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NEOLITHIC CULTURE
An Introduction
(With Special Reference to Kashmir)
NEOLITHIC CULTURE
An Introduction
Abdul Adil Paray

Neolithic Culture: An Introduction
© Author
First Published 2020
ISBN
[All right reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
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written permission of the publisher].
Dedicated to
My Lovely and Loving, Caring,
Affectionate, Compassionate,
Solicitous, Bengin, Gracious…
FAMILY
Acknowledgments
“Alhamdulillahi Rabbil Aalameen”

I thank Almighty Allah for His blessings, favours and
guidance throughout the course of my studies and for
making all the things possible.
I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to my
supervisor Prof. K.P. Rao for his valuable suggestions,
intellectual input and professional insights. Being
fortunate enough to work under the renowned
archaeologist I learned number things which helped me
in the field and to organize my ideas in the research issue.
I have no words to thank adequately the love and
sacrifice by my brother Rayees Ahmad and concern he has
shown for my academic progress. I beg to acknowledge
my Parents and sisters, wife and my sons Nouman
and Sudais, without their encouragement and support
and patience, I would have not reached this stage of
my academic life. Thank you all for your love, care and
emotional support.
Preface
Although this is essentially a textbook, it is aimed at

general readers and students of History and Archaeology
at Undergraduate and Post-Graduate level in India
and Jammu and Kashmir. I have tried to provide an
informative book for just about any interested reader
of history, heritage, culture and archaeology from teens
upwards whose interest has been stimulated by visiting
archaeological sites. Since there are various other books
about archaeology of Kashmir in general and about
Neolithic period in particular, but this book is introductory
in nature and according to the comprehension level of
students. The work focuses on the theme of Neolithic
Period in India, Kashmir and a research part of Neolithic
Culture of Southern Kashmir. Hence, it helps students
to read, comprehend and understand research point of
view with respect to Neolithic Culture. This work shall
help the readers to identify the basic characteristics of
material culture associated with Neolithic period and
can differentiate between Neolithic and various cultural
stages. Suggestions, advises and feedback is always
welcome from esteemed readers.
01 June 2020 —Abdul Adil Paray

[email protected]
Contents
Acknowledgements vii
Preface ix
1. Introduction 1
2. Geology, Geography and Brief History 7
of Kashmir
3. Neolithic Culture 31
4. Neolithic Cultures in India 35
5. Neolithic Culture of Kashmir 60
6. Neolithic Culture of Southern Kashmir 79
7. The Surface Evidences from the Neolithic 110
Sites of South Kashmir
8. Conclusion 140

Bibliography 146
Index 156
CHAPTER
1
Introduction
The term Neolithic has been derived from two Latin

words i.e. Neo meaning New and lithic meaning stone,
hence Neolithic period is also known as New Stone Age.
This period is considered as one of the significant cultural
stages when man started producing food and shifted
to production economy from their previous hunting-
gathering stage. Man started making specialised tools
to suit this economic behaviour and also modified their
social behaviour in a large extent which is reflected in the
material record.
The term ‘Neolithic’ has also its meaning in a general
sense have always been prescribed as a big technological
change. Although in the recent years authors have
emphasized the greater importance of social structure
and ideology in determining and perpetuating the
basic technological change. Yet consideration of
Neolithic in India have seldom included discussion on
these important sectors. It is true that archaeological
methods do not provide adequate insight into those
activities and thought processes which lead to a specific
2 ► Neolithic Culture – An Introduction
behaviour yet that these considerations are of great

importance and cannot be denied. The present thesis
attempts to elucidate the process of development of this
momentous change in human cultural history by way
of including an anthropological insight along with eco-
specific imperatives to understand the various shades
of development of Neolithic in India. For instance the
change of durum wheat in the west or millet in the
south or rice in the east or even adopting slash- and-bum
method of cultivation in further east.
The variation of these choices can lead to change
in work logistics, settlement pattern and consequently
also in the ideology. It is needless to emphasize that
understanding a structure alone can help us understand
the choice or choices a community makes. The shades in
which a community develops its choices for productive
economy has largely remained as an epiphenomenon in
Indian archaeological discussion.
An aim to understand these, hitherto, neglected areas
of Neolithic culture specifically in Kashmir region of India
could be undertaken. Although the entire sub-continent
of India has yielded material remains to understand the
rise and growth of food producing economy with some
extent anomaly of data and interpretation.
Under this condition, the basic outline of Neolithism
and its relationship with human development in India in
general and Kashmir in particular, is the major concern
of present study. In the historiography, we have seen a
wide range of discussion about the concept of Neolithic,
which may be quoted at the beginning.
Lubbock interpreted neoliths in terms of its:
i. association with recent fauna as against extinct
fauna of Palaeolithic times
Introduction ◄ 3
ii. shaping of the tool by grinding in addition to

chipping
iii. practice of agriculture and domestication of
animal.1
Childe added few other criteria for this cultural
phase viz. (i) a food producing economy dependent on
the domestication of animal and cultivation of plant;
hunting and food gathering, however, continues though
in a subsidiary role (ii) sedentary nature of habitation
best exemplified in tells or mounds – sometimes rising to
a height of 30 meters or more covering at times several
acres (iii) absence of dependence on trade for essential
commodities though sporadic trade in luxury goods might
well be present, as was the case even with some upper
Palaeolithic and Mesolithic communities, (iv) absence of
full-time specialist in the society.2
According to Burkitt Neolithic must possess features
like (i) practice of agriculture, (ii) domestication of animal,
(iii) manufacture of pottery (iv) grinding and polishing
technique.3
One of the first serious attempt to study the origin of
agriculture by utilizing data from a variety of scientific
fields were undertaken by Condolle. He enumerated
a number of conditions under which plant cultivation
might have been initiated, (i) The-plants must be
productive and easy to rear (ii) the climate must not be
too rigorous (iii) there must be some duration of draught
in hot countries iv) there must be some degree of security
1 Avebury, Lord, 1900 Prehistoric times as illustrated by ancient

remains, London, P.72.
2 Childe, V.G, 1952 New Light on the most ancient east, London, P.23.
3 Burkitt, M.C., 1926, Our Early Ancestor: An Introductory study of
Mesolithic, Neolithic and Copper Age Cultures in Europe and Adjacent
Regions, Cambridge University Press, P.50.
and settlement (v) there must be a pressing necessity

arising from insufficient resources from hunting, fishing
or gathering of wild plants.4
C.O. Sauer has developed six basic assumptions about
the origin of domestication. (i) Agriculture does not arise
due to food shortage. People on the verge of starvation did
not have the leisure time to experiment with improving
food plants. (ii) The hearth of domestication is found in
areas of marked diversification of plants and animals.
Regions characterized by both diversified terrain and
variable climate, (iii) Domestication did not begin in the
river valleys which are subjected to floods and aridity
and require irrigation, (iv) the earliest agriculture was
practiced in “wooded lands’”, (v) the earliest agriculturist
had already achieved special skill that predisposed them
to domestication, (vi) the inventors of agriculture already
sedentary, since growing of crops required constant
attention. Planting a field then leaving it until harvest
time would have invited predators and lead to loss of
harvest.5
Gordon Childe tried to explain this phenomenon
through his ‘oasis propinquity’ theory. He suggested
that “Food production was the deliberate cultivation
of food plants, especially cereals...was an economic
revolution, the condition of incipient desiccation would
provide stimulus towards adaptation of food producing
economy.”6
In this controversy of origin of agriculture Braidwood
coined the term ‘natural habitat zone’. According to him
‘around 8,000 B.C. the inhabitants of the hills around the
4 Condolle, Alphonse, 1884 Origin of cultivated plants, London, P.2

5 Sauer, C.O. 1952 Agricultural Origin and dispersal. AGS, New
York PP. 20-22.
6 Childe, V.G. 1952, op. cit., p. 23.
Introduction ◄ 5
Fertile Crescent had come to know their habitat so well

that they have been collecting and hunting.’7
Leslie White is one of the first scholars who have
suggested an ecological approach to the origin of food
production that could be tested in the field. He argues
that primitive hunters and gatherers already possessed
this knowledge (of food production) through their intimate
association with flora of their habitat. He suggested
that agriculture was simply a new kind of relationship
between men or more properly women - and plants.8
All these theories indicate a change in climate
or increase of population responsible for origin of
agriculture has been challenged by Hayden. He used the
term ‘resource stress approach’9 which is based entirely
on man’s progressive shifting towards small short
maturation species as being the main contribution in the
birth of agriculture.10
The ecological approach to the study of the origin
of food production is best seen in the recent article of
Kent Flannery and L. Binford.11 On the basis of current
evidence this Flannery-Binford model suggests that food
production began in south-western Asia as an attempt
7 Braidwood, R.I., 1958 ‘Near-Eastern Prehistory ’, Science, 127, PP.

1419-30.
8 White, L.A., 1959, The evolution of culture, New york, P. 284
9 Flannery, K.V., 1968 Origin and ecological effects of early
domestication in Iran and the Near-East. Paper presented at
the research seminar in Archaeology and related subjects. The
domestication and exploitation of plants and animals. London, PP. 18-
19.
10 Hayden, B., 1981 ‘Research and development in the Stone Age:
Technological transitions among hunter gatherers, CA, XXII, P.
519.
11 Binford, L.R., 1968 Post-Pleistocene adaptation in L.R. Binford
and S.R. Binford (eds) New Perspectives in Archaeology, P. 329.
by man to expand the ecological range of certain heavily

exploited resources and first occurred along the margins
of the Mediterranean and wood pistachio woodlands
environmental zone and that it was a combination of
climatic change and population increase which set the
process in.
On the issue of agricultural origin Bhattacharya has
considered a number of factors like ‘variability of micro-
eco-zones, relative abundance of wild grains in a limited
territory or even the proximity of a desert have acted in
combination with population increase to cause the onset
of a process that leads to agriculture.12
12 Bhattacharya, D. K., 1987 ‘Conditions of the emergence of

agriculture’ in B.M. Pandey and B.D Chattopadhyay (eds)
Archaeology and history, Delhi, p. 14.
CHAPTER
2
Geology, Geography
and Brief History of Kashmir
2.1. Geology of the Region

The age of the earth based on evidence from
radiometric age dating of meteorite material is 4.54 ±
0.05 billion years. The radioactivity has revealed that
the oldest rocks on the earth’s surface goes back to some
4,030 million years,1 they thus belong to the Archean age
in ‘Geological Time’ (Table 2.1).2 There is a consensus
among the geologists that the “Continental drift” and
plate tectonics of the earth have played an important
role, at different geological ages, to give the earth its
present shape. India is supposed to have belonged to a
supercontinent called ‘Gondwanaland’ situated in the
southern hemisphere. After the end of Jurassic period
1 Habib, Irfan, Prehistory; People’s history of India-1, New Delhi, 2001, p.1.
2 The table 1 on geological ages has been taken from, The Times Atlas of
the World, comprehensive edition, New York, 1997, p12, and the table
on geologic time in the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, Springfield,
10thedn. 1996, p. 487.
(144 MY BP) the various parts of supercontinent known

as Tectonic Plates are supposed to have started to pull
apart due to tectonic motions. In the Miocene epoch,
the Indian sub-continent in the Indian Ocean drifted
up to join the Eurasian continent. It resulted in the
collision, which gave rise to the geological formation of
the Himalayas. Kashmir also appeared in the present
day world map during the later stages of the Himalayan
upheaval with geological and morphological changes. In
addition, one of the important changes was the rise of
the Pir Panjal range around 4 MY BP on the south-west
which blocked the original drainage of the Himalayan
network and resulted in a vast lake without any outlet for
water.3 This fact is supported by the literary, legendary
and mythological traditions also.4
Many geologists, paleo-botonists, geochronologists,
and paleontologists have studied the geological changes
of Kashmir, who believe that the valley was once a vast
lake in which lacustrine mud deposits were accumulated.
These intermontane valley-fill sediments are called
as Karewas, the term for flat–topped plateaus locally
known as Wudars. They believed that the Karewas
originated in two different ages, one series younger in
3 Agrawal, D.P. Man and Environment in India through Ages, New Delhi,
1992, pp. 45-45.
4 Nilmata Purana, a 6th/7th century AD Sanskrit text of Kashmir, records
that Kashmir was once a vast Lake called Satisar, where a demon
Jalodhbhava (water-born) caused distress to the Nagas-the earliest
sub-humans living there. Sage Kashyapa the grandson of god Brahma
invoked Vishnu who assumed the form of a boar (Varaha), and killed the
demon. And Ananta drained off the lake at the behest of Vishnu, through
an outlet at Baramulla (Varamul) and the land became habitation of man.
The Nilmata Purana, verse 29-227, English translation, Ghai, Ved Kumari,
Vol.I, Srinagar, 1968. Kalhan’s Rajatarangini, Eng. translation, Stein, M.A.
Vol. I, Delhi, 1977, pp. 25-27.
Geology, Geography and Brief History of Kashmir ◄ 9
age than the other and the terms lower Karewas for the
tilted and Upper Karewas for the horizontal beds were
used to differentiate them.
Table 2.1. Geological Ages
Eon Era Period/System Beginning of

(Epoch/Series) Age (Mya)
Archean - - 4,000
Proterozoic Pre- - 2,500
Cambrian
Cambrian 570
Phanerozoic Paleozoic Ordovician 505
Silurian 438
Devonian 408
Carboniferous
Lower 360
Upper 320
Permian 286
Triassic 248
Mesozoic Jurassic 213
Cretaceous
Lower 144
Upper 98
Tertiary
Cenozoic Paleocene 65
Eocene 55
Oligocene 38
Miocene 25
Pliocene 5
Quarternary
Pleistocene 1.8
Holocene 0.01
It was in 1935, Hellmut de Terra and T.T. Paterson

did a detailed study of Karewas. About the formation of
Karewas, they found that the basic layer of the karewas
is formed of terminal moraines during the first phase of
Pleistocene glaciation, which in turn are resting over the
Paleozoic and Triassic basement rock. They estimated
that the karewas have grown between the lower and
the middle Pleistocene epoch, between the end of first
Glacial and the end of second Interglacial stage. They
have also estimated, Kashmir experienced four very
cold climatic situations called glacial stages during the
Pleistocene epoch, and three alternate warm climatic
conditions in between them called interglacial stages.
According to them, these were responsible for the origin
and shrinkage of the lake and formation of two Karewa
groups, separated by the moraines of second glaciation.5
D.N. Wadia, another renowned geologist, has attested
the observations of de Terra and Paterson, however,
modified the time span that was taken for the formation of
karewas. He observed that it was during the entire period
of Pleistocene epoch that the Karewas were formed. The
Lower Karewas developed in the Lower Pleistocene and
the Upper Karewas accumulated in the remaining part of
Pleistocene.6 Wadia has given the geological formations
of Kashmir and their ages as given in the table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Geological Formations of Kashmir and their Ages
(After Wadia 1970)
Formations Age
Terraces, Alluvia, Karewas, Plio-Pleistocene
Siwaliks
5 De Terra, Hellmut , Paterson, T.T. Studies in Ice Age of India and Associated
Human Cultures, Washington,1939, pp. 1-175.
6 Wadia, D.N. Geology of India, New Delhi, 1970, pp. 380-381.
Murree Series Miocene

Nummulitics of Pir Panjal and Oligocene/Eocene
Outer Hills
Sikkim Series and Burzil Cretaceous
Volcanics
Megalodon limestone; Jurassic Jurassic
of Banihal and Bal Tal
Trias Triassic
Panjal Traps; Zewan series, Permian
Lower Gondwanas
Upper Tanawalas of Pir Panjals; Upper Carboniferous
Agglomerate Slates
Fanestella Series Middle Carboniferous
Syringothyris limestone Lower Carboniferous
Muth Quartzite Devonian
Silurian of Liddar and Sindh Silurian
Hundawar and Liddar Ordovician
U. Cambrian of Hundawar Upper Cambrian
L. Cambrian of ShamshAbri Lower Cambrian
Dogra Slate Cambrian
Salkhala Series Algonkian
Gneisses and granulites Archaean
To sort out the problems and issues raised by the

earlier explorers and geologists, more work was carried
out under the Multidisciplinary Kashmir Palaeoclimatic
Research Project from 1980-1989. Besides the physical
and classical techniques to study the sedimentology,
geomorphology, the micropaleontology, the palynology,
the invertebrate and vertebrate paleontology, the
chronology of other events, etc., new techniques were
employed. D.K Bhatt, a field geologist and the member
of the project has given the stratigraphy, produced in the

Table 3).7
Table 2.3: (Bottom to top)
Age Siwalik Stratigraphy Karewa Stratigraphy

Holocene Post Siwalik Post Karewa
Upper
Middle Boulder Nagum*
Pleistocene
Upper Siwalik
Conglomerate Formation
Lower Pinjore
Late Tatrot Hirpur**
Karewa Group Formation
Early DhokPathan
Pliocene
Siwalik
Middle
Basement Rock
Source: Dr. D.K.Bhatt, 1992, New Delhi, Table 1, p. 49

* Nagum Formation is composed of Loess and Upper Karewa.
** Hirpur Formation is Lower Karewa.
--- Denotes unconformity
The researches carried out under the Kashmir
Palaeoclimatic Project (1980-89), have shown that the
Kashmir basin turned into a vast lake due to the tectonic
upheaval of the Pir Panjal range, around 4 million years
BP, and there was the rise of about 1700 to 3000 meters
in the south and south-west of Kashmir. It was around
200,000 years BP, another major tectonic upheaval took
place in Pir Panjal range that resulted in the rise in its
7 Bhatt, D.K. ‘A review of the stratigraphy of the Karewa group (Pliocene-

Quaternary), Kashmir’, Man and Environment, Vol.VI, 1982, pp. 46-55.
height, the basin or Lake Floor tilted towards the north,

and northeast exposed all the sediments accumulated on
the south and south-west.
Then the exposed sediments called Karewas,
were overlaid by a new deposition and accumulation
of wind-borne loess. Hereafter the lake continued to
exist but in a shifted position and the sediments on
the north and north-west continued being accumulated
and were exposed around 85,000 years BP, when the
lake drained out through the Baramulla gorge.8 This
gave rise to the present day river channel of Jhelum
and the wind-borne loess continued to accumulate on
all exposed Karewa tops until the end of glaciations
approaching to Holocene.
Therefore, it is clear from investigations that the
Pliocene-Pleistocene accumulations can be categorized
into three parts: Lower Karewas, spanning a period
from circa 4 MY to c.300,000 BP, the Upper Karewas
which cover a period of 300,000 to 85,000 years BP,
and the top most member of wind-borne loess deposits
dating from circa 85,000 years to today.9 So for the Lower
Karewa sedimentation is concerned, the basal Karewa
sedimentary rocks are constituted of dark coloured
mudstones, which are rich in organic content, but the
8 Gupta, S.K. ‘Recent Palaeoclimatic Data from Indian Region’, Dodia, R.
‘Climate of Kashmir During the Last 7, 00,000 years: Baltal pollen Profile’,
Agrawal,D.P. et. al., ‘Palaeography of the Loess deposits of Kashmir’, in
Palaeoclimatic and Palaeoenvironmental changes in Asia, New Delhi, 1988,
pp.51-57 and 153.
9 Agrawal, D.P. Man and Environment in India through Ages, New Delhi,
1992, pp. 44-48. From the beginning of the Karewa sedimentation to the
shifting of lake to the Himalayan flank, the deposits are termed as Lower
Karewas and the lake deposits formed after this cessation of lacustrine
deposition on Pir Panjal side to the emergence of the Jhelum are termed
as Upper Karewas.
sandstones are very less. The sequence is overlain by a

thick stratified conglomerate consisting, rounded clasts
of volcanic rocks, quartzite and limestone. The matrix
is sandy but inter beds of sandstone are rare and one
conspicuous mud dominated event.
Map 1: Karewa distribution map of Kashmir valley.

