistles or drums. Since then, both musicians and philosophers have sought out the rules
the Study of and laws of sound production, used them in improving musical instruments, and passed them
Vibration on from generation to generation. As long ago as 4000 B.C. [1.1], music had become highly
developed and was much appreciated by Chinese, Hindus, Japanese, and, perhaps, Egyptians.
These early peoples observed certain definite rules in connection with the art of music,
although their knowledge did not reach the level of a science.
Stringed musical instruments probably originated with the hunter’s bow, a weapon
favored by the armies of ancient Egypt. One of the most primitive stringed instruments, the
nanga, resembled a harp with three or four strings, each yielding only one note. An exam-
ple dating back to 1500 B.C. can be seen in the British Museum. The Museum also exhibits
an 11-stringed harp with a gold-decorated, bull-headed sounding box, found at Ur in a
royal tomb dating from about 2600 B.C. As early as 3000 B.C., stringed instruments such
as harps were depicted on walls of Egyptian tombs.
Our present system of music is based on ancient Greek civilization. The Greek philoso-
pher and mathematician Pythagoras (582–507 B.C.) is considered to be the first person to
investigate musical sounds on a scientific basis (Fig. 1.1). Among other things, Pythagoras

FIGURE 1.1 Pythagoras. (Reprinted

with permission from L. E. Navia,
Pythagoras: An Annotated Bibliography,
Garland Publishing, Inc., New York, 1990.)
M01_RAO8193_05_SE_C01-N.QXD 4/7/11 10:06 AM Page 4

4 CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF VIBRATION

String
1 2 3

Weight

FIGURE 1.2 Monochord.

conducted experiments on a vibrating string by using a simple apparatus called a mono-

chord. In the monochord shown in Fig. 1.2, the wooden bridges labeled 1 and 3 are fixed.
Bridge 2 is made movable while the tension in the string is held constant by the hanging
weight. Pythagoras observed that if two like strings of different lengths are subject to the
same tension, the shorter one emits a higher note; in addition, if the shorter string is half
the length of the longer one, the shorter one will emit a note an octave above the other.
Pythagoras left no written account of his work (Fig. 1.3), but it has been described by oth-
ers. Although the concept of pitch was developed by the time of Pythagoras, the relation
between the pitch and the frequency was not understood until the time of Galileo in the
sixteenth century.
Around 350 B.C., Aristotle wrote treatises on music and sound, making observations
such as “the voice is sweeter than the sound of instruments,” and “the sound of the flute is
sweeter than that of the lyre.” In 320 B.C., Aristoxenus, a pupil of Aristotle and a musician,

FIGURE 1.3 Pythagoras as a musician. (Reprinted with permission from D. E. Smith, History
of Mathematics, Vol. I, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1958.)
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 At 11 o’clock the Chief had his third meeting with Favre, after
which followed a conference with the King, at which Moltke and
Roon were also present.
In the evening I was called to the Chief, who had not appeared at
table, and who, it was understood, did not feel quite well. A narrow
stone winding stairs, which was distinguished with the title, “Escalier
particulier de M. le Baron,” led to a very elegantly furnished room,
where I found the Chancellor sitting on the sofa in his dressing gown.
Wednesday, September 21st.—As the Chief had recovered from
his indisposition, we had plenty to do, and though most of it cannot
be made public, I am now at liberty to quote the following passage
from my diary:—
“The imperial emigrants in London have established an organ, La
Situation, to represent their interests. Its contents are to be
reproduced in the newspapers we have founded in the eastern
districts of France, but the sources are to be so indicated as not to
identify us with the views therein expressed: i.e., it must be
understood that we are not endeavouring to promote the restoration
of the Emperor. Our object is merely to maintain the sense of
insecurity and discord between the various French parties, which are
all equally hostile to us. The retention of the imperial symbols and
formulas in despatches will prove of service in this respect;
otherwise Napoleon or a Republic is a matter of indifference to us.
We merely desire to utilise the existing chaos in France. The future
of that country does not concern us. It is the business of the French
themselves to shape it as best they can. It is only of importance to us
in so far as it affects our own interests, the furtherance of which must
be the guiding principle in politics generally.” Under instructions from
the Chief I telegraphed in the above sense to the principal officials at
Nancy and Hagenau.
