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Bridging the gap between social science studies and econometric
analysis

Designed to bridge the gap between social science studies and field-
econometrics,Econometric Analysis, 8th Edition presents this ever-
growing area at an accessible level. The book first introduces readers to
basic techniques, a rich variety of models, and underlying theory that is
easy to put into practice. It then presents readers with a sufficient
theoretical background to understand advanced techniques and to
recognize new variants of established models. This focus, along with
hundreds of worked numerical examples, ensures that readers can apply
the theory to real-world application and are prepared to be successful
economists in the field.

PART I. The Linear Regression Model

1.Econometrics
2. The Linear Regression Model
3. Least Squares
4. Estimating the Regression Model by Least Squares
5. Hypothesis Tests and Model Selection
6. Functional Form, Difference in Differences and Structural Change
7. Nonlinear, Semiparametric and Nonparametric Regression Models
8. Endogeneity and Instrumental Variable Estimation

PART II. Generalized Regression Model and Systems of Equations

9. The Generalized Regression Model and Heteroscedasticity
10. Systems of Regression Equations
11. Models for Panel Data

PART III. Estimation Methodology

12. Estimation Frameworks in Econometrics
13. Minimum Distance Estimation and the Generalized Method of Moments
14. Maximum Likelihood Estimation
15. Simulation-Based Estimation and Inference and Random Parameter
Models
16. Bayesian Estimation and Inference

PART IV. Cross Sections, Panel Data and Microeconometrics

17. Binary Outcomes and Discrete Choices
18. Multinomial Choices and Event Counts
19. Limited Dependent Variables, Truncation, Censoring and Sample
Selection

PART V. Time Series and Macroeconometrics

20. Serial Correlation
21. Nonstationary Data

PART VI. Appendices

Appendix A: Matrix Algebra
Appendix B: Probability and Distribution Theory
Appendix C: Estimation and Inference
Appendix D: Large Sample Distribution Theory
Appendix E: Computation and Optimization
Appendix F: Data Sets Used In Applications
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 A Young Man and Woman Each Holding An Apple
A Florentine engraving in the Fine Manner, attributed
to the school of Finiguerra
“One of the “Otto Prints” (so called from the eighteenth-
century collector who possessed the majority of the series), A
Young Man and Woman Each Holding An Apple, is in the
Gray Collection, Harvard, and it is a charming example of the
amatory subjects of the series, prints such as the Florentine
gallant might have pasted on the spice-box to be presented
to his inamorata. The badge of Medici (the six “palle” with
three lilies in the uppermost) added by a contemporary hand
in pen and ink suggests that this one may have been used
by the young Lorenzo himself between about 1465 and 1467,
which accords well with the probable date of the engravings.”
Arthur M. Hind.
 (The inscription above reads ò amore te qª (questa) and
piglia qª: “O Love, this to you” and “Take this.”)
Size of the original engraving, 4¼ × 4¼ inches