After Wadia (1970)
This conglomerate is succeeded by sandstone-

mudstone couplets. The sand rock is poorly consolidated,
green and contains abundant volcanic rock fragments
and the associated mudstones are rich in vertebrate
bones, gastropods and biological debris.10 The upper

Karewa sedimentary rocks consists of conglomerate and
breccia, sand-mud alterations, mud rich in plant debris,
non-stratified silt and loess with associated palaeosols
and pedogenic carbonate layers. Three distinct sand rock
beds with intervening thinly mudstones and occurrence
of several syn-sedimentary depositional layers and
bouma sequences are also present.11
2.2. Geography of Kashmir

Geographically and morphologically, the valley of
Kashmir is one of the three distinct regions of state of
Jammu and Kashmir, Jammu and Ladakh are two other
divisions. Kashmir lies between 33º25’00” to 34º39’30” N
Latitude and 73º55’05” to 75º36’30”E Longitude towards
the north-west of Peninsular of India.12 Spectacular
ranges of mountains, the Himalayan range to the North
and east, where as the Pir Panjal to the South and South-
West, which divides it from the plains, surround it. The
Valley of Kashmir is 100 Kms wide, 15520.3 sq. kms in
area and 1700 meters above sea level. Kashmir is famous
for its beauty and natural scenery throughout the world.
Its high snow-clad mountains, scenic spots, beautiful
valleys, rivers with ice-cold water, attractive lakes and
springs and evergreen fields, and dense forests.
Kashmir valley features a moderate type of climate.
Its climate is largely defined by its geographic location
with the Zanskar Mountain range in the east, Pir Panjal
10 Tandon, S.K., et. al., ‘Sedimentology of the Intermontane Fluvio-
Lacustrine Karewa Group (Neogene) of Kashmir’, in Man and Environment,
Vol. VI, 1982, pp. 10-12.
11 Ibid, pp. 10-11.
12 Shali, S.L. Kashmir: History and Archaeology through the Ages, New
Delhi, 1993, p. 19.
range in the south and west and the Karakoram Range

in the north. It can be generally described as cool in the
spring and autumn, mild in the summer and cold in
the winter due to the differences in geo-location among
various parts of the valley. The summer is usually mild
with cool nights and good little rain, but relative humidity
is generally high. The hottest month is July with mean
minimum temperature 6°C and mean maximum
temperature 32°C and the coldest are December–
January with mean minimum temperature −15°C, mean
maximum temperature 0°C. The weather conditions are
unpredictable as the recorded high temperature is 33°C
and the recorded low is −18°C and after every hundred
feet of elevation brings some new phase of climate and
vegetation.
It is also widely known for its different kinds of
agricultural products, fruit, vegetables, saffron, herbs
and minerals, precious stones handicrafts like woolen
carpets, shawls and finest kind of embroidery on clothes.
During summer, one can enjoy the beauty of nature, trout
fishing, big and small game hunting etc.; during winter
climbing mountain peaks and sports like skating and
skiing on snow slopes are commonly enjoyed. In addition
to the above, Pilgrimage to famous religious shrines of
the Hindus and the Muslims make Kashmir a great
tourist attraction.13
Mountains and Passes

Kashmir valley is enclosed by high mountain chains
on all sides except for certain passes and a narrow gorge
at Baramulla. Some of the famous mountains and the
passes are:
13 Raina, A.N. Geography of Jammu and Kashmir State, Jammu, 2002, p. 4.

1. Karakoram (8615.17 M) and Kyunlun Ranges:

Both these mountains lie to the north and
northeast of the State and separate it from
Russian Turkistan and Tibet. In the North West,
Hindukush range continues towards Karakoram
Range, where K2 peak, the second highest peak of
the world, is situated.
2. Zanskar Range: It is about 600 metres above sea
level and separates Indus Valley from the valley
of Kashmir. Zojila pass (3529 metres) and Poat
pass (5716 metres) of this range are famous.
3. Siwalik Range: These hills extend from the north
of the outer plains to middle mountains of the
State reaching heights varying from 600 metres
to 1500 meters above sea level.
4. Nun Kun Range: It lies between Ladakh and
Kashmir border. It is 7055.1 meters above sea level.
5. Nanga Parbat Range: This range spreads in Gilgit.
Its height is 8107.68 meters above sea level and is
utterly devoid of vegetation.
6. Harmukh Mountain: This is a range of the
Himalayas and is situated at a height of 5141.3
metres above sea level towards Bandipore between
the rivers Jhelum and Kishan Ganga valley.
7. Burzil Mountain: It bifurcates Kashmir and
Ladakh on which Burzil pass is situated at a
height of 3200 metres above sea level.
8. Amarnath Mountain: This is famous for its holy
Amarnath Cave, at a height of 5372 meters
above sea level, which thousands of pilgrims visit
every year. They have to pass Mahagunas pass
(1475 metres) on their way to Shri Amarnathji.
Gwasharan (5450 meters) is situated in the Lidar
valley towards Pahalgam.

9. Toshmaidan: Toshmaindan (4270 meters) and
Kajinag (3700 meters) mountains lie in the
Inner Himalayas. They are covered with snow
throughout the year.
10. Afarwat: This Mountain spreads through the
Gulmarg valley. The famous spring Alpathar lies
on its peak flows down into The Wullar Lake.
11. Pir Panjal Range: It separates Kashmir valley
from the outer Himalayas and is about 2621
Kms in length and 50 Kms. in breadth. Famous
Banihal pass (2832 meters) lies in the shape of a
tunnel on its peak; it remains covered with snow
during winter. At a height of 2200 metres above
sea level ‘Jawahar Tunnel’ has been constructed
which is 2825 metres long.
12. Volcanic mountains: One volcanic peak, ‘Soyamji’
(1860 meters) is situated in North Machhipura
(Handwara) and the other ‘Kharewa’ peak lies in
Tehsil Pahalgam There is a temple on this peak
and many sulphur springs are found at the foot
of the hill.
Rivers
The main river and one of the important of the few rivers
that have their origin in Kashmir is the river Jhelum. This
great river is the recipient of the whole drainage of the valley
and Kalhana has mentioned its name as Vatista, famous as
Vyath in Kashmir. The river originates in Verinag, shooting
out from a spring located in lower Pir Panjal range. Before
surrendering into river Indus, it starts from South Kashmir
and flows through a long stretch of Jammu. The Valley is
drained by a number of lakes like Dal Lake, Wular Lake,
Manasbal Lake, Gangabal Lake, Gadsar Lake, Sheshnag,

Vishnasar and Krishna Lake.
Languages
main languages spoken in Kashmir are Kashmiri,
Urdu, Pahadi, Balti, Gojri, Shina and Pashto. However,
Urdu is the official language of the state and is written
in Persian/Arabic script. Many speakers of these
languages also speak English as second language. The
Kashmir division in the state of Jammu and Kashmir
has ten administrative units or districts with following
demographic figures:14
Demography
The demographic structure of the region under study
is given district wise in table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Population in Districts
District Population District Population

Anantnag 1,069,749 Srinagar 1,250,173
Kulgam 423,181 Ganderbal 297,003
Pulwama 570,060 Bandipora 385,009
Shopian 265,960 Baramulla 1,015,503
Budgam 755,331 Kupwara 875,564
Total = 6,907,533
Srinagar, Baramulla, and Anantnag are the main
cities in the valley. More than 97% of the population
consists of Muslims, besides Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists,
and other.
14 Census Report 2011, Office of the Registrar General and Census
Commissioner India, Paper 1 of 2011.
Economy
The mountains surrounding the valley of Kashmir
have varied mineral wealth, but in very meager quantity.
Lignite, limestone, copper ores, gypsum, Iron Ore, Ochre,
Zinc, Graphite, slate stone, fuller’s earth, Sulphur, and
Marble are some of the minerals. Agriculture is the most
important industry of the people of Kashmir. Even those
engaged in other industries depend on agriculture for
raw material. The main crops cultivated are Rise, Wheat,
Maize, Oil-seeds, Pulses, Saffron, Almonds, Wall-Nuts,
Apples, Cherries, Pears, Plums, and Apricots etc. Raising
of live-stock, production of silk and wool are other sources
of income.
2.3. Brief History of the Region

Kashmir is an ancient land where the man
lived right since the prehistoric times. Despite its
geographical isolation, Kashmir has been a melting pot
of different nations and cultures. Its enchanting beauty,
trade, religion and other cultural currents attracted
the people resulting in the migration of nomads of
prehistoric periods, Harappans, Mauriyans, Sakas,
Kushanas, Hunas, Sayyids, Mughals, Sikhs, Dogras etc.
which resulted in the close contacts with its neighbors-
Gandhara, Iran, Western Turkistan, republics of
Central Asia, Tibet, China, etc. In this part of the
chapter, an attempt is made to present a brief survey of
history of Kashmir in the light of available literary and
archaeological sources, beginning with the emergence of
early man in Kashmir.
After Wadia (1970)

Map 2. Geological map of Kashmir valley showing different
lithological formation in the Valley.
Literary traditions give us accurate information about

the land formation of the Valley, corroborated largely
by archaeological findings and scientific investigations,
as we learned while discussing geology of the valley.
Therefore, it would be worthwhile to refer once again to
the legend as given in the Nilmata Purana and Kalhana’s
Rajatarangini (The Stream of Kings) for discussing the
origin of the people in the valley. About the original
inhabitants of the Kashmir, it is mentioned in the known
literary works; Nagas were the original settlers followed
by the Pisachas and then came the Manavas.15 The
15 Ghai, Ved Kumari, The Nilmatapurana, in ‘5000 Years of Kashmir’, Ed.
Balraj Puri, 1997, pp. 32-35.Stein, M.A. Rajatarangini, Vol. I, (184 note)
Nagas lived during the summer months and the Pisachas

occupied it in the winter season. Nagas were the off
springs of sage Kashyapa, Pisachas were the nomads
whose original home was far away in the desert regions
of Central Asia, and the Manavas were the Aryans from
the Punjab.16 The Pisachas never remained in peace with
the Nagas - the original occupants of the Kashmira, since
they had to gratify the Pisachas with food gifts off and on.
When the selection was to be made among the Pisachas
and Manavas, the Nagas preferred the Manavas to
the Pisachas to throw them back to the borders of the
valley. However, with the passage of time, they allowed
Pisachas to live in peace with the help of Manavas and
slowly but surely all the three lived permanently in the
Valley. Besides, there was a close intercourse of the
people with the people of the adjacent regions resulted
in the amalgamation of customs, rituals and traditions.17
Many of these customs and ceremonies are even now a
part of social life of Saraswat Brahmins in the valley.
Archaeological evidences and scientific investigations
substantiate the fact that man lived right from the
Paleolithic times onwards in the Valley. De Terra and
Patterson were the first to find a well fossilized tusk
fragment on the way to shrine of Baba Rafi-u-Din on a
hill, half-fossilized limbs of bovids (antelope and Bos) and
one femur bone containing marks of artificial cutting,
and flake implements in the brown clay near Pampur
and Kargil. This made them to say that they belonged to
16 Bamzai, P.N.K. Kashmir and Central Asia, Delhi, 1980, pp. 47-49.
17 Ghai, Ved Kumari, The Nilmatapurana, in ‘5000 Years of Kashmir’ ed. by
Balraj Puri, 1997, p. 33. The other tribes which are described as occupying
the neighboring countries are the Madaras (inhabitants of modern Sailkot),
Darvas (inhabitants of jammu region), Abhisaras, Gandharas, Juhudaras,
Sakas, Tanganas, Madavas etc.
Palaeolithic Period. Prof. H.D. Sankalia assisted by S.L.

Shali and others took up the field work in Lidder valley in
Pahalgam in 1969-71 and recovered a massive flake and
a crude Hand-axe from well stratified deposits dating to
second glacial and second interglacial respectively. R.V.
Joshi of the Prehistory Branch of Archaeological Survey of
India and others recovered nine more tools from deposits
attributed to second through third Glacial Periods.
Sankalia and his team also found a patinated tool, six
choppers, and three scrapersin the area, categorized as
Palaeolithic tools.18 Similar tools were also picked up
around Prang and Waswan in the Sindh valley near
Sonamarg and on the hill slopes of Gulmarg.19 Then the
explanatory survey yielded Palaeoliths (Blade and burin
industry) from Balapora (Shopian) and upper reaches
of Sukhnag near Srinagar having upper Palaeolithic
affilation. At Sombur, (Pulwama) more than 100 artifacts
were collected in which core technique in fabrication
was used. Under Palaeoclimatic Research Project new
Palaeolithic sites were explored which included Kulladur,
Bhatchak, Tapribal, Hiun in Baramulla District,
Khansahab and Habsahab in Budgam, represented by
backed knives, elongated parallel sided double scrappers
and waisted tools. Grinders and pounders are a part of
this industry. Some of the tools have a clear Neolithic
affinity and are associated with the typical Neolithic
industry. The Paleoclimatic research have indicated
that 20000-18000 B.P. was of climatic betterment in the
valley and favorable for human settlements as indicated
by Upper Paleolithic sites from Sombur20 and other areas.
18 Sankalia, H.D. ‘New Evidence for Early Man in Kashmir’, Current

Anthropology, Vol. 12, No, 4/5, Chicago, (Oct.- Dec. 1971), pp. 558-562.
19 Indian Archaeology- A Review, 1970-71, p. 17.
20 Ibid, pp. 37.
Evidence regarding the presence of Mesolithic man

are so for scanty, but Paleolithic Culture was followed
at places by Mesolithic Culture having a new breed of
microlithic tools that were mostly hafted for hunting to
give an advantage to the man. That culture was followed
by an advanced prehistoric stage termed as Neolithic
culture, when the man used the tools and implements
more varied in form, and made more skillfully, practiced
agriculture, domesticated animals and manufactured
pottery. The origin of Kashmir Neolithic, according to A.K.
Sharma, was somewhere in Central-Asia and started in
the valley before circa 2920 BCE and continued up to 1700
BCE around which time a new wave of people entered the
valley with the knowledge of Megalithic building, rice and
iron.21 It has been asserted by 5000 years B.P. climatic
conditions became warmer and people in large numbers
with sophisticated and effective hunting techniques
entered into the valley. They were not only hunters but
producers too. Man thus entered into the Neolithic age
the remains of which are spread far and wide in the
valley. The Neolithic Culture in the Kashmir Valley is
represented by more than three dozen sites, all located on
the elevated flats of the karewas of wind-borne silt called
loess, near streams and lakes. These include Burzahom,
Nunar, Baimlun in Wangathnallah, ten sites from
Anantnag to Pampore22 including Begagund, Gofkral,
Hariparigam, Jayadevi Udar, Thajiwor, Olichibag,
Pampore ,Panzgam, and Sempur. Also, Damodar Udar,
Kanayalwan, Brah and Waztal, Dadsar, Singhpora,
Petha Gantamulla and Kanishkapora, Khor and Pattan,
Dillion, Parihaspora, and Turkepora in Baramulla.23
21 Sharma, A.K. Prehistoric Burials of Kashmir, Delhi, 1998, p. 1.
22 IAR, 1962-63, pp. 9-10.
23 IAR, 1981-82, pp. 16-25. Kanishkapora, IAR, 1985-86, pp. 34-37.
In the Sindh valley near the confluence of Krankindi

and the river Sindh, a Burzahom type settlement was
found near village Kijpora, Haribous in Tral, Borus in
Awantipora, Kaneer Budgam, and Aripathan in Budgam.
Further explorations yielded more sites like Gopas Udar,
Kriri Chak, Kuladur, Mukam Udar, Raiteng, Tapribal,
Wanigom, Yohteng, Pinglish, Balpora, Romu, Shahpend
Habshahsahib, Tsodur, Hayatpora khansahib and
Koshund24. Of all these sites only two, Burzoham and
Gufkral have been exposed archaeologically, the former
extensively and the latter partially.
Neolithic culture of Kashmir is represented by
Burzuhom and Gufkral sites. As for as the features of
Neolithic culture of Kashmir are concerned, we have
found Dwelling pits, ground tools, ceramics of different
shapes and sizes, burials, contacts with outer world etc.
It portrays a well-stratified Neolithic society capable of
fixed settlement. The Neolithic culture of the Kashmir
for several reasons is different from that of the rest of
the Neolithic culture of India. Increasing size of Neolithic
settlements in the valley, highly organized economy,
effective handling of raw material, emphasis on the
control of environment, cultural contacts with people of
other regions despite limited means of communication
and at the same time maintaining their skill and standard
of workmanship make it unique, as compared to other
Neolithic cultures of India.
Neolithic Period was succeeded by megalithic
period in Kashmir. Neolithic culture does not bear any
affinity with such of the structures in rest of Indian sub-
continent. The Megaliths of Kashmir are represented by
24 IAR, 1981-82, pp. 16-25. ‘Some New Lithic and Ceramic Industries
from Kashmir’ in Man and Environment, Vol. VI, 1982, pp. 37-40.
Menhir type of standing stones. These upright stones

are found in groups and in some cases located alone. The
interesting observation is that at most of the places these
are overlying Neolithic settlements as at Burzahom,
Gufkral, Hariparigom, Begund, Brah Waztal, Trakpur,
Pampur, Dadsar etc.
There were missing links from the last phase of
Neolithic occupation to the coming of Kushanas in
Kashmir, but the Semthan excavations have provided
a clue to some of these mysterious problems. Therefore,
the Semthan excavation has bridged the gap between the
Neolithic and Kushana periods in Kashmir.25 Based on
pottery in relation to its composition of clay, ingredients,
firing, surface finish etc., the cultural sequence of the
Semthan site has been arranged in six periods26 and
presents a continuity of historical events in Kashmir.
Period I is designated by the presence of Pre-Northern
Black Polished Ware dated from 700 BCE to 500 BCE. The
people of this period built houses with rammed clay and
pebble walls and used copper, terracotta and bone beads
and tools. Iron is absent in this period and the presence of
pottery has been classified into five fabrics. The Fabric- A
was marked by sturdy red ware treated with a fine slip
ranges from orange red to plump red colours. The main
shapes of pottery include Some Harappan forms and some
forms bear generic relation with post-Harappan pottery of
Banawali and Bara, like Variety of bowls, vases, vessels,
flasks, jars, and knobbed lids.27 Fabric-B is marked by
25 Gaur, G.S., ‘Semthan Excavations’ in Archaeology and History:

Essays in Memory of Shri A.Ghosh, Vol.I, Ed. Pande, B.M, and
Chottopadhyaya, B.D, 1987, pp. 327-337.
26 IAR, 1978-79, pp. 69-70. And IAR, 1980-81, pp. 21-23.
27 Sankalia, H.D. Indian Archaeology Today, Bombay, 1962, p. 53. Shali, S.L.
Kashmir: History and Archaeology Through the Ages, New Delhi, 1993, p. 111.
wheel made thin and fine red ware with the shapes of
Fabric-A. Fabric B consists of a fine thin red ware mostly
slipped and burnished. It is made of fine clay on wheel
and the slip varies from brownish red to deep red. The
common forms include vessels, vases, a variety of bowls,
flasks, cooking vessels with untreated and soot-marked
lower body. Fabric C is a thick ocherous ware, of which
a few shreds bear externally incised patterns as well as
multiple wavy lines. The shapes include wide-mouthed
vessels, vases, etc. Fabric D comprises two distinct wares,
viz., burnished grey ware of thicker quality and ordinary
grey ware. Fabric E is a handmade, ill-fired, and crude
ware made of poor clay containing stone grits. Period II
dated to 500-200 BCE is marked by the presence of red
ware associated with the Northern Black Polished Ware.
Besides successive floor levels, a rubble-wall is the only
structure found from this level. Important antiquities
include cast copper coins from the upper level that belong
to the Indo-Greeks. Period III, the phase of Indo-Greeks
dated 200 BCE to 1st century CE, is represented by
pottery of a thin fabric with bright red or orange slip.
Striking shapes are thali (pans) and goblets. A small
clay seal depicting an Indo-Greek deity was a significant
discovery. Coins of this period were also collected from the
surface. Period IV witnessed the continuation of certain
wares and types of the preceding period. During this
period, Kashmir was under Kushanas, Kidar Kushanas
and Huns and dated back to 1st century to 5th century
CE.28 A large number of terracotta figurines, coins and
clay sealing of this period arc found from both excavation
28 Gaur, G.S., ‘Semthan Excavations’ in Archaeology and History:
Essays in Memory of Shri A.Ghosh, Vol.I, Ed. Pande, B.M,
andChottopadhyaya, B.D, 1987, pp. 327-337. IAR, 1978-79, pp. 69-
70. And IAR, 1980-81, pp. 21-23.
and surface. The figurines are usually prepared out of a

single mould. Other finds comprise beads of terracotta
and semiprecious stones in addition to copper and iron
objects. Period V belonged to the time of prolific temple
building and flourishing sculptural art in Kashmir. It
was the period of Karkota, Utpala and Lohara dynasities.
In literary records Gonanda I was the First in the
ruling lineage followed by fifty-five Rajas as recorded
chronologically by Kalhanain Rajatarangini. The Suraj
Vanshi or Gonanda dynasty was succeeded by Pandava
dynasty when Harandeva Pandava, killed the old Raja
and founded a ruling dynasty of his own. According to
Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, after Gonanda’s there came 35
kings, whose names and deeds have been lost.29
Here it is worth to mention that in the second decade
of 6th century BCE, Kashmir was under the sway of
Achaemanids, who captured Gandahara, i.e., eastern
Afghanistan with its capital at Pushkaravati and
including Kashmir. In 327 BCE, Alexender moved on
with his armies to conquer Punjab. However, there is no
mention of direct invasion on the kingdom of Kashmir in
any source. However, the march from Taxila to Jhelum
took the Macedonian forces along a line of route, which
lay comparatively near to the confines of Kashmir. The
contact with the Greeks resulted in the development of
beautiful architectural and Sculptural style of the old
Kashmir temples. The rule of Sakas in first century BCE,
in India after defeating Indo-Greeks, they extended their
over lordship to Kashmir as large number of siliver coins
of Azes and Aziles (Saka Kings) on the bank of Jhelum
River near Baramulla.
29 Stein, M. A., Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, Vol. I, Delhi, 2009, pp. 71-74.

