An executive summary for

managers and executive A conceptual approach to

readers can be found at the
end of this issue classifying sports fans
Kenneth A. Hunt
Associate Professor of Marketing, Fort Lewis College, Durango,
Colorado, USA
Terry Bristol
Assistant Professor of Marketing and Advertising, University of
Arkansas at Little Rock, Arkansas, USA
R. Edward Bashaw
Assistant Professor of Marketing, University of Arkansas at Little
Rock, Arkansas, USA

Keywords Sport, Individual behaviour, Consumer behaviour, Services marketing

Abstract Develops a classification or typology of the sports fan. Specifically, contends
that five different types of sports fans exist: temporary, local, devoted, fanatical, and
dysfunctional. The need exists to identify the different types of fans due to the
inadequacies of past theories to explain the totality of fan behavior. The usefulness of the
typology is demonstrated by offering specific segmentation strategies for each
classification. Finally, directions for future research are presented.

Fan motives and behavior Discerning sports fans' motives and predicting their behavior is important to
sports marketers. However, our understanding of fans is limited. Existing
conceptualizations have tended to concentrate on team performance as the
primary determinant of fan behavior (Cialdini et al., 1976; Grove et al.,
1991; Mann, 1974; Snyder et al., 1983; Wann and Dolan, 1994). Yet, fan
motivation and subsequent behavior goes beyond the record of teams and, at
times, seems unrelated to performance (cf. Fisher and Wakefield, 1998). In
fact, fan behavior is often cited by coaches and players as a determinant
rather than as a consequence of team performance. In addition, researchers
have focused on ticket sales and attendance as the desired outcomes resulting
from the exchange between sports marketers and fans. However, sports
marketing also involves corporate sponsorships; advertising using sports
publications, arenas, and stadiums as media and players and coaches as
endorsers; sales of licensed team apparel, concessions, and memorabilia; and
virtual attendance via the radio, television, or Internet (Bandyopadhyaya and
Bottone, 1997). Thus, a conceptualization is needed that accounts for the full
range of fan behaviors that are of interest to sports marketers.
The purpose of this paper is to develop a conceptually-based classification or
typology of sports fans. One reason for the limited utility of existing
conceptualizations is that fan motives and behavior vary depending upon the
type of fan. Thus, our conceptualization should enable those researchers
interested in sports marketing to better explain and predict fan behavior by
accounting for variance in fan type. We begin by defining this particular type
of consumer ± the sports fan. We utilize three theoretical orientations to
suggest how and why an individual might develop into a fan of sports:

The authors appreciate the helpful comments provided by the editor and reviewers.

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
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JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 6 1999, pp. 439-452, # MCB UNIVERSITY PRESS, 0887-6045 439
 (1) basking in reflected glory;
(2) information processing; and
(3) attachment as it relates to the self.
Each of these theories has specific utility in explaining and predicting fan
motivation and behavior. We then introduce our classification scheme, using
these extant behavioral theories and specific examples to highlight the
differences between each type of fan. The managerial implications of this
conceptually-based classification follows. Since sports fans' motives and
behavior vary by the type of fan, our typology may be used as a basis for
segmentation by sports marketers. Finally, we suggest future research,
including empirical verifications, that may follow from our work.

Development of sports fans

Classification We define a fan as an enthusiastic devotee of some particular sports
consumptive object. Thus, a fan is a consumer of organized sports. We use
the term devotee to mean that the fan has some level of attachment with an
object related to sports. Fans manifest their attachment through specific
behavior toward the object. Further, that a fan is an enthusiastic consumer
means that he or she is motivated to engage in behavior related to sports. The
sports consumptive object can be a sport in general, or a specific league, or
team. Or the object can refer to a personality such as a player, coach/
manager, broadcast announcer or other individual who has strong
associations with a team or sport. Since the object of devotion, underlying
motivation, and actual sports-related behavior can vary from fan to fan, we
propose that different types of sports fans exist.
Targets at different levels of How does a consumer develop into a fan of some sports consumptive object?
the schema Based on information processing theory, we propose fans develop into
different types through a halo process. It has been suggested that a reservoir
of memories feeds fans' enthusiasm and passion for sports and links them to
the sports institution, interpersonal relationships, and experiences. This
reservoir of information is termed a schema, and it contains expectations,
beliefs, and perceptions associated with the schema target (Hunt and
Bashaw, 1999b; Keaveney and Hunt, 1992; Fiske and Taylor, 1984). Once a
consumer has processed sufficient information to form an overall judgment
of the target, a schema is likely formed consisting of related, hierarchical
levels, and with new information processed relative to that knowledge. The
target of the schema is the sports consumptive object and may represent the
sport itself, a league, a team, or a player or coach on a team. For example, if
the target of the fan's schema is the league, the fan may indicate a preference
for the American Football Conference to the National Football Conference.
If the target of the schema is at the team level, the fan may identify with the
Denver Broncos. Finally, the fan's schema target may be at the player level,
at which point the fan may surmise that he or she is a fan of John Elway. As
illustrated in this example, there is a definite connection between targets at
different levels of the schema. If the primary target of the schema is ``I am a
fan of John Elway'', then a halo effect is most likely to exist extending the
schema to ``I am a fan of the Denver Broncos'', or to the American Football
Conference, or to the NFL in general.
This concept of identification with a target at a certain level of a schema
(such as the sport ``basketball'') leading to identification at other levels (such
as the team ``Los Angeles Clippers'') is consistent with the findings of Fisher
and Wakefield (1998). They found that fans' identification with the players