The engravings most certainly by Finiguerra, such as the Judgment

Hall of Pilate (Gotha), the March to Calvary and the Crucifixion
(British Museum), Various Wild Animals Hunting and Fighting (British
Museum), are of course rarities which most collectors can never
hope to possess. The same may also be said of somewhat later
prints in the same manner of engraving (which may be the work of
the heirs of Finiguerra’s atelier, which is known to have been carried
on by members of his family until 1498), such as the Fine Manner
“Prophets and Sibyls” and the “Otto Prints.” We will in consequence
devote less space to these rarities, possessed chiefly by a few
European collections, than their artistic interest would justify, keeping
our argument henceforward more to the engravings that the
American amateur has the chance of seeing or acquiring at home.
One of the “Otto Prints” (so called from the eighteenth-century
collector who possessed the majority of the series), A Young Man
and Woman Each Holding An Apple, is in the Gray Collection,
Harvard, and it is a charming example of the amatory subjects of the
series, prints such as the Florentine gallant might have pasted on the
spice-box to be presented to his inamorata. The badge of Medici (the
six “palle” with three lilies in the uppermost) added by a
contemporary hand in pen and ink suggests that this one may have
been used by the young Lorenzo himself between about 1465 and
1467, which accords well with the probable date of the engravings.
The only known engraving by the goldsmith and painter Antonio
Pollaiuolo, the large Battle of Naked Men, shows a far greater artist
than his slightly elder contemporary Finiguerra. They had both
studied in the same workshop and probably continued a sort of
partnership until Finiguerra’s death. Pollaiuolo’s draughtsmanship
evinces a grip and intensity that Finiguerra entirely lacks in his
somewhat torpid academic drawings, and it is seen at its best in this
magnificently vigorous plate. An excellent impression, surpassed by
few in the museums of Europe, is, I believe, in the collection of Mr.
Francis Bullard of Boston.
Before leaving Florence for north Italy we would allude to that
attractive engraver of the transition period, Cristofano Robetta. His
art has lost the finest flavor of the primitive Florentine without having
succeeded to the sound technical system of the contemporaries of
Dürer, but it has a thoroughly individual though delicate vein of fancy.
The Adoration of the Magi, one of his finest plates, is a free
translation of a picture by Filippino Lippi in the Uffizi, but the group of
singing angels is an addition of his own, and done with a true sense
for graceful composition. Fine early impressions of this print are of
course difficult to get, but it is perhaps the best known of Robetta’s
works, because of the number of modern impressions in the market.
The original plate (with the Allegory of the Power of Love engraved
on the back) belonged to the Vallardi Collection in the early
nineteenth century, and is now in the British Museum, happily safe
from the reprinter.
Among the greatest rarities of early engraving in north Italy is the
well-known series traditionally called the “Tarocchi Cards of
Mantegna”—somewhat erroneously, for they are neither by
Mantegna, nor Tarocchi, nor playing-cards at all. As in the case of
the “Prophets and Sibyls,” there are two complete series of the same
subjects by two different engravers. Each series consists of fifty
subjects divided into five sections and illustrating: (1) the Sorts and
Conditions of Men; (2) Apollo and the Muses; (3) the Arts and
Sciences; (4) the Genii and Virtues; (5) the Planets and Spheres. A
considerable number of the earliest impressions known are still in
contemporary fifteenth-century binding, and it seems as if the series
was intended merely as an instructive or entertaining picture-book
for the young. There is the most absolute divergence of opinion as to
which is the original series, and the student is encouraged to whet
his critical acumen on the problem by the excellent set of
reproductions which has recently been issued by the Graphische
Gesellschaft and edited by Dr. Kristeller. Unfortunately Dr. Kristeller
takes what seems to me an entirely wrong view of the matter. I
cannot but feel that the more finely engraved series is at the same
time the more ancient, and almost certainly Ferrarese in origin, so
characteristic of Cossa is the type of these figures with large heads,
rounded forms, and bulging drapery. The second series shows a
more graceful sense of composition and spacing (the heads and
figures being in better relation to the size of the print), but its very
naturalism is to me an indication of its somewhat later origin. The
less precise technical quality of this second series is closely related
to the Florentine engravings in the Fine Manner, and I am inclined to
regard it as the work of a Florentine engraver of about 1475 to 1480,
i.e. about a decade later than the original set.