 At tea some further particulars were given of the last conference
between the Chancellor and Jules Favre. Favre was, it seems,
informed that we could not communicate to him the exact conditions
of peace until they had been settled at a conference of the German
Powers engaged in the war. No arrangement could be come to,
however, without a cession of territory, as it was absolutely essential
to us to have a better frontier as security against French attack. The
conference turned less upon peace and its conditions than on the
nature of French concessions, in consideration of which we might
agree to an armistice. On the mention of a cession of territory Favre
became terribly excited, drew a deep sigh, raised his eyes to
heaven, and even shed some patriotic tears. The Chief does not
expect that he will return. Doubtless an answer in this sense has
been forwarded to the Crown Prince, who telegraphed this morning
to ask whether he should attend the negotiations.
Thursday, September 22nd, evening.—The French are
indefatigable in denouncing us to the world as cruel and destructive
barbarians; and the English press—particularly the Standard, which
is notoriously hostile to us—willingly lends them its assistance. The
grossest calumnies respecting our conduct towards the French
population and the prisoners in our hands are circulated almost daily
by that newspaper, and always purport to come either from eye-
witnesses or other well-informed sources. Thus, for instance, the
Duc de FitzJames recently drew a horrible picture of the
abominations of which we had been guilty in Bazeilles, adding the
assurance that he exaggerated nothing; and a M. L., who represents
himself to be a French officer whom we had captured at Sedan and
subjected to ill-treatment, complains in a lamentable tone of Prussian
inhumanity. Bernstorff sent the article in question to the Chief, with
the suggestion that the charges should be refuted. The complaint of
M. L. might, perhaps, be left to answer itself, but that of the Duke is
calculated to affect even those across the Channel who are disposed
in our favour. Besides, impudent calumny is always apt to leave
some traces behind it. A refutal of these shameful slanders is
accordingly being despatched to-day to certain London newspapers
that are friendly to us. As the greater part of this communication was
dictated by the Chief, it is worthy of special attention.
“In this war, as in every other, a great number of villages have
been burned down, mostly by artillery fire, German as well as
French. In these cases women and children who had sought refuge
in the cellars and had not escaped in time, lost their lives in the
flames. That was also the case in Bazeilles, which was several times
stormed by our infantry. The Duc de FitzJames is only an eye-
witness so far as the ruins of the village are concerned, which he
saw after the battle, just as thousands more saw and regretted its
fate. All the rest of his report is based on the stories of the
unfortunate and exasperated villagers. In a country where even the
Government has developed an unexampled talent for systematic
lying, it is not to be expected that angry peasants, standing on the
ruins of their homes, would bear truthful witness against their
enemies. It is established by official reports that the inhabitants of
Bazeilles, not in uniform but in their blouses and shirt-sleeves, fired
out of their windows at our troops and wounded soldiers, and that
they killed whole batches of the latter in their houses. It has been
likewise proved that women armed with knives and guns were guilty
of the greatest cruelty towards the fatally wounded, and that other
women, certainly not in the uniform of the National Guards, took part
in the fight with the male inhabitants, loading their rifles and even
firing themselves, and that, like the other combatants, some of them
were in these circumstances wounded or killed. Naturally these
particulars were not communicated to the Duc de FitzJames by his
informant. They would have fully excused the burning of the village
even if it had been done intentionally with the object of forcing the
enemy out of that position. But there is no evidence of any such
intention. That women and children were driven back into the fire is
one of those infamous lies with which the French terrorise the
population, and incite their hatred against us. In this way they cause
the peasants to fly on our approach. The latter return, however, as a
rule, a few days after the entrance of the Germans, and are
astounded to find that they are better treated by them than by the
French troops. When this sort of terrorism is not sufficient to force
the inhabitants to flight, the Government sends a mob of armed
civilians, sometimes supported by African troops, to drive the
peasants from their homes at the point of the sword, and to burn
down their houses as a punishment for their want of patriotism. The
letter of ‘an imprisoned officer’ (Bouillon, September 9th) also
contains more falsehood than truth. With respect to the treatment of
the prisoners, Germany can call 150,000 better witnesses than this
anonymous and mendacious officer, whose whole communication is
merely an expression of the vindictive disposition which will for a
long time to come inspire the vain and arrogant elements of the
French people, by whom, unfortunately, that country allows itself to
be ruled and led. From this spirit of revenge arises the certainty of
further attacks on the part of France, for which Germany must be
prepared. We are thus unquestionably compelled to think solely of
the security of our frontier in concluding peace. It is true, as stated in
the letter of this imprisoned officer, M. L., that there was a scarcity of
provisions after the surrender of Sedan, not only for the prisoners,
but also for the victors, who shared with them what they had. When
their own stock was exhausted the prisoners also had to do without.
