To calculate the Young’s Modulus of Brass using Material Testing

System

Equipment
Qty Description Part Number
1 Materials Testing Apparatus ME-8236
1 Tensile Samples (Brass) ME-8232
1 Calipers SE-8710

Introduction

The Tensile Sample (see Figure 1) is held by its two

threaded ends and pulled apart while both the extension and
load are recorded. From the data collected, several different
properties of the material can be calculated. These
properties are the same ones found in materials handbooks
and databases, and are used by engineers to design bridges,
buildings, and machines.

Quantities measured include Young’s Modulus, Yield

Strength, Tensile Strength, Ductility, and Modulus of
Resilience.

This lab is written for the brass tensile sample, but any of
the samples can be used.
Figure 1: Tensile Testing Brass Sample
Theory

Stress

It is important to distinguish between the strength of a component, such as a bolt, and the
strength of the material from which the bolt is made. A large diameter bolt, for instance, will be
stronger than a small diameter bolt when both are made of the same material. The only
difference is the cross-sectional area of the bolts.
The strength of a material tested in tension is expressed in terms of the stress, s, and is given by
s = F/A (1)

where F is the tensile force applied and A is the cross-sectional area of the sample. The strength
of the bolt is given in terms of how much force it can withstand, while the strength of the
material is given in terms of how much force a given amount of material can withstand.
When loaded in tension the sample will stretch, but at the same time it will also become thinner.
To measure the "true stress" one would have to monitor the change in A while the specimen is
stretched, but that is not easy to do and in typical engineering situations the error involved is
small. Instead, the initial value of A is used in the calculation, and the result is called the
"engineering stress".

Strain
While the strength of a material is a measure of its resistance to stress, strain is its give; and like
stress, strain is not dependent on the size of the specimen. A long bolt loaded in tension may
elongate several millimeters before it breaks while a bolt only half as long will elongate only half
as much. In both cases the strains were equal because strain is the amount of elongation relative
to the length of the bolt. The equation for strain, e, is
e = ΔL/L (2)
where L is the initial length and ΔL is the change in length of the sample.

Behavior of Metals in Tension

When an item such as a rod or wire sample is loaded in tension it will elongate. If pulled far
enough the sample will fail, breaking into two pieces. Between the point where it was initially
loaded and it failed, it will generally exhibit three types of behavior:
Elastic Deformation – This
deformation is temporary and is
recovered as soon as the load is
removed. The sample returns to its
original size.
Uniform Plastic Deformation –
When deformed beyond its Yield
Strength (see Figure 2), further
deformation is permanent. When the
load is removed, the specimen will be Figure 2: A typical stress-strain curve, with points of interest labeled
longer than it was originally.
Non-uniform Plastic Deformation – When deformed past the point where the maximum load is
observed (Tensile Strength) the deformation becomes localized. A thinner “necked” region will
form and most of the deformation from this point on will take place there.

Setup: Speed Control

1. In the PASCO Capstone calculator, create the following calculations:

Stress=10⁻⁶ *([Force (N)]+100)/(π*(Dia/2)²) with units of MPa

Dia= with units of m
Strain=[Position (m)]/L unitless
L= with units of mm
speed=60000*derivative(2,[Position (m)],[Time (s)]) with units of mm/min
E=70000 with units of MPa
2. In PASCO Capstone, create a Meter display of Speed, a graph display of Force vs. Position,
and a Digits display of Force.

3. Click on Record and then turn the crank. Note that the Meter display shows you the rate that
you are raising (+) or lowering (-) the cross-head beam, in millimeters / minute.

4. Practice turning the crank to raise the cross-head at a smooth, constant rate between 10 and
20 mm/Min.

Setup: Tensile Samples

5. Use calipers (or a micrometer) to measure the diameter of the machined portion of the tensile
sample. Edit the value for diameter in the calculator.

6. Note that the calculator also has a value for the length of the sample. If you measure the
complete machined portion, you should get about 38 mm. However, since there is a radius,
the length of the thinner part that is actually stretching, is less. A good average value to use
for the length is 35 ± 1 mm.

7. Install the test sample as shown in Figure 3. The end of the bar with the longer threads should
be screwed directly into the knurled cap nut.

8. Lower the sample through the hole in the cross-head, and screw the other end of the sample
into the top of the load cell, as shown in Figure 4. You will need to use the hand crank to
adjust the height of the cross-head.

9. When you are testing the sample, it is important that you use the plastic safety shields as
shown in Figure 5. They attach with Velcro directly to the cross-head, and are easily installed
and removed. Never touch the test sample when it is under load!

Figure 4: Center Threads

in Load Cell

Figure 3: Installing Sample

Figure 5: Always use Safety Shields!
Procedure: "Seating" the Test Sample and Setting Pre-Load

1. Make sure that the knurled cap is loose, not creating a force on the load cell. The default
sample rate is set at 20 Hz. This should be a good value to use, but you can change this if
needed.

2. Click on Record. If the force and position data are not zero, check the properties in Hardware
Setup. Sensor should be set to zero on start.

3. Tighten the knurled cap. Note that the Digits display shows the force on the load cell.

4. Slowly turn the crank clockwise, increasing the force about 100N. Note that the position and
force data are being plotted on the graph. If the data is not positive, check the properties in
Hardware Setup. The "Change Sign" feature should be checked.

5. With data still being recorded, slowly turn the crank back counter-clockwise. Watch the
digits display, and reduce the force to between 10 and 20 Newtons. Try not to let the force go
completely to zero.

6. Increase the force as before. You will probably notice that the second curve does not track on
top of the first. It is necessary to load and unload the system several times to remove all the
slack and properly "seat" the test sample. When two subsequent curves track on top of each
other, you are ready to proceed.