Antonio Pollaiuolo. Battle of Naked Men

“The only known engraving by the goldsmith and painter
Antonio Pollaiuolo, the large Battle of Naked Men, shows a
far greater artist than his slightly elder contemporary,
Finiguerra. Pollaiuolo’s draughtsmanship evinces a grip and
intensity that Finiguerra entirely lacks in his somewhat torpid
academic drawings, and it is seen at its best in this
magnificently vigorous plate.” Arthur M. Hind.
Reproduced from the impression in the Print Department, Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston
Size of the original engraving, 15¹¹⁄₁₆ × 23⁷⁄₁₆ inches
 Cristofano Robetta. The Adoration of the Magi
“Cristofano Robetta’s art has lost the finest flavor of the
primitive Florentine without having succeeded to the sound
technical system of the contemporaries of Dürer, but it has a
thoroughly individual though delicate vein of fancy. The
Adoration of the Magi, one of his finest plates, is a free
translation of a picture by Filippino Lippi in the Uffizi, but the
group of singing angels is an addition of his own, and done
with a true sense for graceful composition.” Arthur M.
Hind.
Size of the original engraving, 11⅝ × 11 inches
Leaving the pseudo-Mantegna for the master himself, we are in the
presence of the greatest of the Italian engravers before Marcantonio
—if not of all time. Like the Florentines, Mantegna was an ardent
lover of antiquity, but his spirit was far more impassive, far more like
the antique marble itself. His classical frame of mind was to some
extent the offspring of his education in the school of Squarcione and
in the academic atmosphere of Padua. His art has a monumental
dignity which the Florentines never possessed, but it was without the
freshness and inexpressible charm that pervade Tuscan art. An
engraving like the Risen Christ between St. Andrew and St.
Longinus is an indication of the genius that might have made one of
the noblest sculptors, and one regrets that he never carried to
accomplishment the project of a monument to Vergil in Mantua,
which Isabella d’Este wished him to undertake.
Seven of the engravings attributed to Mantegna (including the Risen
Christ) are so much above the rest in subtle expressiveness, as well
as in technical quality, that we cannot but agree with Dr. Kristeller’s
conclusion that these alone are by Mantegna’s hand, and the rest
engraved after his drawings. They are similar to Pollaiuolo’s Battle of
Naked Men in style, engraved chiefly in open parallel lines of
shading with a much more lightly engraved return stroke between
the parallels. It is this light return stroke, exactly in the manner of
Mantegna’s pen drawing, which gives the wonderfully soft quality to
the early impressions. But it is so delicate that comparatively few
printings must have worn it down, and the majority of impressions
that come into the market show little but the outline and the stronger
lines of shading. Even so these Mantegna prints do not lose the
splendidly vigorous character of their design, but it is of course the
fine early impressions which are the joy and allure of the true
connoisseur. The seven certainly authentic Mantegna engravings are
the Virgin and Child, the two Bacchanals, the two Battles of the Sea-
Gods, the horizontal Entombment, and the Risen Christ, already
mentioned.
 Andrea Mantegna. The Risen Christ between
St. Andrew and St. Longinus
“Of all the early Italian engravers, Andrea Mantegna is by far
the most powerful, though scarcely the most human. Like
many of the Florentines, he was an ardent lover of antiquity,
but his spirit was far more impassive than theirs, and far
more like the antique marble itself. His art has a monumental
dignity which the Florentines never possessed, but it lacks the
freshness and inexpressible charm that pervade Tuscan art.
His was a genius that would have made one of the noblest
sculptors: the engraving of the Risen Christ shows what he
might have achieved in the field.” Arthur M. Hind.
Size of the original engraving, 15⁷⁄₁₆ × 12¹¹⁄₁₆ inches
 Zoan Andrea(?). Four Women Dancing
This engraving, based on a study by Mantegna for a group in the Louvre
picture of Parnassus,
is one of the most beautiful prints of the school of Mantegna. It is most
probably by Zoan Andrea.
Size of the original engraving, 8⅞ × 13 inches
Nearest in quality to these comes the Triumph of Caesar: the
Elephants, after some study for the series of cartoons now preserved
at Hampton Court. But it lacks Mantegna’s distinction in drawing, and
Zoan Andrea, who is probably the author of one of the anonymous
engravings of Four Women Dancing (based on a study for a group in
the Louvre picture of Parnassus), one of the most beautiful prints of
the school, was certainly capable of this achievement. Even
Giovanni Antonio da Brescia, who did work of a very third-rate order
after migrating to Rome, produced under Mantegna’s inspiration so
excellent a plate as the Holy Family.
Other prints attributed to Mantegna, such as the Descent into Hell
and the Scourging of Christ, possess all Mantegna’s vigor of design,
and reflect the master’s work in the manner of the Eremitani frescos,
but we can hardly believe that they were engraved by the same hand
as the “seven,” even supposing a considerably earlier date for their
production.
Each of Mantegna’s known followers (Zoan Andrea and G. A. da
Brescia) entirely changed his manner of engraving after leaving the
master; in fact, except in his immediate entourage, Mantegna’s style
was continued by few of the Italian engravers. For all its dignified
simplicity, it is more the manner of the draughtsman transferred to
copper, than of the engraver brought up in the conventional use of
the burin. We see Mantegna’s open linear style reflected in the
earlier works of Nicoletto da Modena, and the Vicentine, Benedetto
Montagna, but each of these engravers tended more and more in
their later works to imitate the more professional style of the German
engravers, and of Dürer in particular. Dürer was constantly copied by
the Italian engravers of the early sixteenth century, and details from
his plates (chiefly in the landscape background) were even more
consistently plagiarized.
In the example of Nicoletto da Modena, the Adoration of the
Shepherds, which we reproduce, it is Dürer’s immediate
predecessor, Martin Schongauer, from whom the chief elements in
the subject are copied. But in this example the background, with its
vista of lake with ships and a town, suggested no doubt by one of the
subalpine Italian lakes, is thoroughly characteristic of the South,
while Schongauer’s Gothic architecture is embellished with classical
details. Isolated figures of saints or heathen deities against a piece
of classical architecture, set in an open landscape, became the most
frequent type of Nicoletto’s later prints, which are practically all of
small dimensions.
Like Nicoletto da Modena, Benedetto Montagna gradually developed
throughout his life a more delicate style of engraving, entirely giving
up the large dimensions and broad style of his Sacrifice of Abraham
for a series of finished compositions which from their smaller
compass would have been well adapted for book illustration. Several
of these, such as the Apollo and Pan, illustrate incidents in Ovid’s
“Metamorphoses,” but there is no evidence for, and there is even
probability against, their having ever been used in books. Several of
the subjects are treated very similarly in the woodcuts of the 1497
Venice edition of Ovid in the vernacular. When engravings and
woodcuts thus repeat each other, the woodcutter is generally the
copyist, but in this case the reverse is almost certainly the case, as
the Ovid plates belong to Montagna’s later period, and could hardly
have preceded 1500.
Nicoletto da Modena. The Adoration of the Shepherds
“In the Adoration of the Shepherds it is Dürer’s immediate
predecessor. Martin Schongauer, from whom the chief
elements in the subject are copied. But in this example the
background, with its vista of lake with ships and a town,
suggested no doubt by one of the subalpine Italian lakes, is
thoroughly characteristic of the South, while Schongauer’s
Gothic architecture is embellished with classical details.”
Arthur M. Hind.
Size of the original engraving, 9⅞ × 7¼ inches
 Jacopo de’ Barbari. Apollo and Diana
“Jacopo de’ Barbari is of peculiar interest as a link between
the styles of Germany and the South. Whether of Northern
extraction or not is uncertain, but the earlier part of his life
 was passed in Venice. Dürer was apparently much impressed
by his art on his first visit to Venice between 1495 and 1497,
and ... even seems to have taken an immediate suggestion
for a composition from Barbari, i.e. for his Apollo and Diana.
Dürer’s version shows a far greater virility and concentration
of design, but for all its power it lacks the breezier
atmosphere of Barbari’s print.” Arthur M. Hind.
Size of the original engraving, 6¼ × 3⅞ inches