L.’s complaint that he had been obliged to bivouac in the rain and
mud furnishes the best evidence that he is no officer, and has not
even followed the campaign up to that point. He is some hireling
scribe who has never left his own room, and one must therefore
assume that the man’s whole story of his imprisonment is an
invention; as, had he been an officer in the field, he would have
known that most of his comrades (that is certainly the case with the
Germans) have spent at least thirty nights out of the forty or so that
have elapsed since the beginning of the war under similar
conditions. When it rained in the night they had to lie in the rain, and
when the ground was muddy they had to lie in the mud. Only one
who had not followed the campaign could have any doubt or
manifest any surprise on that score. That M. L. prides himself on
having retained his leather purse is the clearest proof that he was
not plundered. There can hardly be a single soldier, who, if he
happens to have money, does not carry it just as M. L. carried his,
and in just such a purse; so that if our men had wanted his money,
they must have known very well where to find it. The few Germans
who fell into French hands can tell how quickly their opponents could
open a prisoner’s tunic, and if his purse was a little too firmly
fastened on, hack it off with their sabres or a knife, without paying
too much regard to his skin. We declare the assertions respecting
the ill-treatment of prisoners at Sedan to be wilful and audacious lies.
A great number of the French prisoners, perhaps one-fourth, were in
a state of bestial drunkenness, having during the last few hours
before the capitulation plundered the wine and brandy stores in the
town. It is obvious that it is not so easy to manage men in a state of
drunkenness as when they are sober, but such ill-treatment as the
article describes occurred neither at Sedan nor elsewhere, owing to
the discipline which prevails amongst the Prussian troops. It is well
known that this discipline has won the admiration of the French
officers themselves. Unfortunately one cannot speak as highly of the
French soldiers in this respect as with regard to their gallantry in
action. The French officers have on several occasions been unable
to prevent their men from murdering severely wounded soldiers,
even when individual officers of high rank endeavoured at the risk of
their own lives to defend the wounded, and that was not merely the
case with African regiments. It is known that the German prisoners
who were taken into Metz were spat upon and struck with sticks and
stones on their way through the streets, and on their release had to
run the gauntlet of a double line of African soldiers, who beat them
with canes and whips. We can prove these facts by official records,
which have more claim to credence than the anonymous letter of M.
L. But are such things to be wondered at when the newspapers of a
city like Paris, which now implores considerate treatment on the
hypocritical plea of civilisation, can propose, without eliciting the
slightest protest, that when the French troops are unable to take our
wounded with them they should split their heads open; and further,
that the Germans should be used like dead wolves to manure their
fields? The utter barbarism of the French nation, covered with a thin
veneer of culture, has been fully disclosed in this war. French
insolence formerly said, ‘Grattez le Russe et vous trouverez le
barbare.’ Whoever is in a position to compare the conduct of the
Russians towards their enemies in the Crimean War with that of the
French in the present campaign, can have no doubt that this
statement recoils upon its authors.”
When he had finished, the Minister added: “Write to Bernstorff
that I decline in future to notice any suggestion for entering into a
controversy with English newspapers. The Ambassador must act on
his own responsibility.”
Just as we sat down to table, one of the Court officials
announced that the Crown Prince proposed to come to dinner and to
stay for the night. The Prince’s secretary at the time asked that the
bureau and the large salon next the Chancellor’s room, should be
prepared for the five gentlemen who accompanied his Royal
Highness. The Chief replied, “We cannot give up the bureau, as we
want it for our work.” He then placed his dressing room at their
disposal, and further proposed that either Blumenthal or Eulenburg
should sleep in his bedroom. He required the salon for the reception
of the French negotiators and any Princes who might call upon him.
The Court official went off, pulling a long face, and was impertinent
enough to make some remarks in the corridor about “discourtesy”
and so forth.
Count Lehndorff dined with us, and the conversation was very
lively. Some allusion having been made to Frederick the Great’s
statue in Unter den Linden, which had been decorated with black,
red and yellow flags, the Minister condemned Wurmb for allowing
this controversy to be stirred up. “This stupid quarrel about the
colours should not have been reopened, and it once more proves
Wurmb’s incapacity. For me the question is settled and done with
since the North German flag has been adopted. Otherwise this battle
of colours is a matter of indifference to me. As far as I am concerned
they may be green, yellow, and all the colours of a fancy dress ball,
or they can take the banner of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Only the
Prussian soldier will have nothing to do with the black, red, and
yellow.”
The Chief then spoke of the peace, which he still considered
remote, adding: “If they (the French Government) go to Orleans, we
shall follow them there, and further—right down to the sea shore.”