440 JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 6 1999

 or sport can lead to fans' identification with the team, and eventually leading
to subsequent actions such as attendance, game behavior, and purchase of
licensed team products. In fact, they detected these identification effects
outside the context of a winning or successful team. Similarly, it is possible
that given identification at one level, a fan may become a fan at a different
level on a temporary basis because of the halo effect. For example, a fan
generally devoted to the Super Bowl, Kentucky Derby, or Olympic Games
may temporarily root for a particular team, horse, or athlete, respectively,
without continuing attachment to these latter sports consumption objects.
The halo effect This halo effect seems to indicate that becoming a fan may be sequential in
nature. That is, one may become a fan of the sport first, then a team, and then
a player on the team. However the opposite is also possible, one may become
a fan of a player with the halo effect going to the team and then the sport. As
a further illustration, consider a young child who is exposed to sports. The
child is exposed to information about a specific sport. These bits of
information may include, but are not limited to:
. exposure to specific sport elements;
. the child's ability to play the sport;
. parents' and siblings' preferences;
. friends' preferences; and
. local media attention to the sport.
End-node leverage Once the child has processed sufficient amounts of this information to form a
schema, he or she may be predisposed to become a fan of the sport.
Specifically, the child's schema may contain an end node that tags the
schema with how he or she should respond when processing information
about the target. If that end node contains positive affect and feelings, the
probability increases that the child will be motivated to engage in behavior
relevant to the target sport (Hunt, 1995; Hunt and Bashaw, 1999a). Sports
marketers attempt to leverage such end nodes. Conversely, the end node may
be tagged with negative affect and feelings that decrease the probability of
engaging in ``fan'' behavior. Again, most typically the child would first
become a fan of the sport before becoming a fan of the league or team.
However, given the widespread use of player endorsements, the sequence
may be reversed. For example, a child may see ``Space Jam'' or MCI
commercials and decide ``I like Michael Jordan'', and therefore, ``I like the
Bulls'', and ``I like basketball''. The degree to which the halo effect takes
place is dependent upon the strength of the schema. A strong, well-defined
schema should be able to transcend many different levels. That is, a strong
schema for Michael Jordan would allow the positive end node ± ``I like
Mike'' ± to attach itself to the Chicago Bulls and the NBA (Hunt, 1995). A
weaker schema would be less likely to allow the halo effect to take place.

Classifying sports fans

Others have realized the existence of different types of sports fans and the
need to classify fans. For example, Smith (1988) made the distinction
between ``serious'' and ``normal'' sports fans. The primary difference
proposed is that the serious fan believes that the result of the sports contest
matters. Similarly, Real and Mechikoff (1992) suggested the notion of a
``deep fan''. Deep fans have a ritual identification with mass-media sports
productions, portrayals of athletes, and related commercial advertising. For
the deep fan, sport provides a means of identification, celebration,

JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 6 1999 441

 expression, and interpretation of social life. Although descriptive of
important differences between fans, fan motives and behavior are more rich
and complex than characterized by these simple dichotomies. We propose an
alternate classification scheme to capture critical motivational and
behavioral distinctions, consisting of five different types of fans: the
temporary fan, the local fan, the devoted fan, the fanatical fan, and the
dysfunctional fan.
Motivation and behavior Our classification scheme focuses on the source of motivation and on the
behavior exhibited by different types of fans. Similar to the concept of
involvement, the linkage between motivation and actual behavior can be
temporary or enduring (cf. Richins and Bloch, 1986). For example, if social
pressures or temporary circumstances are the source of a consumer's
motivation to engage in sports-related behavior, then such motivation is
termed situational. Situational motivation is bound by time or space and thus
is more temporary in nature. Conversely, if the source motivation is not
context bound, then motivation is identified as enduring. Enduring
motivation is likely, given that the fan perceives the sports object as
important to his or her self-concept. Unlike situational motivation, enduring
motivation has no such time or location constraints. Within our classification
scheme the source of temporary and local fans' motivation is situational,
while the source of motivation for devoted, fanatical, and dysfunctional fans
is enduring.
For those fans whose motivation with sports is more enduring, differences
occur because of their level of attachment to the sports object (i.e. the degree
of centrality of sport to self). Ball and Tasaki (1992) suggest that attachment
is conceptually distinct because the object of attachment acquires meanings
and significance beyond that of simple involvement or importance. Fans
reveal their level of attachment through their sports-related behavior. So,
within our scheme, devoted, fanatical, and dysfunctional fans differ in terms
of their attachment to the sports consumptive objective, as exhibited by their
behavior towards that object. We now explain our classification scheme in
more detail using conceptual arguments and specific sports-related examples
to support our ideas.

The temporary fan

Identity The theory of self postulates that objects are used by individuals to identify
the self to one's own self and to others (Belk, 1987; 1988; 1990; Wallendorf
and Arnould, 1988; Ball and Tasaki, 1992). Objects can include tangible
possessions such as team sports wear and also less tangible labels such as ``I
am a Bulls fan'' that are disclosed through social discourse. We propose that
an important aspect of understanding sports fans comes from their own
determination that being a fan is a necessary part of defining themselves and
of presenting to others their self-identity. So, the activities in which fans
engage that are of interest to sports marketers (e.g. attendance at sporting
events, watching sporting events on television, buying products endorsed by
a favorite athlete, or participation in a fantasy sports league via the Internet)
are a result of the fans' acting out their own identity ± an identity which they
have given themselves.
The stronger an individual identifies himself or herself as a ``fan'' the more
the individual uses this specific identification with regard to external others
and internally, to discern himself or herself. However, being a ``fan'' is not
used by the temporary fan for self-identification (i.e. being a fan is not
central to the temporary fan's self-concept). The temporary fan's interest in

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 the phenomenon is time constrained. After the phenomenon of interest is
over, the fan is no longer motivated to exhibit behavior related to the sports
object, but rather returns to normal behavioral patterns. Thus, the temporary
fan is a fan for a specific, time-bound event. This recognized time boundary
is the primary factor that differentiates the temporary fan from other sports
fans. The time boundary may be as short as a few hours or as long as a few
years, with the sports fan becoming a non-fan once that time period has
expired.
For example, a significant recent event was the single season home run
record chase in 1998 by both Mark McGwire of the St Louis Cardinals and
Sammy Sosa of the Chicago Cubs. The Fox television network carried the
Cardinal and the Cub games recognizing that there was an increase in the
number of people interested in this event. The increase in the number of
people interested in the chase to beat Roger Maris' single season home run
record over and above those usually interested in baseball represents an
increase in the number of temporary fans. After the baseball season is over,
these temporary fans return to their previous disposition toward the game of
baseball and their normal viewing and purchasing behavior. Of course,
Major League Baseball hopes to convert these fans into more long-term fans
of the sport and beyond their temporary status.
Temporary fan time The time boundary for a temporary fan may exceed that of the previous
boundaries example. The time period of a temporary fan whose schema target is a player
may last for years, but still has a time limit or boundary. Consider the
enormous popularity of Michael Jordan. Many of his fans have been
enthusiastic about the National Basketball Association generally, and about
the Chicago Bulls specifically, simply because of the presence of Mr Jordan.
However, now that he has retired, the temporary fan likely returns to some
lesser state of fan attachment because the target of that fan's schema is no
longer relevant to the fan's self-concept. Again, both the NBA and the Bulls
hope that these fans have not been temporary, but are more permanent. We
further discuss how a temporary fan may become a more permanent fan,
below.
What might explain a temporary fan's motives and behavior? Cialdini et al.
(1976) suggested basking in reflected glory (BIRG) theory as a way to
understand fans. BIRGing involves the tendency for an individual to attempt
to internalize the success of others. Cialdini et al. found that university
students were more likely to wear school identifying clothes after a win by
the school's football team, than after a loss. In addition, students were more
likely to use the word ``we'' to describe a win (``we won''), and the pronoun
``they'' to describe a loss (``they lost''). Further it has been demonstrated that
fans disassociate themselves from teams that fail. The phenomenon has been
referred to as ``cutting-off reflected failure'' or CORFing. Thus, the desire to
BIRG and CORF may be the critical motivational source underlying the
differences between temporary fans and the other types of sports fans. For
example, a temporary fan of the 1998 home run chase may be basking in the
reflected glory of Mark McGwire or Sammy Sosa.
BIRG, CORF and attribution A demonstrated link between attribution theory and BIRG and CORF exists,
theory such that the sports fan internalizes the attribution of winning ± ``we won'' ±
and externalizes the attribution of losing ± ``they lost'' (Grove et al., 1991;
Mann, 1974; Wann and Dolan, 1994). And winning is an important element
of fan attendance and identifying oneself as a fan (Wann et al., 1996). Thus,
winning or some similar type of sports ``glory'' appears to explain why one
develops into a temporary fan. However, many other factors are much

JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 6 1999 443

 stronger predictors of fan identification than the team's winning record, e.g.
whether the team is a local one, whether the fan is born in the team's town,
whether the family supports the team, and the style of play of the team
(Jones, 1997). In fact in the Jones study, team record was only the 14th
strongest predictor of fan identification with a team. We suggest that BIRG is
limited in explaining general fan behavior because it applies best to only one
type of fan ± the temporary fan. In fact, anecdotal evidence supports this
contention that winning (and losing) is not everything, at least with regard to
fan behavior. For example, die-hard fans of the Chicago Cubs and Boston
Red Sox continue to engage in consumption behavior relevant to the sport,
teams, and players, yet the last time the Cubs won a World Series title was
1908, and the Boston Red Sox last won in 1918. We believe that this
example best illustrates the local fan.

The local fan

Geographic constraints While the temporary fan is bounded by time constraints, the local fan is
bounded by geographic constraints. The local fan exhibits fan-like behavior
because of identification with a geographic area (e.g. where he or she was
born or lives). Jones (1997) found that the two most frequently cited reasons
by fans for currently supporting their favorite soccer team were that it was
the local team (53 per cent) and that the fan was born in the town or city (10
per cent). Certainly, one would expect to find more Chicago Cubs fans as a
percentage of the total population in Chicago than in any other city in
America. However, like the temporary fan, the local fan still operates under a
constraint: if a local fan moves away from the city where the schema target is
located, the devotion of the fan diminishes.
For example, if the fan's schema target is a specific sports team, moving
from the city would tend to decrease the extent to which the local fan
identifies with that team. On the other hand, if the local fan's schema target
is a specific player, separation of either the fan or the player from that
locality would tend to decrease the local fan's devotion to that player. The
movement from the locality leads to diminishing enthusiasm and devotion to
the player or team remaining at the previous locality. If the local fan's target
is a specific player and the player moves to another locality via a trade, the
local fan's enthusiasm and attachment toward that player would also
diminish. Again, by definition, a local fan's motivation is geographically-
based. Given the emphasis on the relationship between locality and self-
concept, we posit that the local fan uses being a ``fan'' as only a peripheral
object for self-identification. Devoted, fanatical, and dysfunctional fans see
the sports consumptive object as more central to their concepts of self.

The devoted fan

Breaking the boundaries of The next type of fan in our classification scheme is the devoted fan. While
time and place the temporary fan was limited in terms of time and the local fan was limited
by geography, no such limitations exist to the devoted fan. Initially, the
devoted fan probably started as a temporary or local fan. Their motivation
toward and attachment with the consumptive object (personality, team,
league, or sport) increased, thus breaking the boundaries of time and place.
The devoted fan remains loyal to their team or player even if either the
specific, short-term event that captivated their temporary attention has ended
or if they are removed from the context of the original geographical location.
According to Ball and Tasaki (1992), a person is attached to a particular
object to the degree that the object is used to maintain his or her self-concept.
In other words, the object to which we are attached plays a key link in