We may pass over the next 20 kings whose names

but no deeds, have been preserved and come down to
Ashoka of Mauryan dynasty. The emperor Ashoka’s rule
in Kashmir is the first great landmark in the history of
Kashmir. A deputy on behalf of Ashoka, who had his
seat of government in Taxila, governed it. Ashoka built
the original town of Srinagar, at a site three miles above
the existing capital, now occupied by a small village
called Pandrethan, ‘Old Capital’ (Puranadhisthana).30
Buddhism spread in Kashmir in his reign that lingered
on in the valley right up to the time of Kalhana. He also
built many Viharas and stupas in the valley. Ashoka was
succeeded by Jalauka whom kalhana has stated son of the
former. However, in Indian history there is no mention
of son of Ashoka by that name; therefore Jaulauka was
probably a native king.31During Asoka’s later years,
Malechas, probably the restless Mongolians harassed
the country. However, his successor succeeded to bring
the conclusions with the foreign depredators. At first he
opposed Buddhism but later he was friendly to Buddhists.
He is said to have conquered Kanauj and Gandhara, and
brought professional people from those parts to settle in
Kashmir. He established a constitutional government
with seven main state officials and eighteen departments
of state to administer the country.32 Damodra II who was
transformed into a snake succeeded Jalauka because of
his refusal once to give them food.
In about CE 15 Kadphises I, chieftain of the Kushan
clan of the Yueh-Chi tribe, welded together the divided
30 Stein, M. A., Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, Vol. I, Delhi, 2009, pp. 74-75.
31 Smith, Vincent A. Early History of India, New Delhi, 1999, pp. 191-92,
3rded.
32 Bazaz, Prem Nath, The History of Struggle for freedom in Kashmir,
Srinagar, 2009, 3rd ed., pp. 11-12.
tribe and conquered Afghanistan. He was succeeded by

his son Kadphises II, who captured North-Western India
as for as Banares. Kanishka succeeded him in CE 78 and
extended his empire as far south as the Vindhyas and
upper Sindh and Kashmir too. He was a Buddhist by faith
and had his capital at Peshawar. He constructed numerous
monuments in Kashmir and under his patronage, fourth
Council of Buddhist Church was held, which carried on
its deliberations in Kashmir in about 100 CE and drew
up the Northern Canon or ‘Greater Vehicle of the Law’.
The greatest Bodhisattva, Nagarjuna, lived in his time
at Harwan.33 His son Huvishka succeeded Kanishka in
123 CE who laid the foundation of Havishkapur (Modern
Ushkura). His rule lasted till about 140CE He was
succeeded by Vasudeva famous by the name of Jushka.
He died in about 178 CE, when the Kushan rule came to
end in Kashmir but continued in Kabul and Punjab till
the Hun invasion in 5th century CE Jushka was succeded
by Abhimanyu in whose reign Buddhism received a
check in Kashmir. Gonanda III, the founder of Gonandya
Dynasty, followed Abhimanyu. He was against Buddhism
and revived Brahmanism. Sixth king in this line known
as Nara is said to have burnt thousands of Viharas, and
Buddhism started declining steadily in Kashmir.34
33 Sufi, G.M.D. Islamic Culture in Kashmir, New Delhi, 1979, p.20. Shali,
S.L. Kashmir: History and Archaeology Through the Ages, New Delhi, 1993,
pp. 131-135. Harwan identified as Shadarhadvana (forest of six Saints).
34 Stein, M. A., Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, Vol. I, Delhi, 2009, p. 76.
CHAPTER
3
Neolithic Culture
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries Danish

scholars P. F. Suhm and Christian Thomsen put forward
the idea of “Three Age System”. In this idea there was an
age of “Stone tools”, followed by “Bronze Age” and then
third “Iron Age”. In 1863, John Lubbock divided the Stone
Age into two parts, he termed them the Palaeolithic and
Neolithic, in his book Prehistoric Times. A few years later,
Edouard Lartet suggested the division of the Palaeolithic
into the lower, middle, and upper Palaeolithic, largely on
the basis of changes in fauna associated with the different
tool types. The use of the term Mesolithic is relatively
recent, which has been put between Palaeolithic and
Neolithic.
The Indian stone age is divided into the Palaeolithic,
Mesolithic, and Neolithic on the basis of Geological age,
the type and technology of stone tools, and subsistence
base. The Palaeolithic is further divided into the lower,
middle, and upper Palaeolithic. A general time range for
the lower Palaeolithic is from about 2 million years ago
to 100,000 years ago, the middle Palaeolithic from about
100,000 to 40,000 years ago, and the upper Palaeolithic

from about 40,000 to 10,000 years ago. However, there is a
great deal of variation in the dates for different sites. The
Palaeolithic cultures belong to the Pleistocene geological
era, while the Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures belong
to the Holocene era. The calibrated range of dates from
various Mesolithic sites in Indian sub-continent the time
period for Mesolithic s given between 9900 BCE to 4000
BCE.
The World’s first agricultural villages emerged in c.
8000-6000 BCE in West Asia where wheat and Barley
was cultivated and animals like sheep and goat were
domesticated. In Indian sub-continent the food producing
agricultural societies emerged from 7000-2000 BCE.
Table 3.1 explains the basic features of the different
phases of the Stone Age, it also tends to over-simplify
matters. The ‘typical Indian tool types’ column in the table
indicates the tools that are considered characteristic of
that particular phase. It is easier to identify and describe
stone tools than to know whether, or to what extent, a
community was producing its food through plant or animal
domestication. Sometimes, there is insufficient data to
reach a conclusion. Finally, there is the issue of overlap.
Although there are some ‘pure’ Neolithic sites in India,
early agricultural sites frequently show an intermixture
of neoliths with copper and copper-alloyed objects.
Table 3.1: Important features of the Stone Age.
Terminology Stone Tool Types Subsistance

Lower Pebble and Core Tools Hunting and
Palaeolithic (Hand axes, Chopper- Gathering
Chopping tools)
Middle Hand axes with Flake Hunting and
Palaeolithic tools Gathering
Neolithic Culture ◄ 33
Terminology Stone Tool Types Subsistance

Upper Blade tools made on Hunting and
Palaeolithic flakes Gathering
Mesolithic Microliths Hunting,
Gathering,
Fishing and
instances of
domestication
Neolithic Ground and polished Agriculture
Celts
The term Neolithic continues to be used with different
qualifying phrases like stone-using agriculturalists,
sedentary living farming communities or the like. In, ‘A
Dictionary of Archaeology’, Neolithic has been defined
as the term used to describe the last phase of Stone Age
culture, which started at differing times in different
regions of the world.1 It was associated with the polished
stones tools, agriculture, the domestication of animals,
use of pottery and sedentary life. Different scholars
have different point of views and offered different
definitions regarding the term Neolithic, but all revolve
round the same interpretation. Polished and ground
stone tools played an important role in the development
of agricultural economy. Farming on the other hand
put firm foundation of the domestication of cattle by
providing fodder, which increased the supply of meat and
milk and reduced dependence on hunting. Hence, man
lived in sedentary habitations, manufactured pottery
and other associated things. Most of the scholars believe
that the Neolithic life was a part of long process, which
began in early phases and was not an abrupt change. We
can say that the progress in the Neolithic period was a
1 Shaw, Ian, Jameson, Robert, (eds), A Dictionary of Archaeology, Oxford,
pp. 421-22.
slow process, an evolution and a transformation of living

pattern.
Characteristic Features of Neolithic Culture

Domestication of animals and plants or agriculture
has been considered as one of the main characteristic
features of Neolithic stage of culture all over the world.
One can identify Neolithic Culture by observing the
following characteristic traits:
i. Practice of Agriculture and use of agricultural
technology,
ii. Domestication of Animals,
iii. Grinding and Polishing of Stone tools,
iv. Use of Bone tools,
v. The Manufacture of Pottery,
vi. The emergence of village communities based on
Sedentary life,
vii. Construction of dwelling structures,
viii. Greater use and control over Natural resources.
CHAPTER
4
Neolithic Cultures in India
The studies show that the Neolithic phase in Indian

subcontinent did not develop everywhere at the same
time nor ended simultaneously. The Neolithic cultures
in different geographical regions have their own
distinctive features and chronological time span. These
Neolithic cultures exhibit some regional variations
and are conditioned by their own geographical and
environmental settings, and therefore need to be
discussed separately.
Different scholars have classified the Neolithic
cultures of India into different regions or provinces, but
keeping in view their distinction from each other, no two
scholars agree on one classification. However, it seems
these divisions are meant to provide a suitable framework
for future research and might provide possibilities of
studying the relationship between the cultures and
their environment. In addition, the division of these
Neolithic regions is tentative and subject to revision.
B.K. Thapar, has divided Neolithic cultures of Indian
subcontinent into six geographical regions,1 including,

(i) Northern, covering Kashmir; (ii) North Western,
covering, Baluchistan, Swat and the contiguous areas of
upper Sind valley in west Pakistan; (iii) Central-eastern,
covering Chota-Nagpur plateau with its peneplains in
various districts of U.P., Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal;
(iv) North-eastern, covering Assam, Chittagong and
the sub-Himalayan regions including Darjeeling; (v)
North Bihar, covering, district saran; and (vi) Southern,
covering peninsular India.
However, Purushottam Singh has taken into account
every viewpoint, has consulted recent data on the
subject, and has proposed the following classification
of the Neolithic cultures of Indian sub-continent. His
classification contains seven geographical regions2
including, (i) Northwestern India including Kashmir and
Swat valleys; (ii) the Vindhyan plateau, comprising the
Belan valley; (iii) the Kaimur Hills and the Chhotanagpur
plateau; (iv) the Mid-eastern region, covering the Neolithic
Bihar district of Saran; (v) the North eastern region of
Assam (Assam complex), covering Assam and adjacent
sub-Himalayan regions; (vi) the Central eastern region
(Bihar, Bengal, Orissa complex), covering Chhotanagpur
with its peneplains extending to West Bengal and Orissa;
and (vii) the Southern region covering peninsular India.
The general characteristic features of the Neolithic
cultures in each of the seven regions are summarized
below:
1 Thapar, B.K., ‘Problems of Neolithic Culture in India: a Retrospect, in

Puratattva, No. 7, New Delhi, 1974-75, 61-65. And ‘Fresh Light on the
Neolithic Cultures of India’ in Puratattva No. 13 and 14, New Delhi, 1983-
84, p. 247. In this paper he has omitted North-Western region of Pakistan.
2 Singh, Purushottam, ‘The Neolithic Cultures of Northern and Eastern
India’, in Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Vol. I, S. Setter and Korisettar,
Ravi, Eds., New Delhi, 2002, pp. 131-132.
Neolithic Cultures in India ◄ 37
4.1. North-Western Region

The Neolithic culture in the North-western region
of the Indian sub-continent is represented by the sites
including Mehrgarh, Kili Ghul Muhammad, Rana
Ghundai, etc in Baluchistan; and Gumla, Rehman
Dheri, Tarai Kai Qilla Sarai Khola etc. in North-western
Frontier Provinces. The earliest evidence of Neolithic
culture in Indian subcontinent, marked by cereal
cultivation and domestication of animals, was obtained
from Northwestern region.
Dwellings
There were different types of structures found at
various sites in Northwestern region, where people resided
during Neolithic period. The first farming communities
in the aceramic Neolithic stage lived in rectangular
one-room houses of smaller size and then multi-roomed
houses of mud-bricks with storage units were made.3 At
Mehrgarh, Neolithic people lived in mud-brick houses,
which were found small in the beginning and bigger in
the later levels. These houses had also attached cell-like
compartments, which might have been used for storage of
grains. The mud-bricks used in the house building were
of regular size with finger impressions and the houses
were divided into small rooms with assigned places for
fire.4 At Kili Ghul Muhammad and the sites associated
with it, mud-brick structures with hearths, ovens for
baking and granaries with six-roomed and sometimes
nine-roomed units were discovered. Wells were also
found between the houses. At Sarai Khola excavations
3 Singh, Purushottam, ‘The Neolithic Culture of Northern and Eastern

India’ in Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Vol. I, S. Setter and Korisettar,
Ravi, Eds., New Delhi, 2002, p. 132.
4 Habib, Irfan, Prehistory, New Delhi, 2001, p. 51.
have revealed the presence of several pit-dwellings also.5

The Neolithic people used huts made of pise, wattle and
daub and pebble layers were used as foundations for
walls and a rubble layer between two mud-brick layers
was also found. In Anjira, a site in central Baluchistan,
house walls of river boulders were found, so, stones were
also used in house architecture.6
Tool Technology
The North-western culture has yielded a pre-ceramic
assemblage represented by stone and bone tools like awls
or points, chert blades and scrapers, pecked and ground
stone objects, containers perhaps of baskets etc. Almost
all sites contained varieties of Neolithic tools including,
querns, mortars, grinding stones, bowls, pestles along
with chipped stone blades etc. At Mehrgarh, earliest
tools for harvesting in the sub-continent were found in
the shape of hafted sickle blades of stone, set in pieces
of bitumen matrix to form a saw-like cutting edge were
found. A man buried with a Neolithic axe, flint cores,
flint microliths and chipped blades showed continuous
use of microliths. A foot-shaped clay figurine colored with
ochre, few animal figurines in clay and a curious cylinder
bead in terracotta have been found, which show the
aesthetic sense and artistic zeal of the Neolithic people of
Northwestern India. Kili Ghul Muhammad is represented
by ground stone and chipped chert industry including
blades, scrappers, choppers, etc. made of generally a
dull tan chert, occasionally jasper and chalcedony. The
techniques of pecking and grinding were used in making
hammer-stones, ring-stones, querns and grinding stones.
etc. The stone implements show similarities with those
5 Allchin, Bridget and Allchin, Raymond, The Rise of Civilization in India
and Pakistan, New Delhi, 1983, pp. 101-110.
6 Ibid, p. 102.
found in Iran and Central-Asia, as geographically Iran is

nearest region.7 Besides the bone and stone tools, a small-
perforated pendant of lead, beads in steatite, lapis-lazuli,
frit, copper bead, cornelian, turquoise beads, bangles
of conch shells etc. have been found there. These semi-
precious stones have distant sources like Badakhshan,
Turkmenia and trapezes match with those of Djeitun
culture as identified by the scholars. This also suggests
there were trading activities8 in the period under
discussion.
Pottery
The period-I of the Northwestern Neolithic culture
was aceramic and pottery came in the period-II. In the
beginning, ill-shaped but serviceable sun-dried clay pots
were made. Then baskets were used as moulds for clay
pots and were fired to give strength to the pots. At the
end of period-II wheel was used to make pottery, which
was imported from west Asia.9 At some of the sites of
Baluchistan, distinctive pottery both hand-made and
wheel thrown, decorated with black or red painted
designs including simple geometric motifs was found.
The pottery was of fine buff ware often with burnished
red-slip including both plain and decorated shreds. The
pottery was made in different shapes and forms. With
the passing of time it had developed from monochrome
to bicolor and even decorated with various colours. The
pottery at Gumla, Lewan and Mehrgarh is course red-
brown frequently burnished with a limited range of types
either hand-made or built on a simple turntable. Some
pottery shows additional gritty sand to the outer surface
7 Asthana, Shashi, History of Archaeology of India’s Contacts with Other

Countries, New Delhi, 1976, pp. 72 & 80.
8 Allchin, Bridget, Allchin Raymond, op.cit.,New Delhi, 1984, pp. 101-107.
9 Habib, Irfan, op. cit., new Delhi, 2001, p. 54.
with coiled mat impressions on the bases of the pots.10 The

pottery at Sarai Khola, located in the Potwar plateau is
highly burnished and red in colour. The pottery found at
Kili Ghul Muhammad in period-III is wheel made pottery
with the designs of black triangles and oblique painted
in black on a red surface, called black-on-red ware. The
main shapes are open bowls, and rim-less barrel shaped
jars.11
Subsistence Economy
In the Indus system, the Neolithic settlements
represented by Mehrgarh and the sites associated with it
had a great potential of agriculture, where the wheat and
barley would have grown in the alluvial soil after floods.
Northwestern region has given the earliest evidence yet
available for settled agriculture in the subcontinent.12
The presence of agriculture is attested by the finds of
seeds, which included naked six-row barley and its sub-
species like hulled six-row, and two-row barley and
various species of wheat. The identifiable impressions of
barley and wheat seeds on the bricks in the excavations
showed that barley was produced in bulk. Among the
fruits, mention may be made of grapes, ziziphus fruit,
and date palm. Besides cotton seeds were also found
there.13 In addition to agriculture, another important and
allied means of subsidence was animal domestication.
The animal bones of Bos species and water buffalo in
majority, as well as sheep, goat, ass, oxen, even with
10 Allchin, Bridget, Allchin Raymond, op.cit.,New Delhi, 1984, pp. 102
and 110.
11 Agrawal, D.P., op. cit., New Delhi, 1984, p.94.
12 Allchin, Bridget, Allchin Raymond, op.cit.,New Delhi, 1984, pp. 100-
108.
India’, in Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Vol. I, S.Setter and Korisettar,
Ravi, Eds., New Delhi, 2002, pp.132-133.
many other wild species have been found. The presence

of terracotta net sinkers at Sarai Khola suggests that
fishing also formed an element of subsistence economy.
Disposal of Dead
At Mehrgarh, two groups of graves were found near
residential houses, in which bodies were laid on their
sides, in a contracted position. The graves contained
beads, baskets with bitumen coating, bone points and
awls, stone blades, stone axes etc. Two burials without
grave goods were also found but with a covering of red-
ochre on the bones. Such graves show a contact with
that of Central-Asia.14 The Northwestern Neolithic
people buried their dead leaving with them beads of
steatite, carnelian, lapis-lazuli, bangles of conch shells
and slaughtered animals. The use of red-ochre and
slaughtered animals in the graves show considerable use
of rituals and imply beliefs in life after death. In addition,
the study of skeletons and teeth have showed there was
no single race and the first farmers had affinities with
South and South-east-Asian people rather than the west
Asian people.15
Chronology
Chronologically, the Neolithic cultures of North-
western region are assigned to a time bracket from the
eighth millennium BCE to mid-fourth millennium BCE16
These cultures are divided and sub-divided into number
of periods and sub-periods to mark out the change and
continuity in the technology, subsistence patterns, and
socio-economic spheres.
14 Allchin, Bridget, Allchin Raymond, op.cit.,New Delhi, 1984, pp. 105-108.

15 Habib, Irfan, op. cit., New Delhi, 2001, pp. 52-55.
16 Setter, S., Korisetter, Ravi, Eds. Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Vol. I,
New Delhi, 2002, p. 132.
4.2. Northern Neolithic Region

Northern Neolithic culture is represented by Kashmir
Neolithic settlements. The characteristic features of
Kashmir Neolithic region are discussed in detail in next
unit of this chapter as ‘Neolithic Culture of Kashmir’.
4.2.1. Swat Valley

The main excavated sites in Swat valley include
Loebanr and Kalako-deray. At both the sites pit dwellings
similar to Burzuhom were found. Some scholars believe
that these pits were used as grain stores and it was a
semi-sedentary culture. The artifacts collected from this
region include Black-Grey burnished ware in the shapes
of jars, with rippled rim, burnished high neck vessel of
bottles, large bowls with flaring sides etc. A rectangular
holed sickle with double perforation polished stone axes
and a hammer axe, made of granite and grinding slabs of
schist and mortars are the stone artifacts from the region.
Humped bulls of fired clay were also found there.17 Some
of these artifacts show that agriculture and animals were
the main source of food.
4.2.2. Siwalik Region

There are a number of Neolithic sites situated in the
Siwaliks in the sub-Himalayan region. Which include
sites in Jammu on River Chinab, Ravi, Tarnah and Ben,
and in Himachal Pradesh on the river Bangara and Beas.
None of these sites have been excavated but Neolithic
artifacts like polished celts, ring stones, axes, chisels
of different shapes and sizes were found. There is no
definite evidence of pottery or any other antiquity found
in association with these tools.18
17 Singh, Purushottam, ‘Neolithic cultures of Northern and East India’ in
Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Vol. I, New Delhi, 2002, p. 135.
18 Ghosh, A, Encyclopedia of Indian Archaeology, Vol. II, Delhi, 1989,p. 52.
4.3. The Vindhyan Plateau Comprising

the Belan Valley
The area covered by Neolithic culture in this
region is northern slope of the Vindhyan plateau. It
is represented by the sites like Koldhiwa, Mahagara,
Pachoh, Indari and Chopani-Mando, and unexcavated
forty identified Neolithic sites in the valley of Belan,
Adwa, Son, Rihand, Ganga, Lapari and Paisuni Rivers.
The main sites of this region include Chopani-Mando,
Koldihwa and Mahagara.
Subsistence
The Vindhyan region Neolithic culture indicates
a continuous sequence of three stages of subsistence.
Starting from the transition of food gathering and
selective hunting in Paleolithic through primitive
food producing in late Mesolithic to settled village
farming in Neolithic periods. This is the first evidence
of its kind in India, which proves that Neolithic way
of life in this region was a local development.19 The
region has yielded evidences of plant cultivation and
animal domestication. The cultivated plants include
hulled and six-rowed barley, rice, pea, green gram,
green/chiken pea, khesari, mustard, flax/linseed and
jackfruit. A large number of hoof impression of cattle
belonging to different age groups, occurring in clusters,
were recorded, which gives the idea of herding of
animals by Neolithic people of this region.20 Among the
domesticated animals, there are evidences of humped
cattle, and sheep and goat. The evidences of bone
19 Thapar, B.K., ‘Fresh Light on Neolithic Cultures of India’, in
Archaeology and History: Essays in Memory of A. Ghosh, Vol. I, Pande, B.M.,
B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Delhi, 1987, p. 249.
20 Singh, Purushottam, op. cit., p. 136.
fragments of deer, antelope, bear and bird suggest that

hunting and gathering continued.21
Tools
The artifacts recovered from the excavated sites
include ground stone tools like celts, geometric and non-
geometric microliths, blades, querns, mullers, sling-
balls, bone arrowheads, terracotta beads, and animal
bones. Besides the above-mentioned sites, Neolithic Celts
were found in Bande, Hamirpur, Jhansi, Lalitpur etc. of
Bundelkhand region in explorations.
These comprise polished stone axes with pointed butt
made of basalt, epidiorite and dolerite. The pointed butt
axe with a triangular shape is the most common tool type
found in this Neolithic region, so typologically it resemble
with south Indian Neolithic culture.22
Pottery
Four wares comprising rusticated, cord-impressed,
burnished red and burnished black wares represent
the Neolithic pottery; all are handmade and ill fired.
However, the most distinctive pottery of this culture is
hand-made from coarse clay with cord-impressions.
It is poorly backed and has cord designs on the
external surface. Other wares of this culture are black
and red ware, black slipped ware with occasional painting
in white, and slipped plain red ware. The main vessel
shapes are bowls, basins, vases, and dishes.23
21 Misra, V.N., ‘Prehistoric Human Colonization of India’, in Journal of