He read out some telegrams, including one giving a list of the troops
in Paris. “There are supposed to be 180,000 men in all, but there are
hardly 60,000 real soldiers amongst them. The mobile and national
guards with their snuffboxes (a reference to their obsolete weapons)
are not to be reckoned as soldiers.”
I asked if I should telegraph about the report of artillery and rifle-
fire in the streets of Paris, which people fancied they had heard. He
said I was to do so. “But not yet, I suppose, about the negotiations
with Favre?” “Yes,” he replied, and then went on as follows: “First at
Haute-Maison, near Montry, then the same evening at Ferrières, and
next day a third conversation, but without effect, as regards the
armistice and the peace. Other French parties have also entered into
negotiations with us,” he said, and gave some indications from which
I gathered that he referred to the Empress Eugénie.
 Something else led him to speak of his skill in shooting. He said
that as a young man he could hit a sheet of paper with a pistol at a
hundred yards, and had shot off the heads of ducks in the pond.
He then mentioned that he had again complained to Treskow of
the “short commons at the Royal table,” at which Treskow pulled a
long face. “But if I am to work well I must have sufficient food. I
cannot make a proper peace if I do not get enough to eat and drink.
That’s a necessity of my trade, and therefore I prefer to dine at
home.”
The conversation then turned on the dead languages—I cannot
now say how. “When I was in the first class at the high school,” he
said, “I was able to write and speak Latin very well. I should now find
it extremely difficult; and I have quite forgotten Greek. I cannot
understand why people take so much trouble with these languages.
It must be merely because learned men do not wish to lessen the
value of what they have themselves so laboriously acquired.” I
ventured to remind him of the mental discipline thus provided. The
Chief replied, “Yes; but if you think Greek is a disciplina mentis, the
Russian language is far better in that respect. It might be introduced
instead of Greek—and it has immediate practical value in addition.”
We then spoke of the way in which the Schleswig-Holstein
question was treated by the Bundestag in the fifties. Count
Bismarck-Bohlen, who had come in in the meantime, remarked that
those debates must have been dull enough to send every one to
sleep. “Yes,” said the Chief, “in Frankfurt they slept over the
negotiations with their eyes open. Altogether it was a sleepy and
insipid crowd, and things only became endurable after I had added
the pepper.” He then told us a delightful story about Count Rechberg,
who was at that time Austrian Minister to the Bundestag. “On one
occasion he said something to me which I was obliged to answer
very roughly. He replied that unless I withdrew my words it would be
a case of going out on to the Bockenheimer Haide (a place where it
was customary to settle affairs of honour). ‘I never withdraw my
words,’ said I, carelessly, ‘so we must settle it in that way, and it
occurs to me that the garden down stairs would be a very suitable
place. But in order that people may not think that I represent my King
pistol in hand, without further ceremony I shall write down here the
cause of our quarrel. After you have read it over you will sign it, and
thus testify to its correctness. In the meantime there is one of our
officers lodging here who will oblige me, and you can choose one of
your own officers.’ I rang the bell and sent word to the officer,
requesting him to call upon me; and then went on writing while
Rechberg strode up and down the room—and gluck, gluck, gluck
(here the Minister mimicked the act of drinking) he swallowed one
glass of water after another. Of course not because he was afraid,
but because he was considering whether he ought not first to ask
permission of his Government. I quietly continued to write. The
officer came and said he would gladly oblige me. I begged him to
wait a moment. On my return Rechberg said he would think over the
matter until morning, to which I agreed. As I did not hear from him
next day, however, I sent the Mecklenburg Minister, old Oertzen, to
deliver a formal challenge. Oertzen was told he was not at home. He
went again next day, but Rechberg was still not to be seen. He had
evidently written to Vienna and was waiting for an answer. At length
Oertzen came to me after having spoken to him. Rechberg was
prepared to withdraw what he had said and offer an apology, either
in writing or verbally, just as I liked. He would also come to me if I
wished. I went to his place, however, and the affair was settled.”
I asked him then about the celebrated story of the cigars. “Which
do you mean?” “Why, about the cigar which you lit, Excellency, when
Rechberg was smoking in your presence.” “Thun, you mean. Yes,
that was very simple. I went to him while he was at work, and he was
smoking. He begged me to excuse him for a moment. I waited a
while and finding it rather slow, as he did not offer me a cigar, I took
one of my own and asked him for a light—which he gave me with
rather a surprised look. But I have another story of the same kind. At
the sittings of the Military Commission, when Rochow represented
Prussia at the Bundestag, Austria was the only one who smoked.