444 JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 6 1999

 becoming and broadcasting our ideal self. The more an object constitutes
part of a consumer identity, the more the consumer exhibits protective
behavior toward the object, the greater the effort the consumer spends on
maintaining the object, and the greater the consumer's emotional difficulty
in accepting deterioration or loss of the object. The concept of ownership, as
used in the consumer behavior literature, is primarily transactional (i.e. we
purchase objects, such as a car, to define ourselves and to round out our self-
concept). In relation to sports, we broaden the concept of attachment to
include persons, places, and ideas, rather than just inanimate, static, physical
objects. We further posit that ownership of such entities can take place via an
emotional transaction whereby fans spend emotional capital in ``acquiring'' a
sport, team, or personality as their own.
Attachment process Once we have become attached to, for example, a team, this attachment can
be used to explain our resulting behavior. Thus, a devoted Chicago Bulls fan
wants to attend Chicago Bulls' basketball games, watch Bull's games on
television, and purchase products endorsed or sold by Bull's personalities.
Awareness of fans' attachment and the attachment process may enable sports
marketers to develop more appropriate messages and use more effective
media to convey these messages to the targeted audience.
We propose that one difference between temporary and local fans and their
more enduring, devoted counterparts is attachment. Specifically, for
temporary and local fans, either the temporary interest in the sport, team, or
personality was never linked to the fan's self-concept, or that sports object no
longer remains as an important link to the fan's concept of self. Why do
devoted fans remain attached in a more permanent manner? Perhaps because
of emotional significance, defined as ``the associations of the object with
significant people and events in a person's life'' (Ball and Tasaki, 1992,
p. 163). In a hierarchical sense, emotional significance would appear to be a
higher order type of attachment. For example, we may be attached to a team,
but there may not be an emotional significance to that attachment. However,
if there is an emotional significance associated with that team, then we are
also attached to the team. This would explain the temporary interest or
attachment to certain sports, teams, and personalities while to others more
devoted fans remain forever attached. Clearly, an individual might become
attached to a specific sporting team or player. Because of this attachment, the
individual uses that affiliation or attachment as a significant part of
identifying and expressing his or her self-concept to others and to his or
herself. Attachment may also help explain how fans develop or change from
one fan type to another over time. For example, a local fan may become a
devoted, fanatical, or even dysfunctional fan to the extent that being a fan
becomes more central to self-identification over time.
``My team right or wrong'' Since attachment explains the underlying enduring motivation of the devoted
fan, this type of sports fan remains fanatical even if the team does not
experience a winning record. Thus, BIRG does not explain the motives and
behavior of the devoted fan. Since the devoted fan remains a fan even during
and across losing seasons, the devoted fan may have little ability to bask in
reflected glory. However, neither does the devoted fan engage in the
opposite behavior, that of cutting off reflected failure or CORFing.
Therefore, while the devoted fan would enjoy the opportunity to BIRG, he or
she may not have the opportunity to do so and, in addition, would not engage
in CORFing behavior. The devoted fan may possess an attitude of ``my team
right or wrong''. An alternative explanation of why fans stay devoted in the
face of losing seasons as mentioned above, is that they are attached to a

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 different level of schema. In other words, because they identify with and are
attached to a player, sport, or league, they may still identify with and support
the losing team because of the halo effect (cf. Fisher and Wakefield, 1998).
In sum, the critical difference between a devoted and a more temporary fan,
is the degree of attachment. Identification as a fan is closer to the core or
center of self for a devoted fan than is the identification of a local fan, yet
less central and further from the core than either the fanatical or
dysfunctional fan. This representation is used to infer that the devoted fan
uses being a fan as an important part of self-identification, yet not the most
critical or central self-definition in one's life.

The fanatical fan

Degree of fan-like behavior The next type of fan in our scheme is the fanatical fan. We realize the term
``fanatical fan'' may appear redundant since ``fan'' is a derivative of
``fanatical''. However, we use the term to emphasize the degree to which this
fan is engaging in fan-like behavior. The fanatical fan is similar to the
devoted fan in that the fanatical fan is not bounded by time (as the temporary
fan) or distance (as the local fan) and defines self through attachment with
the sports consumptive object. Such identification is very close to the center
of the self for a fanatical fan, yet remains firmly outside the core center. This
representation is used to infer that the fanatical fan uses being a fan as a very
important part of self-identification, yet there remains at least one aspect of
their lives (family, work, religion, etc.) that the individual uses for
identification that is stronger than being a fan. This primary difference
between the devoted fan and the fanatical fan is manifested through the
actual behavior toward the schema target or sports object. The fanatical fan
engages in behavior that is beyond the normal devoted fan, yet the behavior
is accepted by significant others (family, friends, and other fans) because it is
considered supportive of the target ± sport, team, or player. The devoted fan
may go to games. The fanatical fan will go to the game and paint their body
the colors of the team, go in costume, or in some way exhibit behavior
different from the devoted fan. For example, there is a man who attends the
Denver Bronco football games dressed in a barrel. He is not surprisingly
called ``barrel man''. Another example is certain male fans of the
Washington Redskins. The offensive line for the Redskins used to be known
as the ``Hogs''. These men attend games in female attire and wear fake pigs
noses. These male fanatical fans call themselves the ``Hogettes'', in theory,
to support the offensive line of the Washington Redskins. These two
examples illustrate the difference between a devoted fan and a fanatical fan.
The National Football League recently recognized this type of fan by
honoring the specific examples listed above at the NFL Hall of Fame.
The devoted fan may buy memorabilia. The fanatical fan may construct
shrines dedicated to the object of that fanaticism (a team, a player, etc.).
There was a fan in the Denver Colorado area that painted his house the color
of the Denver Broncos, and painted the team's logo on the roof. This man
would be classified a fanatical fan. Therefore, it is the degree to which one
engages in fan-like behavior that differentiates a devoted fan from a fanatical
fan.