Apart from Mantegna, Leonardo and Bramante are the two great
names which have been connected with engravings of the period.
But I incline to doubt whether either of them engraved the plates
which have been attributed to them. The large Interior of a Ruined
Church, splendid in design and reminiscent of the architect’s work in
the sacristy of S. Satiro, Milan, might equally well have been
engraved by a Nicoletto da Modena, with whose earlier style it has
much in common. Of the prints attributed to Leonardo, the
fascinating Profile Bust of a Young Woman (p. 252), unique
impression in the British Museum, stands out from the rest for the
sensitive quality of its outline, but even here I would be more ready
to see the hand of an engraver like Zoan Andrea, who after leaving
Mantua seems to have settled in Milan and done work in a finer
manner influenced by the style of the Milanese miniaturists (such as
the Master of the Sforza Book of Hours in the British Museum).
In Venice Giovanni Bellini’s style is reflected in the dignified
engravings of Girolamo Mocetto, and in the region of Bologna or
Modena one meets the anonymous master “I B (with the Bird),”
whose few engraved idyls are among the most alluring prints of the
lesser masters of north Italy.
More individual than Mocetto and far less dependent on any other
contemporary painter is Jacopo de’ Barbari, who is of peculiar
interest as a link between the styles of Germany and the South.
Whether of Northern extraction or not is uncertain, but the earlier
part of his life was passed in Venice. Dürer was apparently much
impressed by his art on his first visit to Venice between 1495 and
1497, and his particular interest in the study of a Canon of Human
Proportions was aroused by some figure-drawings which Barbari had
shown him. Dürer even seems to have taken an immediate
suggestion for a composition from Barbari, i.e. for his Apollo and
Diana. Dürer’s version shows a far greater virility and concentration
of design, but for all its power it lacks the breezier atmosphere of
Barbari’s print; it is redolent of the study, while the latter has the
charm of an open Italian landscape. There is a distinct femininity
about Barbari; perhaps this very feature and the languorous grace of
his treatment of line and the sinuous folds of drapery give his prints
their special allure.
I would close this article with some reference to two other engravers
of great individuality of style—Giulio and Domenico Campagnola, of
Padua.
Domenico’s activity as a painter continued until after 1563, but the
probable period of his line-engravings (about 1517-18), and his close
connection with Giulio Campagnola (though the exact nature of the
relationship is unexplained), justify his treatment among the
precursors rather than in the wake of Marcantonio.
Giulio Campagnola, like Giorgione, whose style he so well
interpreted, was a short-lived genius. He was a young prodigy,
famous at the tender age of thirteen as a scholar of Latin, Greek,
and Hebrew, besides being accomplished as a musician and in the
arts of sculpture, miniature, and engraving. Little wonder that he did
not long survive his thirtieth year. Probably his practice as an
illuminator as well as his particular aim of rendering the atmosphere
of Giorgione’s paintings led him to the method of using dots, or
rather short flicks, in his engraving, which is in a sense an
anticipation of the stipple process of the eighteenth century, though
of course without the use of etching. Most of his prints are known in
the two states—in pure line, and after the dotted work had been
added.
 Giulio Campagnola. St. John the Baptist
“One of the most splendid of his plates is the St. John the
Baptist, with a dignity of design whose origin may probably be
traced back to some drawing by Mantegna, though the
landscape is of course thoroughly Paduan or Venetian in its
character.” Arthur M. Hind.
 Reproduced from the impression in the Print Department,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Size of the original engraving. 13⅝ × 9⁵⁄₁₆ inches