Rochow, who was passionately addicted to smoking, would gladly
have done the same, but had not sufficient confidence. When I came
I also felt a longing for a cigar, and as I could not see why I should
deny myself I begged the presiding power to give me a light,
apparently much to his and the other gentlemen’s astonishment and
displeasure. It was evidently an event for them all. For the time being
only Austria and Prussia smoked. But the remaining gentlemen
obviously considered the matter of so much importance that they
wrote home for instructions as to how they were to act in the
circumstances. The authorities were in no hurry. The affair was one
that demanded careful consideration, and for nearly six months the
two great Powers smoked alone. Then Schrenkh, the Bavarian
Minister, began to assert the dignity of his office by lighting his weed.
Nostitz, the Saxon, had certainly a great desire to do the same, but
had probably not yet received the permission of his Minister. On
seeing Bothmer, of Hanover, however, allow himself that liberty,
Nostitz, who was strongly Austrian in his sympathies, having sons in
the Austrian army, must have come to an understanding with
Rechberg, with the result that he too at the next sitting pulled out his
cigar case and puffed away with the rest. Only the representatives of
Würtemberg and Darmstadt now remained, and they were non-
smokers. The honour and dignity of their States, however,
imperiously demanded that they should follow suit, and so as a
matter of fact the Würtemberger pulled out a cigar at the next sitting
—I can still see it in my mind’s eye, a long, thin, yellow thing of the
colour of rye straw—and smoked at least half of it as a burnt-offering
on the altar of patriotism. Hesse-Darmstadt was the only one who
finally refrained—probably conscious that he was not strong enough
to enter into rivalry with the others.”[9]
 Friday, September 23rd.—Beautiful weather this morning. I took a
walk in the park before the Chief got up. On my return I met Keudell,
who called out “War! A letter from Favre rejecting our demands. The
Chief has given instructions to communicate the letter to the press
with certain comments, hinting that the present occupant of
Wilhelmshöhe is after all not so bad and might be of use to us.”
The conversation afterwards turned on Pomeranian affairs, and
the Chief spoke amongst other things of the great estate of
Schmoldin. The former proprietor had become bankrupt through
treating the people on the estate—mostly Slav fishermen and sailors
—with too much consideration. The place, which consisted of about
8,000 acres of arable land, and 12,000 to 16,000 acres of forest and
downs, worth at least 200,000 thalers, was purchased by the Royal
Treasury for 80,000 thalers. The change of proprietors had not
benefited the tenants, as there was no question of forbearance or
abatements. Many of them have fallen into a state of pauperism, and
instead of being provided for by the Royal Treasury, they have
become a burden on the local authorities. That is not as it ought to
be. It was believed that Obstfelder was to blame for this hard and
unfair treatment.
Saturday, September 24th.—The Minister spoke at dinner about
the ostentatious decorations of the great hall of the château, which
he had now seen for the first time. Amongst other things it contains a
throne or table which some French marshal or general inadvertently
packed up with his baggage somewhere in China, or Cochin China,
and afterwards sold to our Baron. The Chief’s verdict was:—“All
extremely costly, but not particularly beautiful, and still less
comfortable.” He then continued:—“A ready-made property like this
would not give me any genuine satisfaction. It was made by others,
and not by myself. True, there are many things in it really beautiful,
but one misses the pleasure of creating and altering. It is also quite a
different thing when I have to ask myself if I can afford to spend five
or ten thousand thalers on this or that improvement, and when there
is no need to think about the cost. In the end it must become
tiresome to have always enough and more than enough.”
In an article written this evening we returned to our good friends
the French Ultramontanes, who are as active in war as they had
been in peace in opposing the German cause, inciting people
against us, circulating lies about us in the newspapers, and even
leading the peasants to take up arms against our troops, as at
Beaumont and Bazeilles.
Sunday, September 25th.—At table we somehow came to
discuss the Jews. “They have no real home,” said the Chief. “They
are international—Europeans, cosmopolitans, nomads. Their
fatherland is Zion, Jerusalem. Otherwise they are citizens of the
whole world, and hold together everywhere. There are amongst
them some good, honest people, as for instance one at our own
place in Pomerania, who traded in hides and such things. Business
cannot have prospered with him, as he became bankrupt. He
begged of me not to press my claim, and promised that he would
pay by instalments, when he could. Yielding to my old habit, I
agreed, and he actually paid off the debt. I received instalments from
him while I was still in Frankfurt as Minister to the Bundestag, and I
believe that if I lost anything at all, I must have lost less than his
other creditors. Certainly not many such Jews are to be met with in
our large towns. They have also their own special virtues. They are
credited with respect for their parents, faithfulness in marriage, and
benevolence.”