The dysfunctional fan

Primary form of The last category of fan in our classification scheme is the dysfunctional fan.
self-identification The dysfunctional fan uses being a fan as the primary method of self-
identification. The dysfunctional fan uses the sports team, player, or
whatever the schema-target is, as the primary method to identify his or her

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 self to others and to his or her own self. This representation of the
dysfunctional fan graphically illustrates the important difference between the
fanatical fan and the dysfunctional fan. While the fanatical fan sees being a
fan as an important part of self-identification, the dysfunctional fan sees
being a fan as the primary form of self-identification. Smith (1988) stated
that what distinguishes serious sports fans, is their belief or illusion that the
results of the sports contest matters. For the dysfunctional fan, it not only
matters, but is vital for self-identification, and maybe even existence.
``Hooligans'' This difference in attachment between the fanatical fan and the dysfunctional
fan manifests itself not by the degree to which one engages in fan-like
behavior (as was the case with the difference between a devoted fan and a
fanatical fan), but rather the degree to which the behavior is anti-social,
disruptive, or deviant. Rather than engage in behavior that is supportive of
the team, the dysfunctional fan engages in behavior that disrupts the event
and the social exchanges surrounding the event. The dysfunctional fan will
readily engage in violent or other disruptive behavior under the pretext that
this behavior is somewhat justified because of being a fan. The classic
example are those British soccer fans who are labeled ``hooligans'' due to
their anti-social behavior disguised as nationalistic support for their team.
While violence and hooliganism is one manifestation of the dysfunctional
fan, the dysfunctional fan may also forgo his or her job, family, or friends.
The dysfunctional fan identifies himself or herself so strongly with being a
fan, that this identification interferes with the ability to perform normal role
behavior outside of the behavior as a fan.
Although violence and hooliganism by fans has been investigated from a
sociological perspective (e.g. Lang, 1981; Taylor, 1972), little attention has
been paid to this phenomenon by marketers. The sports marketer must take
all measures to ensure that fans do not become dysfunctional for a number of
reasons. First, dysfunctional fans are a threat to the other fans around them.
For example, Philadelphia has set up a court at Veteran's Stadium to deal
with unruly fans. In addition, too many or too frequent interactions with
dysfunctional fans tends to decrease attendance at sporting events by other
fans. Many sports stadiums in the USA have tried to address this problem by
having alcohol-free sections in the stadium. The assumption is that alcohol
increases the probability of dysfunctional behavior.

Managerial implications
Marketing strategies In addition to its conceptual contributions, our typology of sports fan has
important implications for sports marketers, particularly as a segmentation
variable. Once fans are categorized into one of the five types of fans,
marketers may leverage this information to develop the best product,
distribution, and message mixes to more efficiently reach the specific fan
type. Because of their differing motives and behavior, different types of fans
may require differential emphases in critical marketing stimuli that sports
marketers control. As such, type of fan may serve as an important basis for
segmentation. We suggest specific strategies and tactics related to each fan
type, below.

Reaching temporary fans

Timing is the key to reaching the temporary fan. The window of opportunity
may be a narrow one. For example, a boxing promoter trying to promote a
heavy-weight championship bout needs to reach the temporary fan. They
may not be a devoted boxing fan, but they may be persuaded to attend the
bout or buy a pay-for-view package if they can be convinced of the event's

JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 6 1999 447

 ``once in a lifetime'' status. Promoters should attempt to communicate that
the bout is more than boxing, but is about being there or about hosting a
party around the bout. One way to reach the temporary fan is to convince
them of the bout's value as a social event. Just as markets for Tupperware,
Mary Kay, and other party-type products are embedded in existing social
systems and networks, so attending and watching sports events are also
embedded in extant social networks, particularly for temporary fans. Team
marketers should attempt to leverage past successful events by reminding
temporary fans of these events and of their enjoyment from their
involvement. For example, in 1998 the St Louis Cardinals drew
approximately 3.3 million fans, many of whom were temporary fans
attending to watch the Mark McGwire home run race. Marketers of the 1999
St Louis Cardinals should try to develop reminder advertising which makes
an association between the home run chase of 1998 and the 1999 Cardinals.
Many temporary fans may now attach emotional significance with some
aspect of their attendance (i.e. stadium, players, team, etc.) and may attend
more games or may become devoted fans as a result of this positive
attachment.
Nostalgia Another example would be for team marketers to take advantage of a
temporary attachment by reminding fans of the significant events that
occurred during their attachment and making references to experiences that
occurred with significant people. One specific example is for a baseball team
to give away team logo ball caps to fathers on Father's Day. This could
remind a father (or son) of their experience together at the baseball game,
thus re-enforcing the emotional significance of the sport, team, and perhaps
personalities associated with that Father's Day outing.
Marketers of products have long recognized the existence of the temporary
fan. In 1999, advertising rates for the Super Bowl increased to $1.6 million
for a 30-second ad. Advertisers take advantage of reaching a vast audience of
football fans, perhaps the majority of whom are temporary fans, gathered to
witness perhaps the biggest single day sports event in the USA. In addition,
advertisers of collegiate sports events take advantage of associating
temporarily with specific games by sponsoring NCAA football bowl games
like the Nokia Sugar Bowl game in New Orleans and the Tostitos Fiesta
Bowl game in Tempe, Arizona.