Bioscience, Vol. 26, no. 4, (Suppl.), 2001, p.510.
22 Singh, Purushottam, op. cit., 2002, pp. 135-136.
23 Misra, V.N., ‘Prehistoric Human Colonization of India’, in Journal of
Bioscience, Vol. 26, no. 4, (Suppl.), 2001, p.510.
Dwellings
The Neolithic people of this region lived in huts
with wattle and daub screens of reed and bamboo. It
was identified by the discovery of twenty hut floors and
post-holes. Some of these were planned in a circular
fashion. Discovery of large number of hoof marks and
the presence of post-holes for fencing suggest that there
was a cattle-pen. It is estimated from the hoof-marks
and post-holes that it could have accommodated more
than 50 animals.24
Chronology
The chronology of this culture shows variations. Some
scholars believe that, the Neolithic culture at Koldihwa
goes back to 6000 BCE Bridget and Raymond Allchin has
placed its chronology between 4000 BCE to 2500 BCE25
The C14 dates obtained from the Neolithic deposits are
seventh-fifth millennium BCE.26
4.3.1. The Kaimur Hills

A group of Neolithic settlements are located on the
Kaimur foothills in the Rohtas district. Of these the
habitation site of Senuwar situated on the right bank
of Kudra River, revealed a pure Neolithic culture in the
sub-period IA. The main features of this Neolithic region
are as under:
1. The Neolithic region comprises cord-impressed
pottery, Rusticated ware and burnished-Red and
Grey wares. The art of pottery making, in its
surface treatment improved and post-firing ochre
24 Thapar, B.K., op.cit., p. 250
25 Allchin, B. and Allchin Raymond, Origins of Civilization: The Prehistory
and early Archaeology of South-Asia, New Delhi, 1997, p. 94.
26 P. Singh, op. cit., p.136.
colour paintings on burnished grey ware had

improved in sub-period IB.
2. Along with microliths like bladelets, blades, flakes
of chert, chalcedony, and quartzite, other stone
artifacts including Celts of basalt, Pestles, saddle
querns, sling balls of different sizes and rubber
stones were found there.
3. In the succeeding phase fishhooks, wire and
needles of copper were recovered.
4. The early farmers of this culture cultivated two
crops a year, which include rice, barley, field pea,
and lentils as revealed by carbonized grains found
there.
5. The inhabitants lived in huts made of reeds with
well-rammed floors were also found there.
6. On the basis of radiocarbon dates the beginning
of sub-period IA fixed to the latter half of third
millennium BCE and the lower levels of sub-phase
IB has been dated between 1770 and 1400 BCE.27
4.4. Middle Eastern Region

The important sites reported from the mid-eastern-
region are Narhan on the banks of River Saryu; Imlidih
on the stream Kuwana; and Sohgaura on river Rapti U.P.;
and Chirand in district Sarhan, on the banks of river
Ganga, and Teradih and Senuwar in Bihar. Among these
Chirand may be taken as representative site, because it
has revealed a rich Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age
cultural material. It was for the first time, such a full-
fledged Neolithic culture was discovered in Gangatic
basin in 1968.
27 Ibid, pp. 136-137.

Structures
At Chirand there were some indications of dwelling
pits,28 which may have been roofed over because traces
of postholes were exposed in the excavation. In the later
phases, they would have lived on ground level, because
such type of floors with reed and walls plastered with
mud were found. A circular floor and a semi-circular hut
with several oblong ovens were also found. The ovens
were probably for community occasions as suggested by
their number. Burnt chunks of clay with reed of bamboo
impressions were also found, which suggest that the
houses perished in destructive fire.29
Subsistence
The Neolithic People of Chirand practiced plant
cultivation and animal domestication. The people knew the
cultivation of rice as paddy husk impressions were found
on burnt clay pieces. It was further substantiated by the
discovery of charred rice, wheat, moong, masoor and barley.
The knowledge of these plant foods suggests that the
people were raising two crops a year. The discovery of large
number of bones of animals, birds, and fish and clusters of
fish scales suggest that they consumed flesh also. Neolithic
people of Chirand were familiar with elephant, rhinos,
buffalo, ox, stag, and deer, as the bones of these animals
have been found there. They also ate river shells and snails
as their remains have been found there in great number.30
Tool Technology
After Burzuhom, this Neolithic region has yielded
a good collection of bone and antler objects including
28 Verma, B.S., ‘Excavations at Chirand: New Light on the Indian
Neolithic culture-complex’ in Puratattva, No. 4, 1970-71, pp. 21-22.
29 Verma, B.S., op. cit.new Delhi, 1970-71, p. 22.
30 Verma, B.S., op. cit. New Delhi, 1970-71, p. 22.
needles, scrapers, borers, points, pins, tanged and

socketed arrowheads, awls, diggers, hammers, shaft-
straightner, styli, etc. but the tool typology is different.
The Neolithic people also made bone ornaments such
as pendants, earrings, bangles, discs, and combs. The
people knew the technique of producing many types of
bone tools and ornaments even drilling big holes in some
objects. The tool types found with the rectangular cross-
section, suggest its contact with Southeast Asia through
Assam.31 The other Neoliths found were polished celts,
querns, balls and other rectangular tools. The rocks used
as raw material for making tools were quartzite, basalt,
and granite. In addition, microliths were an integral part
of this Neolithic culture as in south India, which include
micro parallel-sided blades, scrapers, arrowheads,
serrated points, notched blades, points, lunates, borers,
etc. The material used for making these tools was
chalcedony, chert, agate, jasper, etc. a good number of long
tubular, long barrel, short barrel, cylindrical, triangular,
disc shaped beads with excellent finish, of chalcedony,
agate, jasper, marble, steatite, faience, etc. have been
also recovered . Some of the beads were unfinished which
indicate that these were locally manufactured.32 They
employed chipping, pecking, grinding, and polishing
techniques to fabricate these artifacts.33
Different types of terracotta figurines including
humped bull, bird figurines, naga figurines, bangles,
beads, punctured decorated objects, balls, rectangular
pendants with decorations, a small perforated stem,
wheels, discs with holes used as spindle whorls etc., were
found there.
31 Asthana, Shashi, History of Archaeology of India’s Contacts with other

Countries, Delhi, 1976, p. 76.
32 Verma, B.S., op. cit. New Delhi, 1970-71, pp. 19-20.
33 Agrawal, D.P., The Archaeology of India, New Delhi, 1984, p. 107.
Ceramics
Mainly red-ware was found in abundance, although
grey, black, and black-and-red ware was also used. The
inverted fire technique was used to produce the black
and red ware. A good number of pots had fine lustrous
burnishing on the outer surfaces and rough and brushed
inner surfaces. The ceramics of this period are handmade
with a few instances of turntable make also. The
principal pottery types included vase with broad mouth,
narrow neck and spouted vase, lipped bowl, perforated
bowl, footed bowl, oval bowl, bowl with stand, etc., vases,
jars, spoons or ladles and knobbed pottery. Decorations
consisted of post firing painted designs in the form of
criss-cross and wavy lines and circles. Painting of red
ochre on grey ware and rarely on other wares was also
found. Mat impressions were found on few pot shreds,34
Chronology
The Neolithic culture of mid-Eastern area has been
dated between 2000 and 1300 BCE.35
4.5. North-Eastern Neolithic Region

The North-eastern Neolithic zone or ‘Assam Region’
comprising Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura and Mizoram, the region
with numerous hill ranges covered with thick forests
and heavy and continuous rainfall. The excavated sites
include, Daojali Hading and Salbalgiri (Garo hills) in the
north Chachar hills of Assam, Sarutaru and Marakdola on
the Shilong plateau, Kamla valley of Arunachal Pradesh
34 Verma, B.S., op. cit. New Delhi, 1970-71, p. 21.

35 Sundara, A., ‘A Cultural Ecology of The Neolithic in India’, in Recent
Advances in Indian Archaeology; Proceedings of Seminar held in Poona, S.B.
Deo, and K. Paddayya, Eds., 1983, p. 44.
and Phunam hills of Manipur. The general features of

the Neolithic Assam complex are as under:
Tools and Implements

The stone assemblage comprise of ground and polished
stone industry, microliths, flake and blade industry and
chipped stone axe industry. Polished stone axes, ground
stone celts made of slate and sandstone were found there.
The other stone tools comprised harvester, knife, axes,
adzes, and single and double perforated celts mostly made
of schist, shale, and basalt.36 Shouldered celts and cord
impressed pottery are the characteristic features of North
eastern Neolithic culture. These artifacts are suggestive
of the relationship between Northeastern India and
South East Asian countries in Neolithic period.37
Ceramics
The different types of hand-made wares found at
different sites include cord-impressed pottery, incised
pottery, and plain fine red ware. At Daojali Harding of
Assam. Kamla valley of Arunachal Pradesh is represented
by coarse ware; cord-impressed coarse red ware; stamped
coarse brown/red ware; stamped buff ware; coarse fine
buff ware and plain brown ware. At Phunam hills of
Manipur plain wares, incised wares; cord-impressed
wares; wares with circular spots and applique ware were
found.38 There is evidence of wheel-turned pottery of fine
Kaolin clay at Ambari site in Assam.

India’, in Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Vol. I, S. Setter and Ravi, K.,
Eds., New Delhi, 2002, pp. 138-139.
37 Hazarika, Manjali, ‘Neolithic Culture of North-Eastern India: A Recent
perspective on the origin of Pottery and Agriculture’, in Ancient Asia;
Journal of Society of South-Asian Archaeology, Vol. I, London, 2006, p. 27.
38 Ibid, p. 20.
Agriculture
There is no full proof evidence of agriculture in this
region. However, it is believed that probably domestication
of native indica rice may have been practiced in Northeast
India. In addition, there are four species of wild rice in
Assam region, which gives evidence of the origin of rice as
it is supposed that the cultivated species have developed
from certain types of wild rice.39
Dwellings
Neolithic people of Northeastern region lived in Mud-
walled houses.
Correlations
Varieties of tools in the Khasi hills are typologically
Southeast Asian. The tangled celts, quadrangular axes,
chisels, etc. of jadeite, shale, and sandstone in Lakhimpur
district of Assam are imports from Burma, because of the
material used. The cord impressed red ware shreds from
Cachar hills and stone implements have been suggested
to belong to Szechwan region of China and East Asia.40
Chronology: The Neolithic culture of Northeast
India has been dated between 2500 BCE to1500 BCE but
Ambiri culture has been dated from CE 700 to 1200.41
4.6. Central Eastern Region

Central Eastern Neolithic region, include West
Bengal, Parts of Bihar, Orissa complex and Chhotanagpur
39 Ibid, p. 7.
40 Asthana, Shashi, op.cit.,Delhi, 1976, p. 74. D.P. Agrawal, has connected
these Neolithic finds to Chinese Neolithic culture and Hoabinhian of
Thailand. The Archaeology of India, 1984, New Delhi, p.106.
41 Agrawal, D.P., et. al., South Asian Prehistory: A Multidisciplinary Study,
New Delhi, 2002, p. 213.Agrawal, D.P., The Archaeology of India, New
Delhi, 1984, p. 110
with its peneplains. The main excavated sites in this

region comprise of Dungrabusti, Sindhibong, Bagridibhi
in Midnapur district of West Bengal. The sites in
Susunia hill, and Purulia, Ajay, Kunoor and river valleys
of Burdwan and Birbhum districts in the deltaic region
of Ajay and Bhagirathi. Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi, Mahisdal,
Nanur, Haripur etc. are some other sites in Bengal. The
Orissa Neolithic complex is represented by the excavated
site like Kuchai and explored sites in Mayurbhanj
district. The Neolithic culture of this region seems to
have maintained closer contact with Chalcolithic Deccan
and Bihar, and Northeast India and Southeast Asia
respectively as evident from tool typology.42 The main
features of this region are as follows:
i. The main tool types found in West Bengal include
polished stone axes, triangular axes, ring stones,
shouldered celts, few bone tools, microliths
and beads of semi-precious stones. In Orissa,
triangular axes with rounded butt, faceted hoes,
chisels, mace heads, pounders and grinding stones
were reported.
ii. In This Region plain and painted pottery, coarse
grit tempered red ware, sometimes slipped
and occasionally bearing incised and fingertip
decorations were found. The forms include bowls
and the Kundra.
iii. The inhabitants lived in houses made of reeds and
bamboo.
iv. Evidences of domesticated rice were also obtained
from Baidyapur Neolithic site,43 and there is direct
evidence of animal domestication too.
42 Asthana, Shashi, op. cit., p. 75.

43 Singh, Purushottam, op. cit., New Delhi, 2002, p. 140.
4.7. The Southern Neolithic Culture

Geographically, the South Indian Neolithic culture
encompasses the region drained by the Ponniar, Kaveri,
Tungabhadra and lower Krishna rivers, comprising
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh states. The
main excavated sites representing this culture include
Kodekal, Utnur, Nagarjunakonda, Palavoy, etc. in
Andhra Pradesh; Tekkalakota, Piklihal, Maski, Terdal,
T. Narsipur, Sangankulla, Kupgal, Hallur, Brahmagiri,
Hemmige, etc. in Karnataka; and Paiyampalli in Tamil
Nadu. The Neolithic occupation at most of these sites is
divisible into two phases based on use of distinguished
artifacts.44 The main features of this culture complex are
discussed as under:
Tools and Technology

The South Indian Neolithic tool technology is
characterized by pecked and ground stone industry,
blade and microlith Industry, bone tool industry and
copper and bronze tools in comparatively scarce number.
Pecked and Ground Stone Industry is characterized by
a variety of tools with grounded edges, which include,
axes, adzes, wedges, chopper-chopping tools, scrapers,
chisels etc. There are various varieties in axes and their
techniques of fabrication, but the most common being
the axe, which have triangular shape, oval cross section
and round-pointed butt. The other types associated
with this industry comprise tools like hammers, sling
stones, rubbers, querns, grooved hammer stones, mace
heads, and anvils and so on. Pointed tools include borers
and picks. Most of these tools were used in agricultural
44 Agrawal, D.P., op. cit. New Delhi, 1984, p. 110. Reddy, Rami, ‘South
Indian Neolithic Culture Seen in Retrospect’ in East and West, Vol. 35, No.
1/3, 1985, p. 59.
and domestic activities and some might have been used

as tool producing implements. The neoliths of this
industry were made of igneous, metamorphic rocks
like basalt or dolerite, diorite, granite, epidote granite,
green stone, schist, gneiss, quartz and quartzite. The
techniques of manufacture consist of flaking, pecking,
and grinding.45
Blade and Microlithic Industry consists of various
types of blades, lunates, triangles, points, scrapers,
etc., made of siliceous rocks, like chert, chalcedony,
jasper, agate, opal and quartz, prepared through
crested guiding ridge technique. These blades are
different from that of found in Mesolithic period and
Chalcolithic period. The Neolithic people must have
used these microliths on compound tools by hafting
method for harvesting the crops, for cutting animal
flesh, vegetables, fruits etc.
Bone Tool Industry is reported from various sites but
very less in number. The bone tools comprised of awls,
points, scrapers, antlers used as handles, axe-heads,
blades, chisels, etc. These tools might have been used
different functions like skinning, scrapping, cutting of
hides, removing flesh from bones etc.
Copper and Bronze objects have been found at various
sites of South Indian Neolithic region but in a meager
number. These artifacts include circular rods, flat axes,
a copper chisel, fishhooks, an arrowhead, a spiral, a
bent wire, beads, rings, a sword, a nail head and a non-
descriptive piece.46
45 Reddy, Rami, ‘South Indian Neolithic Culture Seen in Retrospect’ in

East and West, Vol. 35, No. 1/3, 1985, p. 59.
46 Korisettar, Ravi, et. al., ‘Brahmagiri and Beyond: The Archaeology
of Southern Neolithic’, in Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Vol. I, Eds. S.
Settar and Ravi Korisettar, New Delhi, 2002, p. 186.
Pottery
The pottery used by the people in the early phase
of this Neolithic culture was found handmade except at
Maski, where wheel thrown pottery was seen. The dabber,
anvil and scrapping of the inner surface with a bunch of
grass were the techniques employed in manufacturing
pottery. Excavations have yielded grey and red wares as
the typical and common ceramics of Southern Neolithic
Culture.47
Based on surface treatment, manufacturing
techniques, shape and decoration, the three distinct
wares of pottery, which include blotchy grey, dull red, and
black on red wares have been found. At least five types
of decorations occur upon the vessels of different wares,
which include Impressed, Incised, Applique, Perforated
and Painted decorations. The Neolithic pottery was found
in various shapes and sizes and vessels can be classified
into more than 60 shapes.
The most common are shallow dishes, lipped lugged,
spouted, channel spouted; hollow footed bowls, jars, dish
on stand, perforated pots etc.48 Perforated pottery is
found at almost all the sites of the culture but in limited
quantities and in fragmentary shreds.49 Painted Black-
on-Red ware is another pottery type found at different
sites of the Southern Neolithic culture, painting was
done after firing with brownish purple colour ochre and
decorated with simple horizontal and vertical bands,
criss-cross or lattice, and plant patterns. The pots were
used for domestic function: storage, cooking, carrying
liquids and keeping other food items.
47 Korisettar, Ravi, et. al., op. cit., New Delhi, 2002, p. 179.
48 Agrawal, D.P., op. cit. New Delhi, 1984, pp. 111-113.
49 Paddayya, K., ‘On the Form and Function of Perforated Pottery of
Deccan Neolithic Culture’, in Man, New Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1969, p. 450.
Ornaments
The ornaments found in this region include beads of
steatite, shell, terracotta, agate, amethyst, carnelian,
chalcedony, coral, paste, argillite, greenstone and bone.
The beads were disc-shaped, wheel-shaped, circular,
etc. Gold beads and two earrings or pendants were also
found. Copper ornaments like spirals and bangles were
also reported. The steatite beads resemble with that of
Harappan beads but they were produced locally as the
limestones in this region are rich in steatite. Even agate
and chert is present in Tungabhadra shingle beds.50
Terracotta Objects
Many sites have yielded terracotta objects in the shape
of figurines of bull, human torso, sheep or pig, lamps, dabber
discs, fragments of pedestal, legs of vessels, lids etc.
Economy
The subsistence economy of the people was based on
animal husbandry supplemented by farming or it was
an agro-pastoral economy. Bones of cattle, cow, buffalo,
sheep, goat, pig, fowl and dog were found at various
sites. Cattle played an important role in the economy
of the Neolithic people as is evident by the burnt cow
dung or Ash mounds, animal terracotta figurines, etc.
The Neolithic people also cultivated a variety of crops on
hilltops and in small valleys between the hills. The main
crops cultivated were millets, horse-gram, legumes, date
palm, and only cereals were found at one site are barely
and rice.51 In addition, fishing is evident from the copper
fish hooks found there. The zizaphus seeds indicate that
their subsistence economy was supplemented by the
50 Reddy, Rami, op. cit., pp. 56-57.
51 Ibid, pp. 47-48.
collecting method, besides fishing, hunting, trapping,

agriculture and pastoralism. Mat weaving and tool
making formed a part of their economy. Hence, it was a
mixed economy.
Neolithic Art
The art works of south Indian first food producers
survived in various forms like paintings and decorations
on pottery to terracotta figurines of birds, animals and
men to rock-carvings, bruising and paintings in rock
shelters. Various types of decorations such as incised,
perforated, impressed, combed, appliqué and red-ochre
paintings on pots from almost all sites stand testimony
to the aesthetic taste of these people for art. It helps us
to know about their skill, their attitudes, and the socio-
cultural environment in which they flourished.
Settlement Pattern
The Neolithic people of South Indian region generally
lived on the top of granite hills or hillocks, where they
used natural rock shelters and spaces covered by granite
boulders for their dwellings. They also resided on the
slopes and plains near the hills. Excavations have
indicated that generally they lived in circular huts of one
room with a low mud plinth, fortified by a split bamboo
screen with a conical thatched roof supported by wooden
posts. Hearths and storage jars were also found in all
huts.52 Pit dwellings were also found at Nagarjunakonda
which were irregular in plan and shallower in depth than
those of found in Kashmir.53 At some sites there were also
pits for throwing rubbish.
52 Agrawal, D.P., op. cit. New Delhi, 1984, p. 122.