Monday, September 26th.—In the morning wrote various
paragraphs for the press on the following theme: It is urged that we
cannot be allowed to bombard Paris, with its numerous museums,
beautiful public buildings and monuments; that to do so would be a
crime against civilisation. But why not? Paris is a fortress, and if it
has been filled with treasures of art, if it possesses magnificent
palaces and other beautiful structures, that does not alter this
character. A fortress is an instrument for warlike operations which
must be rendered powerless without regard to whatever else may be
bound up with it. If the French wanted to preserve their monuments
and collections of books and pictures from the dangers of war they
should not have surrounded them with fortifications. Besides, the
French themselves did not hesitate for a moment to bombard Rome,
which contained monuments of far greater value, the destruction of
which would be an irretrievable loss. Also sent off an article on the
bellicose tendencies of the French Radicals previous to the
declaration of war, for use in our newspapers in Alsace.
At dinner, as we were discussing military matters, the Chief
declared, inter alia, that the uhlans were the best cavalry. The lance
gave the men great self-confidence. It was urged that it was a
hindrance in getting through underwood, but that was a mistake. On
the contrary, the lance was useful in moving aside the branches. He
knew that from experience, as, although he first served in the rifles,
he was afterwards in the Landwehr cavalry. The abolition of the
lance in the entire mounted Landwehr was a blunder. The curved
sabre was not much use, particularly as it was often blunt. The
straight thrusting sword was much more practical.
After dinner a letter was received from Favre, in which he
requested, first, that notice should be given of the commencement of
the bombardment of Paris, in order that the diplomatic corps might
remove; and, second, that the city should be permitted to remain in
communication with the outer world by letter. Abeken said, as he
brought the letter down from the Chief’s room, that the answer would
be sent by way of Brussels. “But then the letter will arrive late or not
at all, and be returned to us,” observed Keudell. “Well, that does not
matter,” answered Abeken. From the further conversation it appears
that the answer agrees to the French proposals under certain
conditions.
 In the evening I was again called to the Chief on several
occasions to take instructions. Amongst other things, I ascertained
that, “while Favre’s report respecting his interviews with the
Chancellor shows, it is true, a desire to give a faithful account of
what passed, it is not quite accurate, which is not surprising in the
circumstances, especially as there were three different meetings.” In
his statement the question of an armistice occupies a secondary
position, whereas, in fact, it was the chief point. Favre was prepared
to pay a considerable cash indemnity. In the matter of a truce two
alternatives were discussed. First, the surrender to us of a portion of
the fortifications of Paris, namely, at a point which would give us the
command of the city, we on our part to allow free communication
with the outer world. The second was that we should forego that
condition, but that Strassburg and Toul should be surrendered to us.
We put forward the latter demand because the retention of these
towns in the hands of the French increases our difficulties of
commissariat transport. The Chancellor stated that with respect to a
cession of territory, he could only disclose its extent and frontiers
when our demand had been accepted in principle. On Favre
requesting to have at least an indication of what we proposed in this
respect, he was informed that for our security in the future we
required Strassburg, “the key of our house,” the departments of the
Upper and Lower Rhine, Metz, and a portion of the Moselle
department. The object of the armistice was to submit the question
of peace to a National Assembly to be summoned for the purpose.
Again called to the Chief. “The King wishes to see some of the
newspapers, and he desires to have the most important passages
marked. I have proposed Brass to him, and when the papers come,
put that one (the Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung) always aside for
him.” He added, smiling, “Just mark some places for the sake of
appearances, it does not much matter what, and send me up the
paper.”
 At tea we hear a great piece of news:—the Italians have
occupied Rome, the Pope and the diplomatists remaining in the
Vatican.
Tuesday, September 27th.—Bölsing, on the Chief’s instructions,
shows me the answer to Favre’s letter, which the Minister has
rewritten in a shorter and more positive form. It says, 1. It is not
usual in war to announce the commencement of an attack; 2. A
besieged fortress does not appear to be a suitable residence for
diplomatists; open letters containing nothing objectionable will be
allowed to pass. It is hoped that the corps diplomatique will agree
with this view of the matter. They can go to Tours, whither it would
appear the French Government also intends to remove. The answer
is written in German, a course already begun by Bernstorff, but
which was carried out more consistently by Bismarck. “Formerly,”
said Bölsing, “most of the Secretaries in the Foreign Office belonged
to the French colony, of which Roland and Delacroix still remain.