Marketing to local fans

A ``stake'' in their local team The local fan derives satisfaction because they associate some element of the
sports consumptive object with a local, geographic aspect. In trying to reach
the local fan, the marketing of the sports team should revolve around tying
the team and individuals associated with the team to the local community.
For example, sending personalities into the community serves to reinforce
the local fan's notion that the team and the personality are part of the local
community. Team marketers should develop messages convincing and
reminding the local fan that the fan has a ``stake'' in their local team. The
local fan should be told about and reminded of the benefits the fan receives
because of the team's location in their community. Any messages developed
about the team should include their local affiliation and reinforce that local
appeal. In deciding on a name and mascot, the team should use a broad, yet
meaningful designation to appeal to a large local fan segment, e.g. the
``Colorado Rockies'' rather than the ``Denver Zephyrs''. Finally, the league
and the team should make a concerted effort to keep the team in that locality
to the extent that the local fan makes up a significant portion of the fans

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 served by the team. The long-term goal of marketing the team should be to
move the local fan closer to becoming a devoted fan.
A marketing campaign may also be developed which specifically attempts to
reach the local fan in order to sell a firm's products. The success of the
campaign with the local fan will hinge on their associating the local aspect of
the team or personality with the endorsed product. The selling firm should
also consider advertising that reaches the local fan while attending a game in
the local sports venue, buying signage in the stadium, or naming the venue
after the firm.

The devoted fan segment

Availability of information Beyond game attendance, the devoted fan seeks information about a
particular personality, team, league, or sport. We believe the devoted fan is
less likely to spend additional money beyond buying their local newspaper
and perhaps general purpose sports publications, such as Sports Illustrated
and The Sporting News. In addition, given access to the Internet, the devoted
fan will seek free information via the World Wide Web. Team and league
marketers must continue to feed this information need. While they do not
control the contents of the local market newspapers and national magazine
publications, they can at least influence the local paper by feeding press
releases to the media, holding press conferences, and developing
relationships with local and national writers through a good public relations
effort. By maintaining a devoted fan base, teams and leagues realize such
benefits accruing from fan game attendance, fan viewing of local and
national television broadcasts, and fan listening to local and national radio
broadcasts. Importantly, this fan base is the one that tides over teams through
bad times ± when the team is not winning or when it has changed localities ±
when the temporary or local fan has become a non-fan.
Corporate marketers looking to segment a market based on activities and
lifestyles may well benefit from linking their goods and services using the
newest mass medium, the Internet. Team marketers, in an effort to feed the
information need of the devoted fan, have increasingly used the Internet to
create a ``team page'' devoted entirely to their specific team. Linking their
goods and services or their firm's name with the team on the ``team page''
appears to be an avenue many companies are choosing to pursue. In addition,
many teams create their own ``insider'' publications. Sponsoring or
advertising in these publications allows the devoted sports fan to make
associations of the team with the advertiser or sponsor.

Marketing and the fanatical fan

Expressing team devotion Using a player to endorse a product may be less risky to the extent that a
large proportion of the player's fans are devoted, or better yet, fanatical.
Should the player be traded or should the player have a bad year, or should
the player get caught in nefarious activities, temporary or local (or perhaps in
the latter case, devoted) fans are likely no longer attracted to the player and
thus the products he or she endorses. However, more fanatical fans will stay
with their players, and the products they endorse.
The fanatical fan is similar to the devoted fan with the exception of the
emotional intensity felt about the personality or team. Team marketers
should attempt to leverage the feelings and the experiences of the fanatical
fan not only by offering information outlets to the fanatical fan (similar to the
devoted fan), but also offer additional ways for the fanatical fan to express
their devotion to the team, such as bumper stickers, license plate holders,