53 Ghosh, A., Encyclopedia of Indian Archaeology, Vol. II, Delhi, 1989, p.
302.
Disposal of the Dead (Burials)

Excavations have provided a good number of graves
with skeletons and grave goods in South Indian Neolithic
sites. We have witnessed two types of burials the Pit
and the Urn burials, which are typical in the Southern
Neolithic province. Both single and double burials in
case of children (Urn burials) and multiple burials or
community burials were seen. There have evidences of
primary as well as secondary burials, i.e., inhumation of
dead body and exposure of dead body before its burial
respectively. The dead were buried in east-west direction
with the head placed towards east. The dead were
accompanied by grave goods like pottery, ornaments,
stone tools, and even headrest.54
Ashmounds
Ashmounds constitute a distinctive and debatable
feature of South Indian Neolithic cultures. Ashmounds
are the mounds of burnt cattle dung ash accumulated
because of periodical burnings. There are different
views put forward by different scholars about the origin
and nature of these ashmounds. Some consider them
as deposits of volcanic ash of remote past. Some treat
them physical remains of women who performed sati in
the medieval times. Some link them with some sort of
industrial activity such as iron and gold smelting. F. R.
Allchin, interpreted them as cattle pen areas. Further,
based on ethno-archaeological data he related cow dung
burning to some rituals or annual religious festivals.55
According to K. Paddaya, these ashmounds were ‘regular
pastoral settlements’ situated in hilly areas with limited
54 Reddy, Rami, op. cit., pp. 58-59.

55 Allchin, F.R., Neolithic Cattle Keepers of South India: A Study of Deccan
Ashmound, Cambridge, 1963, p. 175.
agricultural activities.56 The debate on this important

feature of South Indian Neolithic culture is open and
further research oriented.
Chronology
Various sites have shown different dates through
the material culture found there. A combined evidence
of dates from various sites of South Indian Neolithic
complex suggests a broad time bracket from 2335 BCE
to 1550 BCE.57
56 Paddaya, K., ‘The Problem of Ashmounds of Southern Deccan in the

Light of Recent Research’, in Recent Studies in Indian Archaeology, Ed. K.
Paddayya, New Delhi, 2002, pp. 80-111.
57 Agrawal, D.P., et. al., South Asian Prehistory: A Multidisciplinary Study,
New Delhi, 2002, p. 219.
CHAPTER
5
Neolithic Culture of Kashmir
Kashmir is a boat-shaped valley located between

Lat. 33°25’00” to 34°39’30” North and Long. 73°55’05”
to 75°36’30” East, towards the North-west of India on
an average height of 1800 meters above the sea level.
Besides its pleasant climate enchanting natural beauty,
it has a remarkable wealth of archaeological sites and
monuments belonging to the various periods from
prehistory to the Mughals.
Man had settled in Kashmir during Pleistocene epoch
as proved by the presence of lower Paleolithic tools in
Lidder Valley of Pahalgam in district Anantnag.1 The
period witnessed climatic fluctuations and the valley
remained under extreme cold and covered with snow
for longer durations. In such conditions survival of
human cultures was not easy. A new type of environment
emerged in the most recent geological epoch after
the Pleistocene known as the Holocene. It was more
comfortable for development of human culture and
1 Sankalia, H.D., ‘New Evidences of Man in Kashmir’, in Current

Anthropology, Vol. 12, Nos. 4 & 5, 1971, pp. 538-561.
Neolithic Culture of Kashmir ◄ 61
animal breeds because of warmer climatic conditions.

In Kashmir, humans lived on the flat open Karewas, in
a much advanced prehistoric stage termed as Neolithic
culture. The Neolithic Culture in the Kashmir Valley is
represented by more than three dozen sites, all located
on the elevated flats of the karewas, often overlooking
streams and lakes. Of all these sites only two, Burzoham
and Gufkral have been excavated, the former extensively
and the latter partially. The main features of Neolithic
culture of Kashmir represented by the two excavated
sites are discussed as under.
5.1 Burzahom
The earliest Kashmiris lived on the Karewa at
Burzahom (Lat. 30°10’ N and Long. 74°30’ E)2 district
Srinagar, located 16 kms northwest of city of Srinagar
about 1800 meters above sea level. The site is situated on
the west of village Burzuhom, surrounded by Mahadev
hill on the north-east, on north side by Yenderhom
village, on the west Batapora village and on the south
cultivated fields. The Karewa mound was first noticed
by H. de Terra and T.T. Peterson in 1935, who collected
some stone and bone tools in a short excavation.
Extensive excavations3 were conducted by the Frontier
Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India under the
supervision of T.N. Khazanchi and his colleagues in eight
seasons from 1960-1971 and B. M. Pande from 1971-73.
The excavations revealed fourfold sequence of cultures;
Period I and II, Neolithic; Period III, Megalithic; and
Period IV, Early Historical.
2 Bandey, Aijaz A., Prehistoric Kashmir: Archaeological History of Palaeolithic
and Neolithic Cultures, New Delhi, 2009, p.74.
3 IAR,1960-61, p. 11; IAR,1961-62, pp. 16-21; IAR, 1962-63, pp. 9-10; IAR,
1965-66, pp. 19-21; IAR, 1966-67, pp. 16-17 :IAR, 1968-69, pp. 9-10; IAR,
1969-70, pp. 10-13; IAR, 70-71, p. 17; IAR, 1971-72, pp. 24-27; IAR, 1972-73,
pp. 13-14. And IAR, 1973-74, pp. 13-16.
Subsistence Economy
The overall economic level of Neolithic Burzuhom
was hunting and gathering with the practice of primitive
cultivation as attested by harvesters found there. In the
mature Neolithic period the people lived with a subsistence
economy of food gathering including hunting and fishing
as evident from different bone and stone objects. The
animals represented by the bones found there include,
Himalayan Ibex, wild and domestic dogs, wolf, bear, the
Nilgai, wild Urial, the pig, the Kashmir stag, humped
cattle, Indian domestic buffalo, the domestic sheep, the
domestic goat, etc.4 Many of the bones recovered bore cut
and skinning marks indicating they were slaughtered for
food. In Neolithic Period I and II of Burzuhom wheat,
barley and lentil, plant remains were recovered. Besides
husks, impressions of barley grains were also seen from
plastered floor and mud bricks. In the final stage rice and
pea were also cultivated.
5.2 Gufkral
The Neolithic site Gufkral (Lat. 33°54’ and Long. 75°00’)
was explored by the Frontier Circle of Archaeological
Survey of India in 1962-63 and it was excavated by the
Prehistory Branch of Archaeological Survey of India in
1981 and 1982 under the guidance of K.D. Banerjee and
A.K. Sharma.5 The site was excavated partially in two
seasons only because of the contradictions between the
excavators.6 The two season dig on the mound of loess silt
has revealed three main periods of cultural occupations.
They are Period IA-Aceramic Neolithic; Period IB-Early
4 Sharma, A.K., op. cit., Delhi, 2000, pp. 54-55.

5 IAR, 1981-82, p. 19.
6 Sharma, A.K., Early Man in Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh, Delhi, 2000, pp.
85-86.
Neolithic; Period IC-Late Neolithic, Period II-Megalithic

and Period III-Early Historical. Below are discussed
the main features of the Neolithic culture in Kashmir
represented by the two sites.
Structural Remains
Burzuhom is better known for its unique pit dwellings
in Period I, cut below ground level into the natural soil
which is loess. The traces of the cuts show that the pits
were dug out with long stone celts. The pits are oval
or circular in plan, narrow at the top and wide at the
base. The side walls of the pits were plastered with the
Karewa mud. The occurrence of post holes on the surface
of the pits suggested a superstructure which was built
of birch cover supported by wooden posts, as birch has
been found during excavations. The landing steps were
also seen which did not reach the bottom. Presence of
ash, charcoal, hearths and pot shreds within these pits
indicate human occupation. Shallow storage pits were
also seen there. Besides circular pits, rectangular and
squarish pit chambers were also found there cut below
the ground level with deep post holes at the corners for
supporting the roof. These chambers also had stone as
well as clay hearths.7
Neolithic Period II is indicated by the changes in the
structural patterns and tool kit and the structures have
been found in mud or mud bricks with regular floors
made of Karewa mud and rubble were also found.8 The
earlier dwelling pits were filled up and rammed with red
7 IAR, 1966-67, p. 17. R.N. Kaw points towards the fact that dwelling
pits were devised to fight the severe winters and pit chambers were also
made for dwelling purpose in summers. Kaw, R.N., ‘Neolithic Culture of
Kashmir’, in Essays in Indian Protohistory, Eds. D.P. Agrawal and Dilip K.
Chakrabarti, Delhi, 1979. pp. 221-222.
8 Agrawal, D.P., The Archaeology of India, New Delhi, 1984, p. 102.
ochre and were used as ground floor. Superimposition of

floor was noticed because, well arranged post holes were
found there.
The Settlement pattern in Gufkral was almost same
as that of Burzahom. In Period IA different types and
sizes of dwelling pits cut into the loessic deposits having
narrow mouths and wide bottoms with circular or oval in
shape and plastered with red-ochre were formed. Storage
pits, hearths and number of post holes were also seen
around these pits. Post holes suggest that roofs were
erected over these pits. In Period IB, the settlement
pattern is indicated by the presence of floor made of yellow
compact clay mixed with chunam and the construction of
mud and rubble walls.9 Three types of constructions have
come to light in Period IC. In the first type a number of
circular dwelling pits and storage pits were cut through
the earth. In the second type circular mud walls were
exposed with the base of thatched superstructures. The
third type was of mud and rubble walls without postholes.
The pits were probably covered with removable conical
thatched roofs. Around all the three types rectangular
and circular hearths were also found.10
Subsistence Economy
In the initial stage of aceramic Neolithic period the
people were purely hunter gatherers as the bones of wild
species of animals were found including Ovis, Ibex and
cattle. In the second phase of aceramic period people
still depended on hunting but domesticated predators
like wild dogs and wolf. In the final phase of Period IA
domestication of dogs, sheep and goat increased and
9 Sharma, A.K., ‘Excavations at Gufkral’ in Puratattva, No. 11, 198-82, pp.
19-23.
10 Sharma, A.K., Early Man in Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh. Delhi,
2000,pp.87-95.
the bones of the wolf, the Kashmir stag, the Nilgai,

Indian humped cattle, the Urial or wild sheep, the
Argali-large, Asiatic sheep, the domestic sheep and
goat, the Himalayan ibex, the Red deer, Bear and Fish
were recovered, which bore skinning marks of hunt and
slaughter. Towards the end of this period people had
started cultivating following cereals, pulses and weeds;
Barley-six-row, wheat, lentil, common pea, clover,
alfa-alfa, corn Cromwell etc. as the carbonized and
uncorbonised forms have been recovered.
In Period IB, the percentage of domesticated animals
increased with domesticated cattle formed the largest
percentage and there was increase of domestic buffalo,
fowl, and rat in the previous list. And in cereal cultivation
the same grains and weeds were cultivated. Period IC
witnessed increase of the wild bear, the Hare, rat and the
rabbit and the cowrie shell in the animal food list. And
besides wheat, barley and lentil rice was cultivated in
abundance.11
Ground Stone Tools

Excavations have revealed that the stone tools
were fairly advanced with more working efficiency,
sophistication and variations. The ground and polished
stone tools were made of Pir Panjal (‘Himalayan’) trap of
basalt and a few of felsite rocks. In Period I a variety of
ground stone tools were used by these Neolithic people,
which include polished axes, wedges, chisels, adzes,
hoe, pick, perforated pick, ring-stones or mace heads,
sling stones and harvesters. There is no evidence of tool
manufacturing stages in Kashmir, because no assemblage
of unfinished tools was found at any site. The table 5.1
shows the tool types and their probable functions:
11 Sharma, A.K., op. cit.,2000, pp. 89-100.

Table 5.1: Stone tools found at Burzuhom and Gufkral.
Tools1 Sub-types2 Functions

Celts or Axe for heavy work The celt might have
Axes Axe for light work been used for cutting
trees, chopping,
slicing of fruit,
vegetables, meat,
grass, etc.
Wedges Axe like heavy duty tool but These tools because
with a hammered or worn of their shape may
butt; a)Broad, square butt, suppose were used
hammered, ground, convex, as purchases or as
medial ridge; b) Round butt, intermediary for
hammered tapering sides, splitting wooden logs
convex medial edge; c) Round by being stuck on
butt ad body, sides as well as their butt-ends.
the edge ground; d) Like (b)
but with oval section.
Chisels a) Large and heavy and over It might have been
15 cm. long; b) Small and stuck with a hammer
heavy, about 10 cm. long. stone on the butt
end and used for
cutting and splitting
operations on wood so
as to cut the timber
on a wide front across
the fiber of wood.
Adzes a)Adze with flat, sharp butt, It could have been
section biconvex, tapering used for chipping,
sides convex edge; b) Adze slicing, and dressing
with broad butt, almost of timber surfaces
fully ground body, faceted before their
beveled edge; c) Similar to employment. It might
(b) but has a steeply sloping have been employed
side, intersecting with lower for digging the earth
surface; d) a new rare type, too.
having parallel sides, convex
edge and fully ground.

Hoes/Picks a) Large with underside For digging post-
roughly pecked but other holes, niches
side and an edge grounded, or drains for
butt hammered edge convex. the residential
b) Smaller in size but similar apartments and
to (a). sowing, planting
crops, removing
weeds etc.
Stone a) 8-10 cm long and Multipurpose tools;
points cylindrical, triangular with used by potter for
one or both sides pointed; removing excess clay
b) Double pointed known as during pot making
pokers. and making designs;
used to drill eyes on
bone needles, used
for packing the wefts
down on a loom
during weaving, and
spinning attached to
long wooden haft for
hunting game.
Ring stone a) Large; b) Small. Used as an
or Mace- agricultural
head harvesting tool
Sling Sling balls almost spherical Used as loam weights
stones in shape. for the weaving of
loam during cloth
weaving; net sinkers
during fishing
Harvesters Flat rectangular fully Resembles with
or Knife polished pieces, with longer modern butcher’s
side thick and opposite side knife might have
thin having two perforations been used for the
at both sides. same purpose. Hafted
knife could have been
used as harvester.

Querns. Roughly square or Pounding of grain
rectangular in shape with the help of
of various sizes having Pounders and
symmetrical shaped Mullers.
depression carved out by
pecking and grinding at
center of the stone.
Pounders Elongated river pebbles, Pounding of grain in
and normally thick and the Querns.
Mullers cylindrical in shape.
(Pestles)
Apart from stone tools, bone tools are the striking

feature of the Neolithic Kashmir. Generally the bone
tools were fashioned out of long bones of animals like
stag, sheep, goat etc. through splitting, chipping and
grinding and polishing by constant rubbing techniques.
Holes were made by technique of alternate pecking and
drilling.12 The main bone tools and implements and their
functions are given below in Table 2.
Metal Objects
Metal objects like arrow heads, hair pins, bangles,
antimony rods, copper rings, coil, copper needles, etc. were
found at both sites mostly belonging to Period II of Neolithic
culture. The metal objects were not the local production
but were imported into valley from the Pre-Harappan or
Harappan cultures in that form.13 But Bandey disagrees
with the view because the features of the copper objects
found at Harappan sites are uncharacteristic of Kashmir
objects except of Chanahodaro in Rajisthan.14
12 Khazanchi, T.N., ‘Our Earliest Ancestors’ in Kashmir and its People, Ed.
M.K. Kaw, New Delhi, 2003. p.18.
13 Khazanchi, T.N., and Dikshit, K.N., ‘The Grey Ware Culture of
Northern Pakistan Jammu and Kashmir’, in Puratattva, No. 9, New Delhi,
1977-78, p. 49.
14 Bandey, Aijaz A., op.cit.,p.171.
Table 5.2: Bone tools and their functions.

Needles and i) Simple,about 12 cm, long, Were possibly
Awls round section, flattened end; used in stitching
ii) small, round, pointed; garments and
iii) Round throughout but leather articles.
flat at one end; iv) Double
perforated, with flattened
tapering body. (The Awls
are plain and oblong with
one pointed end and other
flattened without eye, in
many cases notched and
grooved all round).
Harpoons i) Harpoons with barbs on Hafted harpoons
both sides, symmetrically were efficacious in
carved; ii) Barbs mostly on spearing fish.
one side.
Points i) Thin sharp, projected Fabrication
point; ii) Point sharp with of other tools,
rounded and flattened body; making grooves
iii) Butt ground. (Circular, and notches in
oval, triangular, pin type, awls, piercing
dagger type spear type etc.) eyes and holes
in needles and
harvesters,
buttoning
garments, hunting,
etc.
Scrapers i) Heavy, horn tip, For polishing long
sharpened and burnished; bones and possibly
ii) Medium; iii) Light, thin animal food
and flat. processing.
Arrowheads i) Shouldered; ii) Rounded. Served arrows for
bows for hunting
of animals and
other functions as
of points.

Composite A borer made on a long, For stitching
tool hollow bone as long pointed Leather
tool with handle.
Pen-shaped Unique type with a groove
point for hafting.
Ornaments
The main ornaments found were the carnelian beads
in good number with a few paste and a soap stone pendent
at Burzuhom.15 At Gufkral one spacer, one carnelian, one
terracotta and one wooden bead were found with copper
hair pin and terracotta bangle.16
Pottery
In the Period I and II at Burzuhom hand-made
grey ware of different shades like dull red, brown and
buff were represented by bowls, vases and stems. Mat
impressions are a recurrent feature on many types
especially on pots having a flat base indicating their
production on mats.
In Period II varieties of fine pottery represented by
bowls, globular pots, jars, stems, and funnel shaped
vessels have been found. In addition, dishes with
hollow stand, stems with triangular perforations and
high necked jar with a flaring rim, globular body and
flat base, which was deluxe ware of the period. Few
painted pots were also found which look foreign in
origin. A red ware wheel made pot with horned figure
15 Kaw, R.N., ‘The Neolithic Culture of Kashmir’, in Essays in Indian

Protohistory, Delhi, 1979, pp. 223-234. IAR, 1981-82. p. 20.
16 IAR, 1981-82, p.19.
was also found in period II.17 The pottery was made

through coiling technique.18
At Gufkral, the Period IA of Neolithic culture is a
well-defined Aceramic Level going back to 2800 BCE,
the earliest in India.19In early Neolithic Period IB, hand-
made pottery comprised mostly coarse grey with small
number of dull rough red ware, black burnished ware,
with knobbed designs. The shapes represented are big
jars, bowls, vases, and basins, dishes on stand with mat
impressed bases, pinched designs, and reed impressions,
oblique designs with rough interior and exterior
surfaces. A potter’s kiln was also found. In Period IC,
the late Neolithic period, pottery consisted of grey ware,
burnished grey ware, wheel turned black burnished
ware and a few red gritty ware shreds were found. The
previous shapes continued in this period with an addition
of funnel shaped vases and high necked jars with flaring
rim, globular body and flat base. Decorations include mat
and cord impressed bases, reed and straw impressions,
pinched and oblique designs on the neck region etc.20 At
both the sites many pots were characterized by graffiti
marks.
Burial Practices
In Neolithic Kashmir both inhumation and secondary
burials have been found in Period II. The secondary
burials show that the bones were excarnated and treated
with red ochre. While as in primary burials no red
ochre treatment was seen on bones, which were placed
17 Kaw, R.N., ‘The Neolithic Culture of Kashmir’, in Essays in Indian
Protohistory, Eds. D.P. Agrawal, et al., Delhi. 1979, pp. 220-224. H.D.
Sankalia has shown the pot as a KotDhiji example in Kashmir.
18 Agrawal, D.P., The Archaeology of India, New Delhi, 1984, pp. 98-102.
19 IAR, 1981-82, pp. 19-25.
20 Sharma, A.K., op. cit. pp. 93 & 98., Sharma, A.K., ‘Excavations at
Gufkral’, in Puratattva, No. 11, 1981-82, p. 19-23.
in couched, embryonic position with their skulls placed

in north-east or south-east direction.21 Grave goods were
found in the human graves.Along with the human bones,
those of animal bones were also found, which were perhaps
sacrificed in honour of the dead. The pits for burials were
generally oval and rectangular in shape and plastered
with lime. There is evidence of trepanning also.22
Art
An engraved stone slab was found at Burzuhom,
depicting a hunting scene in which an antler is being
pierced from behind with a long spear by a hunter and an
arrow being discharged by another hunter from the front.
The upper portion depicts two Suns and a dog. Another
slab has shown an engraving of an abstract design of a
hut.23 A rock engraving has been also found at Bomai,
Sopore in North Kashmir. It depicts hunting by masked
men.24
Religion
From their burial practices it seems there were some
aspects of religious beliefs of these people. The ochre on
the skeletal remains of human and animals, suggests a
magico-religious belief. Burying of pet animals with the
human dead bodies shows the sacrificial killings. The
presence of separate burials for dog and wolf would give
a clue that the people believed in totems. Trepanning of
the skulls is indicative of magico-medical belief.
21 Sharma, A.K., Sharma, A.K., Prehistoric Burials of Kashmir, Delhi, 1998,

p. 28.
22 IAR, 1962-63, p, 9.
23 Kaw, R.N. ‘Neolithic culture of Kashmir’, in Essays in Indian Protohistory,
eds., D.P. Agrawal and D.K. Chakraborty, Delhi, 1979, pp. 225-226.
24 Bandey, Ajaz Ahmad, ‘Preliminary Report: Archaeological Explorations
in Bomai Village’ in Central Asian Digest, Kashmir University, Srinagar,
2003, pp. 260-261.
Society
The archaeological sites of Burzahom and Gofkral
in particular and other sites in general demonstrate
that the settlers lived in the villages and built different
houses for their dwelling purposes. There were almost all
facilities available to live together. An unoccupied village
land would have been a communal property and it would
have been used for cattle-pen, for potter’s kiln, for tool
making workshop, for storage pits etc.
Contacts and Affinities