Almost all the Councillors also wrote in that language. Even the
register of the despatches was kept in French, and the Ambassadors
usually reported in that language.” Now the speech of the “vile Gaul,”
as Count Bohlen calls the French, is only used in exceptional cases,
that is, in communicating with Governments and Ambassadors to
whom we cannot write or reply in their mother tongue. The registers
have for years past been kept in German.
The Chief has been at work since 8 o’clock in the morning—
unusually early for him. He has again been unable to sleep.
Prince Radziwill and Knobelsdorff, of the general staff, joined us
at dinner. In speaking of that part of Favre’s report in which he says
that he wept, the Minister thinks he can only have pretended to do
so. “It is true,” he said, “that he looked as if he had done so, and I
tried to some extent to console him. On my observing him more
closely, however, I felt quite certain that he had not succeeded in
squeezing out a single tear. It was all merely a piece of acting on his
part. He thought to work upon me in the same manner as a Parisian
lawyer tries to move a jury. I am perfectly convinced that he was
painted at Ferrières—particularly at the second interview. That
morning he looked much greyer and quite green under the eyes—I
am prepared to bet that it was paint—grey and green, to give himself
an appearance of deep suffering. It is, of course, possible that he
was deeply affected; but then he can be no politician or he would
know that pity has nothing to do with politics.” After a while the
Minister added: “When I hinted something about Strassburg and
Metz, he assumed a look as if he thought I was jesting. I could have
given him, the answer which the great fur dealer of Unter den Linden
in Berlin once gave me. I went there to choose a fur coat, and on his
naming a very high price for one to which I had taken a fancy, I said,
‘Surely you are joking.’ ‘No,’ he replied, ‘I never make jokes in
business.’”
The conversation then turned upon the occupation of Rome and
the Pope’s position in the Vatican, on which point the Chief said,
amongst other things: “He must remain a Sovereign. The only
question is, how? It would be possible to do more for him if the
Ultramontanes were not so much opposed to us everywhere. I am
accustomed to pay people back in their own coin. I should like to
know how our Harry (von Arnim, the North German Ambassador to
the Holy See) now feels. Probably, like his reports, his feelings
change three times within the twenty-four hours. He is really too
distinguished an Ambassador for such a small Sovereign. The Pope,
however, is not merely the ruler of the Papal States, he is also the
head of the Catholic Church.”
After dinner, just as we had finished our coffee, the American
general, Burnside, who had called whilst we were at table, presented
himself again, accompanied by an elderly gentleman who wore a red
woollen shirt and a paper collar. The general, a rather tall, portly
gentleman, with thick, bushy eyebrows, and an exceptionally fine set
of beautifully white teeth and close-cut, mutton-chop whiskers, might
pass for an elderly Prussian major in plain clothes. The Chief sat
with him on the sofa, and had a lively conversation in English over a
couple of glasses of kirschwasser, which were afterwards
replenished. Prince Radziwill, in the meantime, had a talk with the
general’s companion.
After the Minister had observed to his visitor that he had come
rather late to see the fighting, he went on to say that in July we had
not the least desire for war, and that when we were surprised by the
declaration of hostilities, no one, neither the King nor the people, had
thought of any conquests. Our army was an excellent one for a war
of defence, but it would be difficult to use it for schemes of
aggrandisement, because with us the army was the people itself,
which did not lust after glory, as it required and wished for peace. But
for that very reason both popular sentiment and the press now
demanded a better frontier. For the sake of the maintenance of
peace we must secure ourselves in future against attack from a
vainglorious and covetous nation, and that security could only be
found in a better defensive position than we had hitherto had.
Burnside seemed inclined to agree, and he praised very highly our
excellent organisation and the gallantry of our troops.
Wednesday, September 28th.—The general conversation at
dinner gradually adopted a more serious tone. The Chancellor began
by complaining that Voigts-Rhetz in his report had not said a single
word about the gallant charge of the two regiments of dragoon
guards at Mars la Tour, which nevertheless he himself had ordered,
and which had saved the 10th Army Corps. “It was necessary—I
grant that; but then it ought not to have been passed over in silence.”
The Minister then began a lengthy speech, which ultimately
assumed the character of a dialogue between himself and Katt.
Pointing to a spot of grease on the table-cloth, the Chief remarked:
“Just in the same way as that spot spreads and spreads, so the
feeling that it is beautiful to die for one’s country and honour, even
without recognition, sinks deeper into the skin of the people now that
it has been bathed in blood—it spreads wider and wider.... Yes, yes,
the non-commissioned officer has the same views and the same
sense of duty as the lieutenant and the colonel—with us Germans.