Giulio and Domenico Campagnola. Shepherds in a Landscape

“It is Giorgione again whom we see reflected in the
Shepherds in a Landscape, a plate which seems to have
been left unfinished by Giulio and completed by Domenico
Campagnola. There is a drawing in the Louvre for the right
half of the print, and there is every reason to think that this
drawing as well as the engraving of that portion of the
landscape is by Giulio. But the group of figures and trees on
the left is entirely characteristic of the looser technical manner
of Domenico.” Arthur M. Hind.
Size of the original engraving, 5⅜ × 10⅛ inches
One of the most splendid of his plates is the St. John the Baptist,
with a dignity of design whose origin may probably be traced back to
some drawing by Mantegna, though the landscape is of course
thoroughly Paduan or Venetian in its character. More completely
characteristic, and the most purely Giorgionesque of all his prints, is
the Christ and the Woman of Samaria, one of the most wonderfully
beautiful of all the engravings of this period.
It is Giorgione again whom we see reflected in the Shepherds in a
Landscape, a plate which seems to have been left unfinished by
Giulio and completed by Domenico Campagnola. There is a drawing
in the Louvre for the right half of the print, and there is every reason
to think that this drawing as well as the engraving of that portion of
the landscape is by Giulio. But the group of figures and trees on the
left is entirely characteristic of the looser technical manner of
Domenico. The existence of a copy of the right-hand portion of the
plate alone points to the existence of an unfinished state of the
original, though no such impressions have been found. In any case it
distinctly supports the theory that the other part of the original print
was a later addition.
We may have to admit in conclusion that there is nothing in Italian
engraving before Marcantonio quite on a level with the achievement
of Albrecht Dürer, but the indefinable allure that characterizes so
much of the work of the minor Italian artists of the earlier
Renaissance is more than enough compensation for any lack of
technical efficiency. With Marcantonio we find this efficiency in its full
development, joined to a remarkable individuality in the interpretation
of sketches by Raphael and other painters. Yet we could ill afford to
lose the charm of the early Florentine Triumph of Bacchus and
Ariadne for all the finished beauty of Marcantonio’s Lucretia, and it is
still the youth of artistic development, with its naïve joy and
freshness of outlook, which holds us with the stronger spell.
 A PRINCE OF PRINT-COLLECTORS:
MICHEL DE MAROLLES,
ABBÉ DE VILLELOIN
(1600-1681)
By LOUIS R. METCALFE