The material culture excavated at Burzahom and
Gufkral raised the questions about the origin of these
people, their relationships, affinities and contacts with
other cultures outside. While responding to these queries
H.D. Sankalia believed that the people of Neolithic
Kashmir were not natives but were definitely ‘colonists’,
who came from outside.25 While supporting Sankalia,
Khazanchi held that they could have come from Central
Asia, particularly from the North and Central China.
He based his argument on certain affinities that some
of the material culture of Kashmir had resemblance
with the Neolithic cultures from the North and Central
China, Shilka valley and some Neolithic sites in eastern
Siberia in Russia.26 But R.K. Pant, et. al. pointed out that
the Neolithic culture shows distinct signs of evolution
and clear technological affinities with the preceding
Paleolithic culture of Kashmir.27 The Allchins regard
25 Sankalia, H.D., Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan, Poona,
1974, p. 303.
26 Khazanchi, T.N., North-Western Neolithic Cultures of India, Shimla,
1977, p. 24.
27 Pant, R.K., et. al., ‘Some New Lithic and Ceramic Industries from
Kashmir’, in Man and Environment, Vol. VI, 1982, p. 38. They have tried
to prove it by chopper like discoid cores, borers, flake tools scrapers etc.
that Burzahomites had affinities with the Neolithic

people of north and north-west of China and Central
Asia, particularly because of the practice of animal
burial common in these areas.28 The studies on the
skeletal remains show some of them resemble with the
Harappan cemetery R. 37 series and some belonged to
west-Asian stock.29 Coarse grey and black burnished
pottery, pit houses, ground stone tools, bone tools and
even masur, wheat, barley and rice, found in Swat valley
resemble with that of Neolithic Kashmir. The Burzahom
painted pot with the horned deity resemble with the pre-
Harappan painted pots found at Kot-Diji, Banwali, Sarai
Khola.30 Hundreds of beads of Harappa type were found
at Burzahom and Gufkral, which show the connection
between the two cultures. Bandey is of opinion that the
Neolithic folk of Kashmir had not migrated from China
because in terms of racial and genetic comparisons the
two are totally different.31 The debate over the nature and
origin of Kashmir is open and continue till the explored
sites can be excavated to know more about the particular
period.
5.3 Kanishkapura
Kanishkapura or modern Kanispur (Lat. 34º 13" 35'
N and Long. 74º 24" 30' to 74º 25" E), a prolific Neolithic
and historical site in the Baramulla district of Kashmir,
was excavated by B.R. Mani in 1998–99 while working
recovered from Balapur, Tapribal, Kaladur, etc. All these tools show an
ancestral stage that existed just before Neolithic period of Kashmir.
28 Allchin, Bridget and Raymond, The Rise of Civilization in India and
Pakistan, New Delhi, 1983, p.116. The burial of dogs with humans
(probably their masters) was found in Ang-Ang-His culture of Manchuria,
Shilka cave culture of Amur, Gilyaks, Ulchis and Goldis of this region.
29 Sharma, A.K., Prehistoric Burials of Kashmir, Delhi, 1998, p. 25.
30 Sankalia, H.D., op. cit.,1974, p. 303.
31 Bandey, Aijaz, A. op. cit. 2009, pp. 263-64.
as Superintending Archaeologist of the Srinagar Circle

of the Archaeological Survey of India.32 The Neolithic
remains excavated at Kanispur were followed by historical
remains beginning with Kushana period. Interestingly, it
has been revealed that after the Neolithic settlement, the
site was reoccupied only during the Kushan period when
Kanishka seems to have established a city on his own
name as mentioned in the Rajtarangini of Kalhana.33
Unlike Burzahom and Gufkral, the site does not have
any evidence of a megalithic culture.
At Kanishkapura evidence of aceramic Neolithic
(Period I) was found followed by Ceramic Neolithic (Period
II). It has been inferred that the Neolithic population
settled on the flat top of the Karewas at Kanispur and
later after enlargement of their settlement they occupied
the slopes too. Four successive floor levels along with
post-holes were noticed which are parts of rectangular
houses which most probably had thatched roofs.
Tools and Pottery

Five bone points and six polished stone celts were
recovered during excavations. The ceramic industry
comprised both hand made as well as wheel turned pottery.
Fine grey ware of medium to thick fabric, coarse grey
ware, red ware, dull red ware, black wares of both plain
and burnished varieties are important types. Evidence
of brushing the wet surface of pots with reeds and mat-
impressed designs on the disc bases of pots have been
found. Pinched designs on applique bands and incised
oblique decorations on the neck and rims of handmade
vases have been frequently found. Similar decorations
32 Mani, B.R. 2000. Excavations at Kanispur: 1998–99 (District
Baramulla, Kashmir). Pragdhara 10: pp. 1–28.
33 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, 1, Trans. M.A. Stein, pp.168-70, Vol.1, First
Edition London – 1900 and reprinted Delhi – 1979, pp.30–31.
are also found on the body of the pots. Series of deep

incised lines, notching and semi-perforated decorations
were noticed on stems or stands of pottery, particularly
on dish on-stand. The important shapes include bowls,
shallow bowls, or dishes on stand, jars, vases and long-
necked vases.
Metal Objects
The evidence of copper objects in the form of a
bangle piece, a needle, two pins, an ear or nose ring and
a chisel from the late Neolithic levels at Kanishkapura
suggests the chalcolithic contacts, probably with the
Harappans, as also found in similar levels at Burzahom
and Gufkral.34
Subsistance
Besides recovery of wheat, barley, lentil, common
pea and rice as reported from Burzahom and Gufkral,
the excavations at Kanishkapura have further given the
evidence of Emmer wheat or Triticum dicoccum which is
found from early Harappan deposits at Kunal in district
Hissar (Haryana) where evidence of pit-dwelling has also
been noticed – a common feature of Neolithic settlement
at Burzahom.35
According to radiocarbon dates from Kanishkapura ,
the beginning of Neolithic age in the latter half of the
fourth millennium BCE in Kashmir and not in the first
half of the third millennium BCE as popularly believed
34 Mani, B.R. 2000. Excavations at Kanispur: 1998–99 (District

Baramulla, Kashmir). Pragdhara 10: pp. 1–28. Ghosh, A. (ed.) 1989. An
Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, Vol. 2, New Delhi: Munshiram
Masnoharlal. IAR 1981–82: Indian Archaeology – A Review, New Delhi:
Archaeological Survey of India pp. 23.
35 Mani, B.R. 2000. Excavations at Kanispur: 1998–99 (District Baramulla,
Kashmir). Pragdhara 10: pp. 1–28.
by archaeologists on the evidence of Burzahom and

Gufkral. A caliberated C-14 date on one charcoal sample
from Kanishkapura is 3361 BCE to 2937 BCE (average
being 3149 BCE).36
5.4 Semthan
Semthan near Bijbehara in District Anantnag in the
south of Kashmir was excavated in three seasons from
1978-1980 and yielded a six-phase cultural sequence.37
Period I is characterised by several types of red ware
comparable with Megalithic ceramics from other sites
in Kashmir.38 On the basis of the presence of material
culture including burnished grey ware and a coarse
hand-made and Archaeo-botanical39 remains from the
site reflect a Megalithic agricultural assemblage similar
to Gufkral, with the addition of small amounts of mung
bean (Vigna radiata).
Whilst the remains at Semthan may not relate
directly to the earlier Neolithic periods in Kashmir, the
stratified sequence provides crucial evidence for cultural
continuity between the end of the Megalithic and the
Iron Age in the valley.40
36 Saraswat, K.S. and Pokharia, Anil K. 2003. Palaeobotanical

investigations at early Harappan Kunal, Pragdhara 13: pp. 108.
37 Gaur, G.S., ‘Semthan Excavations’ in Archaeology and History: Essays
in Memory of Shri A.Ghosh, Vol.I, Ed. Pande, B.M, and .Chottopadhyaya,
B.D, 1987, pp. 327-337.
38 Mittra, D., 1984. Indian Archaeology 1981-1982, A Review.
Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi.
39 Lone, Farooq A., Khan, Maqsooda, Buth, G.M., 1993. Palaeoethnobotany:
Plants and Ancient Man in Kashmir. Balkema, Rotterdam.
40 Betts, Alison, Yatoo, Mumtaz, et. al., The Northern Neolithic of the Western
Himalayas: New Research in the Kashmir Valley, Archaeological Research in
Asia 18 (2019) 17–39.
5.5 Neolithic Sites in Sopore Baramulla

The Neolithic sites in Sopore, (Baramulla) including
Qasimbagh, Hygam, Bose Wudur and Yunteng Bomai,
located on flat topped karewa beds, reported, surveyed
and partially excavated by Dr Mumtaz Yatoo in 2005
and 2009–10.41 His reported findings including Neolithic
and Early Historic pottery, ground stone tools including
sling balls, pounders, Celts, spindle whorl, a terracotta
figurine, chisels, axes, mace heads, stone balls and
pounders, fragments of wattle and daub with reed
impressions indicate the existence of structures. Some
traces of graves were also found in the early survey.
The pottery consists of coarse grey ware, fine grey ware,
burnished black ware and gritty red ware.42
41 Yatoo, Mumtaz, Archaeological Explorations of the Sopore and

Bandipore Tehsils in District Baramulla, Kashmir. University of
Kashmir, 2005. And Yatoo, Mumtaz, Characterising Material
Culture to Determine Settlement Patterns in North West Kashmir.
University of Leicester, 2012.
42 Betts, Alison, Yatoo, Mumtaz, et. al., The Northern Neolithic
of the Western Himalayas: New Research in the Kashmir Valley,
Archaeological Research in Asia 18 (2019) 17–39
CHAPTER
6
Neolithic Culture
of Southern Kashmir
6.1. Introduction
The rationale for choosing the topic, ‘Neolithic
Culture of Southern Kashmir’, is that the attitude and
interest of research about the prehistory of Kashmir
among the regional institutions, students and scholars
is less. The national and international surveys and
studies have also come to halt because of the political
issues in the region. Moreover, one of the most important
reasons of working on this topic is the deteriorating
condition of the sites, which need the attention and
care from the concerned departments. The literature
available regarding prehistory in general and Neolithic
culture of South Kashmir in particular is very scarce and
for most of the sites is nil, as one can see the passing
references or just names of the sites mentioned in the
Indian Archaeology-A Review volumes, without any
description. So the important purpose of this study is
the documentation of the explored Neolithic sites of
the south Kashmir region. We live in the materialistic

age where wealth is important to survive and land is
considered most precious wealth as it cannot be extended
after occupying it and increasing population adds fuel
to the fire. The exploitation of the land resources for
habitations, cultivation, civic amenities, industries, etc.
is devastating the archaeological and heritage sites. So I
feel it necessary to record these precious sites before they
get totally invisible. I have tried to note down the site
locations, extensions, and collection of available material
remains, etc. after a fresh field survey of the region, so
that these sites would be excavated and preserved in
near future.
Period and Area of the Study

The period of study is Neolithic period with a brief
mention of megalithic period, because most of the
Neolithic sites possess menhirs which belong to the
megalithic phase. Broadly the whole of South Kashmir
region has been taken up for the study but emphasis is
given to those areas where the sites yielded some material
remains in the form of pot-shreds, stone implements
skeletal remains, menhirs, etc. which include the
archaeological sites in district Pulwama, Anantnag, and
Shopian associated with Neolithic period.
Scope of the Study

Only two among forty-one enlisted Neolithic sites
have been so for excavated; one fully and another
partially. Presently the scope of prehistory is widened
with more meaningful approaches for understanding the
human past, environment, economy, society, behavior
and other spheres of life. The fresh survey, recording of
sites and surface collection may divert the attention of
the archaeologists to excavate these sites to add more
Neolithic Culture of Southern Kashmir ◄ 81
features and knowledge to the Neolithic culture of

Kashmir. It will add to the present knowledge of Neolithic
culture of Kashmir. The study can help to figure out the
changes and the reasons behind them that had occurred
in certain traditions of the Neolithic culture of south
Kashmir. The study is related to the reasons behind
the rise and decay of the Neolithic culture of the south
Kashmir in particular and whole valley in general. This
study has broad scope as the many dimensions of the
culture can be known through interpretation and dating
of the excavated material from the unexcavated sites in
the region. So the study can through light over the hidden
prehistory of south Kashmir.
Sources of the Study

The sources of the present study are based on primary
and secondary. The primary sources include the field
survey, surface collection, mythological concepts of the
people and tales, and very scarce literature in the form of
exploration and excavation reports, study of the chance
finds, etc. The secondary sources include the works of
scholars on prehistoric Kashmir in general and on the
period of study in particular.
Chapters
The first chapter of the work gives information about
the background, subject and introduction of the study.
In this chapter there is detailed survey of rationale of
choosing the topic, scope, sources, area and period of
study, aims and objectives, methodology and hypothesis of
the study. The chapter also throws light on the geological
formation of the Kashmir valley and geography of the
region. The chapter is closed with a brief history of the
region. To understand the Neolithic culture in general in
the Indian sub-continent, an attempt is made to discuss
the features of Neolithic culture in the different regions

of India in the second chapter. The same chapter discuss
the general features of the Neolithic culture of Kashmir
valley. Third chapter is the main chapter in which the
topography and the physiographic details of the Neolithic
sites under study are discussed. It includes the location,
extent and present condition of the sites. In the same
chapter surface evidences and excavated evidences are
analyzed and discussed with their photographs and
drawings. Fourth chapter provides the conclusion of the
work with respect to the discussion on the hypothesis,
general features of the Neolithic culture in general and
of South Kashmir in Particular.
Aims and Objectives of the Study

1. The present research work is intended for
exploration and documentation of South Kashmir
Neolithic sites.
2. The main aim of the study is collate archaeological
information available regarding the Neolithic
culture of South Kashmir, from written as well as
field sources.
3. To produce detailed geographic, mapping, and
written description of the Neolithic sites of
southern Kashmir.
4. To recover the artifacts or surface evidences of
the period in the shape of pottery, stone tools, and
other finds.
5. To study the sites within its landscape context.
6. To recover data that may provide information
relating to the social character of the sites, their
status, function and economy.
7. To make recommendations for appropriate future

research on the Neolithic culture of Kashmir.
8. To trace the relationships, similarities and
differences between the sites by analyzing the
data collected.
Methodology
As it has been identified that researchers doing
archaeology need more sophisticated ways to visualize
and interact with their data in order to assess patterns
that cannot otherwise be captured. The following methods
have been used in the study:
To observe the site features like location, extent,
availability of resources and surface finds through
field survey and write their detailed description.
To use multiple lines of evidences including
material remains, documentary sources and oral
testimony to develop understanding of Neolithic
culture of the region.
Application of both qualitative and quantitative
methods by collecting data through which certain
facts are obtained, analyzed and conclusions are
drawn.
The use and analysis of archaeological data in
the shape of pottery, stone tools, beads etc. which
comprise primary source.
Drawings of monuments through triangulation
method and pottery drawings of shreds to get the
shapes of the pottery vessels used then.
Use of maps of the area of study to present the
detailed view of the area where the archaeological
sites are located.
Use of exploration and excavation reports

particular and other literature as general about
the area to prove my enquiry into the hypothesis.
Hypothesis
The distribution, pattern and number of Neolithic
sites located in south Kashmir, the geological formation
of the Valley with respect to South-Kashmir, the cultural
sequence obtained in the area so for, material remains
found there by surface collections and during excavation
etc. show that south-Kashmir was the hub of Neolithic
activities in Kashmir. Gufkral was earlier site and
nucleus of Neolithic sites found in its close vicinity.
Keeping in view the geology of the area, the formation
of Pir Panjal and Karewas, and the drainage of primeval
lake and formation of river Jhelum and presence of lower
Paleolithic artifacts suggest that man lived in the area
earlier than any other part of Kashmir.
6.2. Physiography of the Region Under Study

South Kashmir region of Kashmir valley consists of
four districts- Anantnag, Pulwama, Shopian and Kulgam.
Kulgam and Shopian are the newly formed districts
separated from Anantnag and Pulwama respectively.
There are no prehistoric evidences from Kulgam area, so
here I am going to throw light on south-Kashmir dividing
it into three parts i.e., Anantnag, Pulwama and Shopian.
Because, the sites under study are located in the above
mentioned three districts.
District Anantnag
Anantnag is the southernmost district of valley
Kashmir, situated south and southwestern direction of
the valley, separated from the Jammu Province by the
mighty Pir Panjal Range and connects both the provinces

by the famous Jawahar Tunnel through Banihal Pass. It
is 55 kms of the southeast of summer capital Srinagar.
Its entire southern sector and major part of eastern area
strewn with thick forests and mountains ranging between
2438 to 3048 m above sea level. The district with its
headquarters at Anantnag town is located between North
Latitude 33°17’20” and 34°15’30” and between 74°30’15”
and 75°35’00” East Longitude.1 The district is bounded
by Srinagar district in North, Kargil in North East, Doda
district in the east, Pulwama in North West, Rajouri and
Udhampur districts in the South and South East and
Poonch district in the West. Its total geographical area
is 2917 sq. kms comprising various tehsils. Anantnag
district have 9000 hectares of total land under forests.2
Anantnag is approachable through National Highway IA
and is inter connected by metalled roads from all parts
of the Valley. The name Anantnag according to Kalhana
is from the great spring, ‘Ananta Naga’, meaning ‘Land
of Countless Springs’, which A. Stein has identified
issuing at the southern end of the town.3 Almost all
local historians also corroborate this view. The spring is
mentioned in Nilmatapurana as a sacred place for the
Hindus and Kashur Encyclopedea testifies it. It is also
known as Islamabad, but there is no mention of such
name in the old chronicles. It is however, said that one
Islam Khan, who was Mughal governor in 1663 CE4.,
assigned the name Islamabad to the town. The south
Kashmir region is also known as Maraz. The district
is famous for its rich landscape of lush green meadows
and largest number of health resorts in the valley. It
1 Covered by Survey of India Degree sheet No. 43 K, N, and O.
2 A report by Ministry of MSME, Government of India, 2011-12, pp. 1-3.
3 Stein, M.A., ‘The Ancient Geography of Kashmir’, in Journal of Asiatic
society of Bengal, Vol. LXVIII, Calcutta, 1899. p. 178.
4 Khan, A.R., Geography of Kashmir, Srinagar, Edn. 2011, p. 148.
includes world famous Pahalgam, Verinag, Kokernag,

Achabal, Daksum etc. and holy Amarnath cave situated
in Pahalgam tehsil at an altitude of 13000 feet above sea
level, which is visited every year by lakhs of pilgrims for
Shiv Lingum. Ancient temples like Martand, Mattan,
Anantnag, Bijbehara, etc. are also well known.
Climate and Rainfall

Anantnag is one of the pretty spots in the valley
because of its innumerable springs, streams, waterfalls,
fruits and grains, congenial climate, and natural
sceneries. The climate of the district is temperate cum
Mediterranean type. Average minimum and maximum
temperature varies from -11° to 33° C. In higher reaches
temperature remains cold throughout the year. The
district receives an average annual precipitation of about
916 mm in the form of snow and rain for about 70 days.5
Geomorphology and Geology6

District Anantnag is hilly and mountainous towards
the Northeast and Southwest with broad intermountain
valley. The valley area in the central part has flat to
mildly undulating topography with an area of about
900 sq. km and with its mean elevation 1700 m above
sea level. The altitude of the hill ranges 3000 m above
sea level. The master slope in the district is towards
northeast. The soil is poor in hilly areas and fertile in
plain areas. Productivity in higher ranges is poor while
in central region it is well. The percentage of the different
types of soils are 0.050% coarse sand, 17.15% fine sand,
5 The Encyclopedia of District Gazetteer of India, (North Zone), Vol. 3, New

Delhi, pp. 417-33.
6 A Report on North-western Himalayan Region by Central Ground
Water Board ( with the help of department of Geology and Mining),
Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, Jammu, 2009, p. 2.
44.800% of silt and 40.0% of clay with silt-clay texture.