That feeling in general goes very deep through all classes of the
nation.... The French are a mass that can easily be brought under
one influence, and then they produce a great effect. Amongst our
people everybody has his own opinion. But when once a large
number of Germans come to hold the same opinion, great things can
be done with them. If they were all agreed they would be all-
powerful.... The French have not that sense of duty which enables a
man to allow himself to be shot dead alone in the dark. And that
comes from the remnant of faith which still abides in our people; it
comes from the knowledge that there is Someone there Who sees
me even if my lieutenant does not see me.”
“Do you believe that the soldiers reflect on such things,
Excellency?” asked Fürstenstein.
“‘Reflect?’ no. It is a feeling—a frame of mind; an instinct, if you
like. When once they reflect they lose that feeling; they argue
themselves out of it.... I cannot conceive how men can live together
in an orderly manner, how one can do his duty and allow others to do
theirs without faith in a revealed religion, in God, Who wills what is
right, in a higher Judge and a future life.”
The Grand Duke of Weimar was announced. But the Minister
continued, it might well be for a quarter of an hour longer, at times
suddenly departing from his proper theme, and frequently repeating
the same idea in other words: “If I were no longer a Christian I would
not serve the King another hour.
“If I did not put my trust in God I should certainly place none in
any earthly masters. Why, I had quite enough to live on, and had a
sufficiently distinguished position. Why should I labour and toil
unceasingly in this world, and expose myself to worry and vexation if
I did not feel that I must do my duty towards God?[10] If I did not
believe in a Divine Providence which has ordained this German
nation to something good and great, I would at once give up my
trade as a Statesman or I should never have gone into the business.
Orders and titles have no attraction for me. A resolute faith in a life
after death—for that reason I am a Royalist, otherwise I am by
nature a Republican. Yes, I am a Republican in the highest degree;
and the firm determination which I have displayed for ten long years
in presence of all possible forms of absurdity at Court is solely due to
my resolute faith. Deprive me of this faith and you deprive me of my
fatherland. If I were not a firm believer in Christianity, if I had not the
wonderful basis of religion, you would never have had such a
Chancellor of the Confederation. If I had not the wonderful basis of
religion I should have turned my back to the whole Court—and if you
are able to find me a successor who has that basis I will retire at
once. But I am living amongst heathens. I do not want to make any
proselytes, but I feel a necessity to confess this faith.”
Katt said that the ancients had also shown much self-sacrifice
and devotion. They also had the love of country, which had spurred
them on to great deeds. He was convinced that many people
nowadays acted in the same way through devotion to the State, and
a sense of duty to society.
The Chief replied that this self-sacrifice and devotion to duty
towards the State and the King amongst us was merely a remnant of
the faith of our fathers and grandfathers in an altered form,—“more
confused, and yet active, no longer faith, but nevertheless faithful.”
“How willingly would I go away! I enjoy country life, the woods and
nature. Sever my connection with God and I am a man who would
pack up to-morrow and be off to Varzin, and say ‘Kiss my ——,’ and
cultivate his oats. You would then deprive me of my King, because
why?—if there is no Divine commandment, why should I subordinate
myself to these Hohenzollerns? They are a Suabian family, no better
than my own, and in that case no concern of mine. Why, I should be
worse than Jacoby, who might then be accepted as President or
even as King. He would be in many ways more sensible, and at all
events cheaper.”
Keudell told me this evening that the Chief had already, while
standing outside the château, several times expressed himself in a
similar manner.
After dinner the Chancellor received in his own salon the Grand
Duke of Weimar, as also Reynier, and subsequently Burnside and
his companion of the day before.
Thursday, September 29th.—In the morning wrote articles on the
folly of certain German newspapers that warned us against laying
claim to Metz and the surrounding district because the inhabitants
spoke French, and on Ducrot’s unpardonable escape during the
transport of prisoners to Germany. The second article was also sent
to England.
The newspapers contain a report on the prevailing public
sentiment in Bavaria, which evidently comes from a thoroughly
reliable and highly competent source.[11] We are accordingly to note
the principal points contained therein. The news given in the report is
for the most part satisfactory—in some particulars only is it possible
to wish it were better. The idea of German unity has evidently been
strengthened and extended by the war, but the specific Bavarian
amour propre has also increased. The part taken by the army in the
victories of the German forces at Wörth and Sedan, as well as the
severe losses which it has suffered, has not failed to excite
enthusiasm throughout all classes of the population, and to fill them
with pride at the achievements of their countrymen. They are
convinced that their King sincerely desires the victory of the German