7. With data still being recorded, slowly increase the force back up to 100 N. Click on Stop, and
do NOT change the crank position. Since the sensor will auto-zero the next time you start
recording data, this puts a 100 N pre-load on the sample which results in better data. You
should use this same method when performing any calibration of the Materials Tester.

8. You can use the Delete Run menu to delete your practice runs.

Procedure: Breaking the Sample

In this next section, you will deform the tensile sample, pulling it apart until it breaks. Try to turn
the crank at a slow and steady rate, about 10 to 20 mm/Min.

1. Make sure the safety shield is in place.

2. Click on Record. The initial force and position data should be zero.

3. Turn the crank clockwise, stretching the sample. Continue cranking until the sample breaks.

4. Click on Stop.
Analysis: Force Graph

1. Note the overall shape of the curve. Was this what you expected?

2. What was the maximum load exerted on the sample? How does this compare to the
equipment's maximum?

3. What was the total extension (elongation) of the sample?

4. Is the data linear at the beginning of the run? Use the Highlight Range tool and a Linear
curve fit to find the slope of this linear region. This is called the "stiffness" of the sample, and
is similar to the spring constant (k) of a spring.

5. Measure the area under the entire graph. What are the units? This is the total work done to
deform and break the sample.

6. Where does this energy go?

7. Use the Highlight Range tool to find the energy stored in the elongation of the sample during
the linear portion of the curve only. If all that stored energy was converted into kinetic
energy, how high would it shoot the broken piece captured in the knurled cap nut, when the
sample broke? Did you notice how high it jumped?

Analysis: Young's Modulus

When tested in tension or compression, Young’s Modulus (E) is the property that describes the
stiffness of a material. It is measured as the slope of the linear portion of the stress-strain curve.

1. In PASCO Capstone, create a graph display of Stress vs. Strain.

2. Use Eqns. #1 and #2 to confirm that the calculations for Stress and Strain are being done
correctly. Note that the calculation for stress in the calculator includes the 100 N pre-load.

3. Measure the slope in the linear portion of the graph to find Young's Modulus for the material.
What is the uncertainty in your measurement?

4. How does your value compare to those listed in reference data tables for the material?
Compare the value found for this material to other materials tested.

5. Young's Modulus tells you the stiffness of the material. Why is that different than the
stiffness you calculated using the Force vs. Position graph?
Analysis: Yield Strength
Different materials yield in different ways. Some yield gradually while for others yielding is
abrupt. In the latter case it is easy to find this point on the stress-strain curve but for the case of
gradual yielding there is no such clear yield point, making determining the yield strength
difficult. The solution is to find an offset stress, one obtained by drawing a line parallel to the
linear portion of the stress-strain curve, but shifted to the right a small amount, such as 0.2%
strain. The stress where this line and the stress-strain curve cross defines the offset yield strength.
1. Edit the value in the calculator for your value of Young's Modulus (E). Add a second y-axis
to the stress vs strain graph and add the offset yield calculation. Make sure the scaling of both
y-axes is the same and then note where this new line crosses the stress-strain curve.

2. Compare your value for the Yield Strength (or Offset Yield Strength) to those listed in
reference data tables for the material. Compare the value found for this material to other
materials tested.

Analysis: Maximum Values

1. Measure and record the Tensile Strength of the material. This is the maximum stress on the
graph. Compare your value to those listed in reference data tables for the material. Compare
the value found for this material to other materials tested.

2. Measure and record the maximum strain on the material just before it broke. This quantity is
called the Ductility of the material. Compare your value to those listed in reference data
tables for the material. Note that this number is often reported in terms of percent strain.
Compare the value found for this material to other materials tested.

Analysis: Area

1. The area under the Force vs. Position graph (as shown earlier) is the total work done to break
the sample. The area under the Stress vs. Strain graph is the energy capacity, and is called the
Modulus of Toughness. The units for this area will be the units for stress (pressure) but this
works out to be the same as energy per volume, making this measurement independent of the
specimen size and therefore a material property. Measure the area under the entire graph.
What are the units? Compare the value found for this material to other materials tested.

2. Another quantity often measured is the Modulus of Resilience, which is the area under only
the linear (elastic) portion of the curve. Measure this area, using the yield point calculated
earlier.

3. The modulus of resilience can also be calculated using

modulus of resilience = (yield strength)²/2E

where E is Young's Modulus. Calculate the modulus of resilience, and compare to the value
from the graph.
Summary

1. Use Text annotations to mark the following regions of your graph:

Elastic, Uniform Plastic Deformation, Non-uniform Plastic Deformation, Tensile Strength,

Necking, and Fracture.

2. What important quantities did you measure? How did your values compare to those listed in
reference data tables for the material? How did the values found for this material compare to
other materials tested?

Questions
1. Your data tells you how long your sample was just before it broke. How long would it be if,
after the test, you put the two pieces back together and measured it. Would they be the same,
within measurement errors, or be different? Explain.
2. As a mechanical engineer designing a component to be used in an automobile, which would
you use, the yield strength or tensile strength, in your efforts to determine a safe working
load? Explain.
3. If you had tensile tested a specimen to about half-way between where it yielded and when
you expected the tensile stress to be reached, then stopped the test, removed the sample, and
later decided to test it again, what would the yield strength be during the second test?
4. During a forming operation a material may be bent or pulled to the new dimensions. If the
material you just tested was to be as close to 10% longer as possible after this operation, how
much longer than this does it have to pulled during this operation?
5. In some designs a bolt may be declared one that you install once and torque to specification,
but only once. During a repair you must use a new bolt. Why?