T
HE French make a fine distinction between three varieties of that
very special individual to whom we refer in a general way as “a
collector.” They have always been authorities on that subject and
one of them has said: “On est amateur par goût, connaisseur par
éducation, curieux par vanité.” While another adds: “Ou par
spéculation.” By “collector” we simply mean a person who has
formed the habit of acquiring the things in which he is particularly
interested, and these in as many varieties as possible. It implies
neither an artistic pursuit nor a deep knowledge of the subject. By
curieux, however, is meant, as a rule, an amateur, a man of taste
who collects things which pertain to art exclusively; he is in most
cases a connaisseur, and always an enthusiast.
Paris, the home of taste, has never been that of the curieux more so
than at the present day, when, it seems, every one who can afford a
rent of over four thousand francs has a hobby of some sort and is a
mad collector. A general history of the weakness for things either
beautiful or odd or rare, or merely fashionable, would be both
voluminous and chaotic, if a distinction were not made between that
which pertained to art and that which did not. A complete description
of the latter, a hopelessly heterogeneous mass, would make an
amusing volume, for there is no end to the variety of things in which
vanity and folly have caused human beings to become interested to
the point of collecting in large numbers.
George IV collected saddles; the Princess Charlotte and many
others, shells. Tulips were so madly sought after in Holland that one
root was exchanged for 460 florins, together with a new carriage, a
pair of horses, and a set of harness. Shop-bills and posters have
been the specialty of many, while thousands of persons have
collected postage-stamps and coins. A Mr. Morris had so many
snuff-boxes that it was said he never took two pinches of snuff out of
the same box. A Mr. Urquhart collected the halters with which
criminals had been hanged; and another enthusiast, the masks of
their faces. Suett, a comedian, collected wigs, and another specialist
owned as many as fifteen hundred skulls, Anglo-Saxon and Roman.
If there have been men who have shown a propensity to collect
wives, Evelyn tells us in his diary:
“In 1641 there was a lady in Haarlem who had been married to her
twenty-fifth husband, and, having been left a widow, was prohibited
from marrying in future; yet it could not be proved that she had ever
made any of her husbands away, though the suspicion had brought
her divers times to trouble.”
Although we much regret that such an intensely interesting work as a
Comprehensive History of Collecting has never been written, we
realize that a mere description of rare and beautiful objects would be
unsatisfactory as long as we did not know their history and the way
in which they had been gathered together. It is the soul of the
collector which we should like to see laid bare. Was his work a labor
of vanity or one of love? Were his possessions mere playthings,
speculation, to him, or did they represent treasures of happiness
greater than all the gold in Golconda?
Without a doubt, it is one thing to collect what is highly prized on all
sides, with large means at one’s disposal, and the constant advice of
experts, and quite another to search patiently oneself for things
which the general public has not yet discovered, and then to acquire
them with difficulty.
Who shall know with what admirable zeal some collectors have
made themselves authorities on the things which they loved? with
what untiring energy they have sifted for years masses of trash in the