The rock formation underlying the Anantnag district
ranges in age from Cambrian (570 MYBP) to Quaternary
(1.8 MYBP). Panjal traps forming hilly and mountainous
terrain of the district with hard formations of igneous
and metamorphic rocks. The alluvium and Karewas of
Quaternary and Tertiary age (Plio-Pleistocene) underlie
the valley area and consists of alternate bands of sand,
silt, gravel, and clay interspersed at 2-3 levels locally by
glacial boulder beds.
Table 6.1: Geological succession of District Anantnag
Strati- Lithology Thick- Approx. Age.

graphic ness
Unit (m)
Alluvium Clay, Silt and Sand. 15 Holocene
Upper Alternate greenish 750 Plio-
Karewas sandy ad grey clay Pliestocene
bed layers with
calcareous Laminae
- Second fluvio- 130 -
glacial boulder bed.
Lower Clay (bluish grey) 2000 Plio-
Karewas and Conglomerates Pliestocene
with coarse to fine
sand (greenish),
alternate with grey
sandy clay. Lignite
and peat material.
- First fluvio-glacial 200 -
Buolder bed.
Panjal Aglomeratic slates, - Permo-
Trap grits and effusive Carboniferous
rocks
This formation of Plio-Pleistocene age lies dis-

conformably above the older rocks ranging in age from
Cambrian (570 MYBP) to Triassic (248 MYBP).7 The
brief generalized geological succession in the district is
given as under in table 6.1.
Drainage
Anantnag is part of the Jhelum sub basin of Indus
basin. The name of the district ‘Anantnag’ means ‘Land of
countless springs’ (‘Anant’- countless and ‘Nag’- Spring).
The most famous spring is Verinag at the foot hills of Pir
Panjal Range and it is the origin of the Jhelum River.
Its tributaries viz., river Lidder or Lambodari with its
source as Ganeshbal, river Vishav, river Sandran, and
springs like Kokernag, Sheshnag, Achabal Nag, Bhavan
spring at Mattan etc. form the main drainage system of
the district.8
District Pulwama9
Pulwama is famous all over the world for the Saffron,
which is mainly cultivated on the Karewas of Pampore,
Kakpore and Pulwama blocks of the district. It is known as
Dudh Kul (milk stream) of Kashmir valley as it produces
five lakh liters of milk per day.10 It is also called ‘Rice
Bowl’ of Kashmir. Therefore, agriculture and horticulture
plays an important role in economy of the district, which
is practiced on 58,142 hectares of land. The district lies
in the southern part of Kashmir and is located between
33°54’00” and 34°05”00’ North Latitude and between
7 Raina, A.N., Geography of Jammu and Kashmir, New Delhi, 1977, pp. 15-
58.
8Khan, A.R., Geography of Kashmir, Srinagar, Edn. 2011, pp. 44-49.
9 The Encyclopedia of District Gazetteer of India, (North Zone), Vol. 3, New
Delhi, pp. 519-522.
10 Daily Greater Kashmir, Srinagar, dated 7th of January 2012 and 5th July
2012.
74°05’00” and 75°01’08” East Longitude11 with an altitude

of 1500 to 3000 meters above sea level. The district is
bounded by Srinagar in the North, Anantnag in South
and East, and Budgam and Poonch districts in the West.
The total geographical area of Pulwama is 1,090 sq. kms
of which 412 sq. kms are under forest cover.
Geomorphology and Geology12

Hilly terrains and mountains towards northeast and
southwest with broad intermountain valley surround the
district. The altitude of the hills range up to 3700 m above
the sea level. Soil in upper reaches is poor in fertility and
in plains it is fertile soil. The soil is composed of 0.73%
of coarse sand, 17.27% of fine sand, 40.4% of Silt, 41.6%
of Clay and the overall texture of soil if Loamy clay.13
The rock formation underlying district Pulwama ranges
in geological age from Cambrian to Quaternary. The
Zewan beds and Panjal traps form hilly and mountainous
terrain of the district with hard formations of igneous
and metamorphic rocks. The Karewas and alluvium soil
underlie the valley area of the district and consists of
alternate bands of sand, silt, gravel and clay, interspersed
at two to three levels locally by glacial boulder beds and
they belong to the Quaternary and Tertiary age (Plio-
Pleistocene). This formation lies dis-conformably over
the older rocks ranging in age from Cambrian to Triassic.
A brief generalized geological succession of the district is
given below in table 6.2.
11 Covered by Survey of India sheet No. J, K, N and O.

12 A report about district Pulwama in North-western Himalayan Region
by Central Ground Water Board ( with the help of department of Geology
and Mining), Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, Jammu,
2009, pp. 1-3.
13 Raina, A.N., Geography of Jammu and Kashmir, New Delhi, 1977, pp.60-
61.
Table 6.2: Geological succession of District Pulwama
Strati- Lithology Thick- Approx.

graphic ness Age
Unit (m)
Alluvium Clay, Silt and Sand 15 Holocene
Upper Alternate greenish 750 Plio-
Karewas sandy and grey clay bed Pliestocene
layers with calcareous
Laminae
- Second fluvio-glacial 130 -
boulder bed
Lower Clay (bluish-grey) and 2000 Plio-
Karewas Conglomerates with Pleistocene
coarse to fine sand
(greenish) alternate
with grey sandy clays.
Lignite and peat
material
- First fluvio-glacial 200 -
boulder bed
Panjal Agglomerative slates, - Permo-
Trap grits and effusive rocks Carboni-
ferous
Zewan Shale, Slates with - Cambro-
Beds quartzite and limestone. Silurian
Climate and Rainfall

In Kashmir valley there is a conspicuous change in
the climate with altitude. That is why district Pulwama
witness Temperate cum Mediterranean type of climate. In
higher reaches temperature remains cold throughout the
year. The average minimum and maximum temperature
vary from -5° C to 32° C. The district receives snow in
winter and the average annual precipitation of the
district is 1040 mm in the form of rain and snow for about

average 60 days.14
Drainage
The district forms a part of Jhelum basin of Indus
basin. River Jhelum is the major rivers flowing through
the district with its tributaries Sasara, Rembiara,
Romushi drains the sloping land in the southwest.15
District Shopian
Shopian16 is situated in the lap of foot hills of Pir
Panjal range. It is 51 kilometers southwest of Srinagar
city. District Shopian came into being in 2006 as hill
district. It is one of the ancient historical towns of
Kashmir and presently known as ‘Apple Bowl’ or ‘Apple
Town’ of the Kashmir because of its good quality apple
production, which is more than two lakh tons annually.
Shopian is situated between 33°43’ and 33°91’ north
Latitude and 74°49’ and 74°70’ East Longitude with an
altitude from 2000 m to 3500 m above sea level. There
are different oral versions of behind the nomenclature of
district Shopian as some say Shopian name is derived
from ‘Shive Pawan’, Some believe that the name Shopian
came out from Shin-e-wan meaning ‘forest of snow’.
But Fredrick Drew while justifying the basis of its
nomenclature, states that it is the distortion of Persian
word ‘Shah Payan’ meaning ‘Royal stay’, because it
is an ancient town situated on an old imperial route
commonly known as Mughal Road or Shahrah-i-namak
(salt route) connecting Lahore and Srinagar. The ancient
town Surapora17 (modern Hirpora) established by Suyya,
14 Raina, A.N., op. cit., pp. 44-55.
15 Ibid. p. 36-37.
16 A report by Ministry of MSME, Government of India, 2011-12, pp. 1-4.
17 Kalhan’s Rajatarangini, Eng. translation, Stein, M.A. Vol. I, pp.25-27,
Delhi, 1977 edition, p..185.
the genius minister of Awantiverman (855 – 883 CE the

ruler of Utpala dynasty) is also located on the route. The
district is located in the south and south-west extremity
of Kashmir valley. It is bounded by district Kulgam in
east, Budgam in north-west, flanked by Pulwama in
north and Rajori and Poonch districts in south and south-
west respectively.
Topography
District Shopian is of hilly character as it is in the
close proximity of Pir Panjal Range. It has its gradual
ascending slope from north and northeastern sides
rising towards south and south-west peripheries of Pir-
Panjal. Most of the area of the district Shopian is hilly
with total geographical area 312 sq. kms including 260.5
hectares under forest cover. The major soils include clay-
to-clay loam 90% and sandy loam 10%. The typical Lower
Karewas of Hirpur formation are exposed in village
Hirpur of Shopian in the Rimbiara valley formed of mud,
sand, lignite, shells, gravel conglomerate and silty mud
belong to Plio-Pleistocene.18 The climate of the region is
cold-humid with annual rainfall 658.1 mm in average 60
days of snow and rainfall.
Drainage
The district has a continuous water supply because
of its location close to the snow-capped mountains. River
Rambiara and the small streams like Saeingol, etc mainly
drain the land of the district.
18 Kusumgar, Sheela, et. al., ‘Plaeomagnetic Measurements on Hirpur

Localities IV and V, Kashmir’, Man and Environment, Vol. VI, 1982, p. 6-7
and 22.
Map 3: Distribution of Neolithic-Megalithic Sites in South

Kashmir
Culural Profile of South Kashmir

The cultural profile of south Kashmir with special
reference to the region under study (three districts of
Anantnag, Pulwama and Shopian) is given as under:
Paleolithic Period
H. de Terra and T.T. Paterson of Yale Cambridge
expedition were unable to locate or found any evidence
of Paleolithic man in Kashmir valley after their
prolonged geological investigations and explorations in
1935. According to them the continued uplift of the Pir

Panjal range and the extreme cold were the two reasons
for the apparent absence of the Paleolithic man in the
valley. However, Prof. H.D. Sakalia proved their theory
inefficient, when in 1969 he with R.K. Pant and Sardari
Lai of Frontier Circle of ASI discovered early Stone Age
(lower Paleolithic) tools including a massive flake and an
Abbbevillian Axe belonging to second Glacial and second
Interglacial respectively at Lidder Valley Pahalgam
district Anantnag.19 In 1970, Sankalia accompanied
by R.V. Joshi and two others collected nine more tools
from deposits attributed to the second through third
Glacial periods also belonging to the Lower Paleolithic
at Pahalgam Anantnag.20 To Sankalia this collection
was earliest in Asia because of their stratigraphical
location and manufacturing technique.21 From district
Shopian of south Kashmir, D.P. Agrawal and his team
during their Palaeoclimatic Project on Kashmir found
pebble tools belonging to Paleolithic period, comprising
choppers, discoids and scrappers, at Balapur Shopian
on the top of terrace of river Rembiara.22 At Sombur in
district Pulwama R.K Pant, Claire Gaillard, S.L. Shali
etc. collected 100 artifacts including burins, points
and borers, etc. All the tools were attributed to Upper
Paleolithic period23 and dated 20,000 to 18,000 years
19 IAR, 1969-70, p. 10-13. Sankalia, H.D., ‘New Evidences for Early Man
in Kashmir’, Current Anthropology, Vol. 12, No. 4/5, 1971, pp. 558-561.
20 Sankalia, H.D., ‘New Evidences for Early Man in Kashmir’, Current
Anthropology, Vol. 12, No. 4/5, 1971, p. 558.
21 Ibid, p. 560. Because, the first Glacial in India and its interglacial
would fall into the lower Pleistocene.
22 Agrawal, D.P., ‘The Kashmir Karewas- A Multidisciplinary
Perspective’, Man and Environment, Vol. VI, 1982, p. 3.
23 Pant, R.K., et. al. ‘Some New Lithic and Ceramic Industries from
Kashmir’, Man and Environment, Vol. VI, 1982, pp. 37-38.
B.P.24 But S. L. Shali has termed the presence of such

tools in the valley as occurrences not the sites, because
there has been a lot of erosion, denudation and human
destruction which have destroyed the structural and
sequential system of the locations.25
Neolithic-Megalithic
Period: In 1962-63, with a view to find the geographical
extent of the Northern Neolithic culture, Sardari Lai and
R.K. Pant of the Frontier Circle of ASI explored the valley
of river Jhelum from Anantnag to Pampur (Pulwama), a
distance of about 48 kms. They located three sites in Tehsil
Tral,, district Pulwama including Begagund (Begund),
Gufkral and Hariparigom, five in tehsil Pampur, district
Pulwama including Olchibag, Pampur, Panzgom Sempur
and Sombur, and Thajwor and Jayadevi-Udar in tehsil
Bijbehara, district Anantnag.26 At all these sites Neolithic
assemblage similar to that revealed at Burzuhom was
found. At Kanyalwan27 Bijbehara and Haribous in Tral,
and Borus28 Avantipora in district Pulwama yielded
Neolithic pottery similar to that recovered at Burzuhom.
Different Neolithic wares were also found in Pinglish in
Tral, Romu in tehsil Pakherpora, Shah Pend in tehsil
Pampur in district Pulwama and Balapur in district
Shopian.29
24 Shali, S.L., Kashmir: History and Archaeology Through the Ages, New
Delhi, 1992, p. 53.
25 Ibid, p. 55.
26 IAR, 1962-63, p. 9.The Jammu and Kashmir Circle initiated first of its
project which was soon taken over by ASI, to explore the areas located
on the either sides ( Karewas) of river Jhelum from Khanabal to Pampur
and the project was called ‘Operation Jhelum’.
27 IAR, 1976-77, p. 75.
28 Bandey, Aijaz A., Prehistoric Kashmir, Archaeological History of Paleolithic
and Neolithic Cultures, New Delhi, 2009, p. 72.
29 Pant, R.K., et. al., ‘Some New Lithic and Ceramic industries from
Kashmir’, Man and Environment, Vol. VI, pp. 37-40.
Neolithic Period at most of these sites was succeeded

by Megalithic period, as Menhirs of Burzahom type were
found at Begund, Gufkral, Dadsar30 Hariparigom and
Sombur in district Pulwama and at Brah and Waztal in
district Anantnag.31 Very little or no attention has been
paid to research and investigations about the Megalithic
age in the Valley, which dominated the scene for more
than five centuries.32 According to the C14 this period
arrived in Kashmir around 1850 BCE and introduced rice
and iron to the valley with a new racial strain in addition
to the development in other spheres of the culture.33
Early Historic Period

In south Kashmir region, the evidences of the
earliest historic period were found at Gufkral preceding
Megalithic period without any break. Because of limited
excavation no structures were found except floors of that
period with wheel made thin bright-red ware, definite
evidence of rice, animal bones, stone and bone artifacts,
terracotta and iron and copper objects.34 It has been
dated between 1350 BCE to 700 BCE The gap between
Neolithic period and the advent of Kushanas in about
the first century CE is filled by the Semthan excavations.
Semthan35 (75°9′ E Long. 33°48′ N Lat.) is located 44
km south of Srinagar on the Jammu-Srinagar National
Highway in tehsil Bijbihara, district Anantnag. The site
which is situated on the top of the Chakradhara Karewa,
30 IAR, 1966-67, p. 65.

31 IAR, 1969-70, p. 13.
32 Sharma, A.K., Early Man in Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh, Delhi, 2000, p.
107.
33 Ibid, p. 107.
34 IAR, 1981-82, p. 25.
35 The excavations were carried out under the supervision of R.S. Bisht
assisted by G.S. Gaur and others in four seasons in 1977 and from 1981-
1983. IAR, 1978-79, pp. 69-70. and IAR, 1980-81, pp. 21-23.
an isolated Karewa near village Semthan, has yielded

a sequence of six cultures36 starting from the middle
of first millennium BCE up to the late medieval times
(post 13th century CE)37 It included, Period I, Pre-NBP
(700-500 BCE), Period II, NBPW (500-200BCE), Period
III, Indo-Greek, (200 BCE-beginning of 1st century CE),
Period IV, Kushana-Huna (100 CE to 500 CE), Period V,
Hindu rule (500-1100 CE) and Period VI, Early Medieval.
In addition, there are ancient monuments falling within
the time bracket of 1st to 13th century CE in the region,
which include Shrine of Siva Vijeshvara, Martand and
Anantnag temples in Anantnag district, Avantiswamin
and Avantesvara temples, Kakapora temple, Khrew,
Luduv,and Siva temples, remains of ancient Stupa in
Malangpora and Pampur temple in Pulwama district.
These ancient monuments testify the rich history of the
region under study.
6.3. Description of the Neolithic Sites under

Study in South Kashmir
There are 19 identified Neolithic sites in South
Kashmir out of 4138 in the whole valley of Kashmir. As
my area of study is South Kashmir including district
Anantnag, Pulwama and Shopian. I have choosed ten
sites out of nineteen, which include Gufkral the only
excavated site, Begund, Hariparigom, Dadsar, in tesil
Tral, Barus, (Avantipora) Sombur, Olchibag, in tehsil
36 The details of the excavation has been given in the Chapter 1 under the
heading ‘Brief History of the Region’.
37 Gaur, G.S., ‘Semthan Excavation: A Step Towards Bridging the gap
between the Neolithic and the Kushan Period in Kashmir’, in Archaeology
and History, Vol. I, Eds. B.M. Pande and B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Delhi,
1987, p. 327-337.
38 Bandey, Aijaz A, Prehistoric Kashmir: Archaeological History of Paleolithic
and Neolithic Cultures, New Delhi, 2009, p.104. The Map shows the
distribution of Neolithic sites in Kashmir Valley.
Pampur in district Pulwama, Balapur in district Shopian

and Waztal and Brah in district Anantnag; all the nine
are unexcavated sites. Below is given the description of
the sites under study.
1) Gufkral39
Location and Extent of the Site:- The site of Gufkral
(Latitude 33°54’ N and Longitude 75°0’ E)40 is situated 41
KMs to the south-east of Srinagar near tehsil town of Tral
in Pulwama district 164441 meters (5393 Feet) above the
sea level. Two roads can approach it; first, Awantipora42
– Dadsar - Tral road and Kaigam – Tral road, both
link roads are right side of National Highway-1A while
going from Jammu to Srinagar. The site is adjacent to
the village Hardu-Mir’s Bonmir43 side in between two
Nallahs that join river Jhelum nearly ten KMs to the
west.44 It is located on an extensively deposit of upper
Karewa at the top of the archaeological mound which
measures 400 meters long north-south and 75 meters
wide east-west. Maximum height of the mound from the
eastern side is 33 meters and 35 meters from the road
level on the western side.45 On the southeastern slope of
the mound are 20-25 houses of potters, who continue their
traditional profession of pottery making since Neolithic
period. On the slopes of the archaeological mound, 35
39 IAR, 1962-63, p. 9 and IAR, 1981-82, pp. 19-25. IAR, 1982-83, p. 147.
40 Bandey, Aijaz A, Prehistoric Kashmir: Archaeological History of Paleolithic
and Neolithic Cultures, New Delhi, 2009, p.77.
41 The altitudes were taken from the Department of Geology and
geophysics, University of Kashmir.
42 Capital city of Awantiverman (855 – 883 CE), the ruler of Utpala
dynasty (855-939 CE). It is a famous site of two temples Avantisvamin
and Awantisvara temple complexes of his times.
43 The village Hadu-Mir has two parts, eastern part is called Her-Mir and
western part Bonmir.
44 Puratattava, No.11, 1981-82, p.19.
45 IAR, 1981-82, pp.
Neolithic caves have been found both single and multi-

chambered with pillars. Some caves particularly on the
south-eastern side of the mound are being occupied by
the Krals (potters) for storage purposes. Some caves are
deserted with closed entrances due to the vagaries of
weather and some destroyed by the humans. That is why
the site has the name Gufkral literally ‘Guf’ means Cave
and ‘Kral’ means Potter hence potters’ caves.
The mound is almost plain at the top with an
elevated surface in the middle and used as helipad by
army choppers. On the southern end of the mound, a
two-roomed school building is built with a separate
bathroom. On the middle of the archaeological mound,
two water tanks have been built for the storage and
supply of drinking water. The northern side of the site is
occupied by army bunkers. All these constructions have
disturbed the site largely. On the eastern slope of the
site are found menhirs, which are not in their original
position. The archaeological site being on the top of the
Karewa is surrounded below by the agricultural land in
the east, west and the south and village Hardu-Mir in
the northern side. Walnut and apricot trees decorate the
slopes around the mound. On the northern extension of
the mound, a thick deposit of conglomerate composed of
limestone, trap and quartzite with boulders is exposed.
Description of the Menhirs at the site