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 team clothing, and other team memorabilia. To the fanatical fan, displaying
their loyalty and identification to ``their'' team, by purchasing such
memorabilia, is critical to self-identification. In addition, team marketers
need to understand the critical nature of the role the fanatical fan plays at the
sporting event itself. The event itself can become more of a positive
consumptive experience for the local, temporary, and even the devoted fan
(Holt, 1995). The more the experience itself is seen as positive, logically, the
more likely the local and temporary fan are to attend more games and
become devoted fans. In addition, this may also increase the likelihood that
devoted fans become fanatical fans.
The right communication To product marketers, while the fanatical fan may represent a relatively
message small proportion of fans, reaching them with the right communication
message may result in a more loyal customer. By definition, the fanatical fan
is ``crazy'' about their team. They are willing to take socially risky chances
by wearing a barrel to a game or by dressing up like a ``Hogette''. Obviously
the team is very important. The fanatical fan would be expected to be more
loyal to products and firms whom they closely associate with ``their'' team.
For example, while Anheiser-Busch no longer owns the St Louis Cardinals,
they have long been associated with that team and most likely are still
reaping the benefits of the halo effect that has been created for many beer-
drinking fanatical Cardinal fans. In addition to team ownership, product
marketers would be wise to consider the benefits of ``connecting'' with the
fanatical fan by sponsoring and/or advertising in any or all of the following:
. ``team pages'' on the Internet;
. broadcasts (radio or television) of national or local games; and
. ``insider'' team publications in which fans pay for a subscription; and
. through sponsorships, by paying a fee to be the ``official'' product of a
team or league.

Demarketing to dysfunctional fans

Negative effects The major marketing effort to the dysfunctional fan would be to channel
their socially unacceptable behavior into behavior that is more socially
acceptable ± in other words, a demarketing effort. The team would be better
served by turning the dysfunctional fan into a fanatical fan. Teams do not
want to realize the negative effects of losing game attendance of the local,
temporary, devoted, and maybe even the fanatical fan as a result of the
behavior of the dysfunctional fan. Many teams have begun to at least
minimize this negative impact by developing ``get tough'' policies for
punishing the unacceptable behavior displayed by some dysfunctional fans,
by segregating other fans from them ± creating family sections ± and by
disallowing the sale of alcohol after a certain point in the game.

Future research
The contributions and utility of our classification scheme are bounded by the
conceptual perspectives we assumed. We adopted a perspective of the sports
fan that emphasized individual, internal motivations, internal processes, and
behavior. We believe the interaction between the fan's self and the sports
consumptive object defines what a fan is. Thus, our scheme was built upon
the concepts of identification, the self, and attachment and the processing of
information as an internal, non-social process. However, other more social
processes and concepts may also help explain fans' motivations and
behavior. Certainly there are elements of the self that are social ± we tell

450 JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 13 NO. 6 1999

 others who we are by what we consume. Socialization, which is a social
process explaining how individuals learn to live and behave in the world
among others, is one perspective that may explain the development and
behavior of the social self. Such a perspective suggests that a fan's social role
may be learned through interactions between young consumers and
socialization agents such as their families, schools, and peers. Future
research should examine fans in this social context.
In addition, our classification scheme was conceptually derived and
supported by specific, managerially-relevant anecdotes. Future research is
needed to test the relationships underlying, and utility of, our scheme. For
example, specific propositions could be developed and tested regarding the
variation in strength of the relationships between attachment, emotional
significance, and specific sports-relevant behavior across the different fan
types. Those results could be compared against the influence of team
performance on fan behavior. The work of Ball and Tasaki (1992), who
measured attachment and emotional significance in the context of
possessions, and that of Fisher and Wakefield (1998), who examined fans'
identification and behavior in the context of team performance, serve as a
model and starting point for such research. In addition, by allowing the
researcher to isolate a specific type of fan for investigation, we believe
between-class-variance can be minimized, thus increasing the explanatory
power of conceptual relationships developed to predict fan behavior.
Sequentiality of the The authors hint that the classification presented may be sequential. That is,
classification one may start as a temporary or local fan and progress to devoted, fanatical,
or a dysfunctional fan. An important area of investigation would determine if
indeed the typology is sequential, and what factors influence whether one
progresses to the next classification. Investigation into the sequentiality of
the classification and the factors that influence whether one progress to the
next stage would also include determining how to prevent the fan from
becoming dysfunctional. Marketing has done little research into deviant
behavior. Perhaps the key to preventing the fan from becoming dysfunctional
lies in a better understanding of deviance.
In conclusion, to this point researchers have used the relationship between
sports marketers and fans as a context to test and apply theories of interest.
We hope that our research will encourage others to develop
conceptualizations specifically for explaining fan motivation and behavior
and tests of the relationships of interest to sports marketers.

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