Almost at the center, there are 17 fallen Menhirs
on the eastern edge of the mound on the slope.46 None
of these is in its original and upright position and most
of them have rolled down to the slope. Because of the
ruinous state of the monuments, the present condition of
the site is far from complete. There seems no alignment
46 Sharma, A.K., ‘Gufkral 1981: An Aceramic Neolithic Site in Kashmir
Valley’ Asian Perspectives, XXV (2), 1982-83, pp. 30-31.
or pattern of their construction. The result of this

destruction may be vandalism on the part of villagers or
their immediate ancestors or it may be due to systematic
destruction at the hands of an invading enemy because
of the colourful history of Kashmir. The first glance of
the site did not reveal any signs of recent destruction.
To know the exact reason of destruction it is necessary
to excavate the site fully particularly nearby the fallen
Menhirs. The megaliths are arranged in such a form as
to suggest a ‘cromlech’ type structure. Most of the stone
slabs are facing towards North and northeast lying in
the North-south position. As the shape of some of stones,
resemble with the snake face the locals believe that
there is a snake ghost because presently snakes come
out under these slabs also. The three main slabs on the
top of the slope in the North-south direction are lying in
a single line with three more exact behind them almost
in the same position with two more behind them like a
pair of stones sleeping together. At the right side of the
front group there are two slabs in the shape of English
alphabet ‘T’, with one slab in front of it and three scatter
back side of it. Two small slabs are almost down the
slope and one at the bottom of slope as a bridge on the
stream. It can be conjectured the megaliths were erected
and arranged in a crescent or semi-circle plan. Because,
the fallen slabs show the same pattern with empty space
in middle and menhirs scattering around. Four Stone
slabs have two to two and a half inch deep with 2-3 inch
diameter round and rectangular cup marks. The length
of the slabs vary from 2.50 m to 5.50 m and breadth 1 to
2 m. The longest slab is 6.75 m and 3.15 m breadth and
0.50 m thick. These slabs are fashioned of trap available
at the nearest source of the mountain not more than 2
kilometers away from the site.
2) Dadsar47
Location and Extent of the Site: Dadsar is a Neolithic-
Megalithic site in village Dadsar in tehsil Tral district
Pulwama approachable by Awantipora-Tral road. It is 38
kms southeast of Srinagar city, and 10 kms right side
of river Jhelum in the east of Avantipora. It is located
between 33°54’14” North Latitude and 75°5’4” East
Longitude, 1620 meters (5314 Feet) above sea level.
There is a local version about the nomenclature of the
village that it was once a ‘big spring’ locally called ‘Dadh’
meaning Big and ‘Sar’ meaning spring or lake. It is a small
plain valley between the nearby Karewas and hills, which
is believed was choosed by the prehistoric people as their
habitat after the lake water drained off and settled here
as it was appropriate place for the cultivation.48 The site
is identified with a straight standing Menhir about a fifty
meters south of the village Dadsar. It is located in the
middle of the agricultural fields. Neolithic site Gufkral
is about one kilometer west of this site. Because of the
agricultural activities and lack of exploration records
it was not possible to give an exact extent of the site.
Nevertheless, the raising ground around the menhir is 17
by 23.9 meters north to south and 26 by 22.5 meters east to
west. There is a small spring sprouting out about twenty
steps south of the menhir, which somehow substantiates
the legend of village being a big spring in the past. In
addition to it there are eight more springs including the
one in the center of village known as Naleen Nag and rest
are in between the agricultural fields. The erect menhir is
locally known as Seiez Kaein meaning straight stone. The
triangle shaped menhir is 2.80 meters long, 1.40 meters
47 IAR, 1966-67, p. 65. And Pant, R.K., et. al., ‘Some New Lithic and
Ceramic industries from Kashmir’, Man and Environment, Vol. VI, p. 39.
48 Bhat, Dr. Nisar Ahmad Trali, Aien’ai Tral, The Encyclpeadea of Tral,
Srinagar, 2009, p. 95.
wide at the base, 1.30 meters at middle and 0.55 meters

at the top and it is 10 to 13 inches thick. The plain side of
the slab is facing to the east with an engraving of a Hindu
diety which seems a recent work and the slab bears about
seventeen cup marks on the same side.
3) Begund49
Location and Extent of the Site: Village Begund
(recorded as Beg-gund in exploration report) is located on
the right side of the Awantipora-Dadsar-Tral road nine
kms from National Highway 1A from Awantipora and
39 kms from southeast of Srinagar. The village got its
name from Beg tribe, the first tribe who lived there.50 The
village is drained by river Chandereh Aarah throughout
the year. The site is located on a Karewa situated on the
left side parallel to the village Begund at an altitude
of 1640 meters (5380 Feet) between 33°53’53” North
Latitude and 75°3’43” East Longitude. The Karewa is
about one km long and average 160 meters wide. The site
is located at the southern end in the middle of karewa
between almond trees. The height of the karewa near the
site is 42 meters from the road level below. The excavated
Neolithic site Gufkral is a half kilometre in the west of
this site. Wastur wan and Bosi Bal are the two hills
about three kilometers in the northeast and east of the
site. There is a spring known as Ameer Sund Nag and
agricultural fields exact at the lap of the Karewa. There
is a Menhir at the site with a large quantity of pot shreds
and small broken stone boulders. The extent of site
according to the concentration of pot shreds and stone
flakes is measured in a pentagon as 62.3 meters north
to northeast, 53 meters from northeast to south, 61.2
meters from southern point towards west, 42.3 meters
49 IAR, 1962-63, p. 9.
50 Bhat, Dr. Nisar Ahmad Trali, op. cit., p.245.
from west to northwest and 61.5 meters from northwest

to the north. The menhir is in laying position with many
small size cup marks. It is 2.82 meters long with a breadth
of 0.54 meters at one end, 0.70 meters at the middle and
0.15 meters at the other end. One side of the whole slab
is beneath the ground.
4) Hariparigom51
Location and Extent of the Site: Hariparigam is a
village in tehsil Tral district Pulwama located 10 kms
south of the Tral between Dodu karewa and Amlar
Karewa into two parts; Hari and Parigam. The village is
situated 2 kms east of river Jhelum and Srinagar-Jammu
national Highway 1A from Kaigam Awantipora. The
village got its name from a spring namely Hariya and
and the singing fairies (pari in local language).52 The site
is located on the Amlar Karewa between North Latitude
33°53’19” and 75°4’19” East Longitude at the altitude of
1638 meters (5374 Feet) above the sea level. The site is
identified by a good quantity of scattered pot shreds and
the Menhir above the Amlar Karewa or Amlar Wuduer
between the almond and apple trees. The Menhir is
locally called Pari Kaein meaning stone of fairies. The
karewa is 42 meters in height between village Amlar
and Hariparigom with a background of hills Kamleh
Baal and Wasturiwan in the east and north respectively.
The concentration of shreds is more around the menhir
which is in the middle of the 1.5 km Amlar Karewa at the
southern end. The sites measures 43 by 39 meters and
54.3 by 36 meters. The fish shaped menhir is in fallen
position with two rows of 21 small cup marks. The slab is
4.5 meters long with a breadth of 0.55 meters at on end,
0.75 meters at middle and 1 metre at other end and it is 7
51 IAR, 1962-63, p. 9
52 Bhat, Dr. Nisar Ahmad Trali, op. cit., p.108.
inches thick. The site is 3 kms south west of the Gufkral

Neolithic-Megalithic site.
5) Sombur53
Location and Extent of the Site: Village Sombur is
situated on the right bank of river Jhelum between a
Karewa dominantly lacustrine in origin and the river,
exactly along the Jammu-Srinagar NH1A. The area
is famous for its Karewas and Saffron grown on them.
The Paleolithic-Neolithic-Megalithic site of Sambur is
situated on the karewa of Sambur village not more than
a hundred meters east of the bank of river Jhelum, 17
kms south of the Srinagar city in tehsil Pampur district
Pulwama. It is between 33°57’52” North latitude and
74°55’33” East Longitude at an altitude of 1596 meters
(5236 feet) above sea level. I could not find any particular
place on the 42 meters high and about 8 km long Karewa
to designate that as the site, because Department of
Earth Sciences Kashmir University has did excavations
at more than three places with a distance of more than
200 to 300 meters. However, the potsherds and the
Menhir are located on the top of the mound measuring
33 by 29 meters and 36 by 28 meters. On the mound,
there have been erected water supply tanks. Earlier the
Paleolithic and Neolithic artifacts as surface collections
and the elephant tusk54 have been recovered near the
mound on the Karewa. The menhir is like a sleeping
horse shaped slab flat laying in the ground, which is 2.88
meters of length, with the width at one end 0.70 metre,
1.10 metre at middle and 0.30 meter at other end. Locals
believe that it was a horse of a Muslim saint, who turned
into a monolithic stone because of disobedience to his
53 IAR, 1962-63, p. 9. And Pant, R.K., et. al., Man and Environment, Vol.
VI, pp. 37-39.
54 Sahni, Ashok, ‘Karewa Vertebrates: Biostratigraphy, Palaeohistology
and Palaeoecology’, Man ad Environment, Vol. VI, 1982, p. 17-19.
master. There are a number of old caves, scooped into the

west slope of the Karewa.
6) Olchibag55
Location and Extent of the Site: Olchibag is village
25 kms southeast of Srinagar city about 15 kms north of
Pulwama district. The site is situated on the 35 metre
high Karewa near the village between North Latitude
33°57’42” and 74°56’19”, 1599 meters (5246 Feet) above
the sea level. The site is 500 metre from east to west ad 90
metre north to south marked by the scattered pot shreds
and the caves and Gufkral like dwelling pits56, which
are in a ruinous condition in the slopes of the Karewa.
The age-old lake deposits can be still seen in the form
of lacustrine strata at the gullies formed by rainwater
and the nearby agricultural land, which show that how
Neolithic man had lived on the Karewas and then after
the draining out of water used the land for cultivation.
7) Panzgom57
Location and Extent of the Site: The village Panzgam
is situated 2 km west on the left bank of river Jhelum
from NH1A at Sangam Bijbehara and about 32 km
southeast of Srinagar in district Pulwama. The site is
located in the west side of the village on a 30 metre high
Karewa between almond trees near a school at the lap
of the karewa. Because of cultivation on the karewa, it
is almost impossible to identify the site, however the
dispersed but scarce pot shreds helped in identifying it.
The site is located at an altitude of 1623 meters (5324
Feet) above the sea level between 33°50’50” North
55 IAR, 1962-63, p. 9. Pant, R.K., et. al., op. cit., p. 39.

56 IAR, 1962-63, p. 9.
57 IAR, 1962-63, p. 9. Moreover, Pant, R.K., et. al., Man and Environment,
Vol. VI, p. 39.
Latitude and 75°1’28” East Longitude. Because of the

cutting and dredging of the soil near the Karewa it has
yielded a good quantity of pottery shreds but mostly it
seems they belong to historical period.
8) Brah58
Location and Extent of the Site: Brah is about 9.6
km east of Martand temple and 19 km north of district
Anantnag. A rocky hill is standing near the Karewa
without any vegetation. The site is situated between
33°44’32” North Latitude and 75°17’37” East Longitude
on the height of 1726 meters (5662 Feet) above the sea
level. There is a megalithic complex consisting of more
than half a dozen lying widely dispersed on a sloping
Karewa just north of the outskirts of the village Brah.
The menhirs are located so wide apart (average 200
meters) from each other that no coherent plan can be
made out. Shreds of gritty red ware were found during
the exploration by T.N. Khzanchi and the team in 1969-
7059, but I could not find any piece of pottery related to
the period of study.
9) Waztal60
Location and Extent of the Site: Waztal is a site
situated in the agricultural land west of village Halwani
about 12 kilometers north of Mattan spring and 22 kms
north of district headquarter Anantnag. There are 20
Menhirs61 lying scattered in the fields. Local folk believe
that these stones are the bride and bridegroom with the
guests and a horse who turned into monolithic stones (in
local language Wateis) because of their bad deeds. That
58 IAR, 1969-70, p. 13.
59 Ibid, p.13.
60 Ibid, p. 13.
61 IAR, 1969-70, p.13.
is why the site is known as Waztal, because a standing

Menhir is believed is a cook or chef serving the feast
turned into a monolithic stone, who is called Wazeh in
local language. The site is 45 metre north to south, 46
meters south to west, 39 meters west to north and 42
meters from north to east keeping in view the scattered
menhirs. It is located between 33°48’4” North Latitude
and 75°16’24” East Longitude, 1651 meters (5412 Feet)
above the sea level.
Description of the Megaliths

During my field survey of the site I was able to
record only 12 megaliths because the rest were covered
by the paddy crops. All the menirs are in lying position
except one standing at the south corner of the site. It
is like geometrical ‘Trapezium’ shaped megalith, broad
at the top and narrow at bottom, which is 2.85 meters
long, 2 meters wide at top, 1.60 metre at the bottom and
11 inches thick. There are two smaller slabs 3 m south
of this standing stone in a streamlet. 4 m south of the
standing Menhir, there are 4 megaliths in a row one after
other with their ends touching each other and a parallel
line of 2 stones towards the north of them forming like an
‘Avenue’62. There are two slabs outside the two lines of
menhirs. It gives an idea that the megaliths might have
been in a pattern and formed an alignment. One stone
is half buried under the soil in falling position about 80
meters west of these menhirs. Rest of the stones were
under the paddy, which according to the owner of land
are scattered in the fields in the east and the west of
the mentioned complex. The longest slab among these is
4.28 meters, 0.54 metre wide and 0.74 metre thick. The
smaller one is 0.75 m long, 0.51 m wide and 0.32 m thick.
62 Two or more alignments, which are approximately parallel to one

another is called avenue.
The average leangth of the menhirs is 3 m, with mean

breadth 1.2 metre. Because no excavations have been
done there, so there is lack of knowledge whether there
are burials or not. However, the height of the karewa
and the pottery shreds point us towards the fact that
Neolithic-Megalithic people lived there.
9) Balpora63
Location and the Extent of the Site: It is the only
Paleolithic64-Neolithic site so for explored on the exposed
Lower Karewa or Hirpur formation on the left bank of
river Rambiara in village Balpur or Balpora in district
Shopian. The site is located on the mean height of 40
meters above the Karewa between 33°45’16” North
Latitude and 74°52’40” East Longitude at the altitude
of 1956 meters (6417 Feet) above the sea level. The
village is famous for the folk tale of Hemal and Nagraj
and there are two springs associated with the two names
commemorating the love story of the two serpents. The
site is situated between the two springs on a mound and
can be reached by a link road from the Shopian-Puwama-
Srinagar main road. It is 51 kilometers south of Srinagar
and 21 kms from Pulwama. The shreds are present on a
mound measuring 350 meters in length and 288 meters
breadth based on trench marks dug by Department of
Geology and Geophysics University of Kashmir. However,
the actual site is ambiguous, but the pottery shreds made
it possible to identify it.
In addition to these sites, there are other sites65
in the region, which belong to the area under study,
63 Pant, R.K., et. al., op. cit., p. 39.

64 Agrawal, D.P., ‘The Kashmir Karewas- A Multidisciplinary
Perspective’, Man and Environment, Vol. VI, 1982, p. 3.
65 See footnotes under the heading ‘Cultural Profile of South Kashmir’
above.
which include, Barus, Sempora, Pinglish, Haribous,

Kanailwan, Thajwor, Pampur, Shahpend, Romu,
Jayadevi Udar etc. Most of these sites yield surface
collections in the form of pottery shreds, stone flakes
and dwelling caves and pits.
CHAPTER
7
The Surface Evidences from the
Neolithic Sites of South Kashmir
Excavated Evidences
Material culture or artifacts and other concrete things
left by past cultures are an important and authentic
source for reconstructing history of a particular time
and space. Its study helps us to systematically explore
the linkage between the construction of social identities
and the production and use of culture. Material culture
after exploration, collection, identification and analysis
is documented to know the relationship between artifacts
and social relations of the people lived in past. It acts
as text from which the ideas about the structure of the
past can be inferred. For prehistory material culture in
the form of stone and bone artifacts, pot shreds, skeletal
remains, various types of ornaments, dwelling structures
etc. represent the settlers of the period. The study of this
material culture helps us to know about the life of the
man lived in past and his relations with his surroundings.
The Surface Evidences from the Neolithic Sites of… ◄ 111
There is enough archaeological data available for the

study of the Neolithic culture of South Kashmir, The
old used materials, pottery, artifacts and the objects
recovered from these sites give us ample information
of these sites. As mentioned earlier that among the ten
sites under study only one namely Gufkral is excavated,
which have yielded good amount of archaeological data
during excavation, but the rest of sites were just explored
and identified as Neolithic sites and have yielded surface
evidences in the shape of pot shreds. The details of the
material evidences that have been collected from these
sites during explorations or excavations are given as
under.
Variety of polished stone and bone implements have
been found at Gufkral during excavations, which include
stone Celts, ring stones, pounders, pestles, points,
polishers, sharpeners, saddle querns, spindle whorls,
sling balls etc. The bone tools comprise of points, arrow-
heads, awls, scrapers, long borers, needles, harpoons,
and splinters of long bones of animals with well-
polished tips. A few copper implements, semi-precious
beads of stone, carnelian, paste, steatite, terracotta,
bone, cowrie shells and comma or tigers nail shaped
pendent on light green jade were also recovered there. In
addition, handmade pottery in different fabrics, colors,
shades and shapes were also found. The pottery mostly
comprised of handmade Coarse Grey, Black Burnished,
Grey Burnished, Combed wares and wheel turned Black
Burnished and Fine Gritty red wares. The pottery were
decorated with cord and mat impressed flat bases, reed
and straw impressions on body to create rough surfaces,
pinched designs, rough and oblique designs on the necks
and body of the vessels.
Table 7.1. Showing Ware types collected from the Neolithic

Sites of South Kashmir
S. Site Name Burni- Coarse Com- Fine Gritty

No. shed Grey bed Grey Red
1 Gufkral + + + + +
2 Hariparigam + + + + +
3 Begund + + + + +
4 Dadsar + + + + +
5 Olchibag + + + + +
6 Sombur + + + + +
7 Panzgom + + + + +
8 Brah _ _ _ _ _
9 Waztal + + + + +
10 Balapora + + _ _ +
Key + = Present, – = Not present
The nine sites other than Gufkral are all unexcavated

and no stone, bone or metal implements have been found
during the explorations. Only ceramic distribution
has been reported by the explorers from these sites.
Hariparigom, Begund, Olchibag, Sombur and Panzgom
have yielded Coarse Grey, Fine Grey, Burnished,
Combed and Gritty red wares. 30–50 cm long stone Celts
belonging to Neolithic period were found at Sombur.
There is no report of any material remains from Dadsar.
From Waztal and Brah pieces of gritty red ware have been
found. From Balapur in district Shopian huge chopper
like discoid core was found with Burnished, Coarse Grey
and Gritty ware.
Surface Collections during Field Survey of

the Sites
All the sites under study cannot be identified, because
of the destruction of the sites by humans, vagaries
of weather and lack of attention by the archaeology
department. So it was difficult to found a good amount
of the physical remains of the people living there in the
past. At the same time these sites are unexcavated and
added to the difficulty. However, the surface evidences
that were collected during the field survey are as under.
From Gufkral, a stone Celt, three ring stones of
different sizes, a bone pendant, an adze, some broken
neoliths, twelve beads of carnelian, agate, etc., a
circular stone about 4 inch thick with 10 inch diameter
1 inch depressions at both sides at the centre, and some
unfinished stone tools were collected. In addition skeletal
remains of a human body lying north-south position was
also recorded. The pot shreds of different wares and
fabrics were also collected which can be seen in abundance
there. From Balapora a stone ball was recovered with pot
some shreds during the field survey of the site. From rest
of the sites pot shreds of different wares were collected
which are given in table 7.3.
Description of the Artifacts Found during

Field Survey
The tool assemblage of the Neolithic Kashmir collected
from the excavated sites is mainly represented by the
stone and bone implements with some miscellaneous
objects of other materials. Same type of remains of the
period has been collected during the field survey of the
sites under study. A brief description of the material
remains collected during the field survey from the sites
of the Neolithic period used by the Neolithians of South

Kashmir is given as under. The names and functions of
these tools are determined on the basis of morphological
resemblance and parallels from modern tools and not by
using any scientific reasoning.
A Stone Celt
A polished stone Celt or a ground axe of shale stone,
about 18.6 cm long, 58.52 mm broad and 40.71 mm thick
at centre and 17.16 mm at the cutting edge was found
at Gufkral. (Plate VIII, No. 1) It is roughly cylindrical
in appearance and broader at the cutting edge, narrower
at the butt end and squarish or elongated in form. The
broader surface invariably meets in a gentle slope to form
a median cutting edge. The lateral sides are thick, square
and tapering in a gentle slope. The butt end is round. It
seems that the Celt was not hafted because of its size
and weight. It might have been held free hand and was
intended for heavy work. The possible purposes of the
Celt were cutting, chopping, dressing, shaping, splitting
etc. of the things. The Celt was recovered in a cave.
Bone Pendant
A 4.91 mm long, 22.7 mm broad bone pendant of
animal bone with rounded heads tapering towards the
centrs with 18.99 mm thickness was found at Gufkral
(Plate VIII, No. 2). It seems a joint bone of an animal
and a hole had been pierced through one end for hanging
purpose. It might have been a neck ornament used as a
pendant. Besides the rough hole no other work has been
done on it.
Disc with Circular Hole

Item No. 3 on Plate VIII is a half or semi-circle disc
with a circular hole. It has been polished and designed
from a shale stone with18.74 mm whole. It is thick at

centre thinner while moving towards its edges. Its both
faces are finely polished and forming cutting edge all
along the outer periphery. The artifact is 126.69 mm
long, 38.82 mm broad at the centre and 12.8 mm thick
at middle. It might have been used as spindle whorl or
a harvesting tool. A similar half of the disc was found
during excavation of the site in 1981-82. This half was
found at the slope of the mound at Gufkral.
Spindle Whorl or Mace Head

It is a ring stone with 46.63 mm diameter and 11.38
mm thick made from shale stone (Plate VIII, No. 4). It has
a perforation or a hole at the middle creating depressions
at the centre on both sides. It is not much grounded. It
might have been used as spindle whorl intended to act as
a fly wheel on a spindle, giving momentum to its rotation.
It gives the evidence of spinning during Neolithic period.
It also seems that it might have been hafted through the
centre perforation and plugged to hold tight while using
as harvesting tool. In this operation it might have been
mounted on a long stick which was struck against the
standing crop and its edges ensured the harvesting of
agricultural produce. As a mace head it might have been
used as a powerful offensive weapon. This tool was found
near the menhirs in Gufkral.
Half Ring Stone

A half ring stone measuring 101.06 mm in length,
42.78 mm breadth and 28.13 mm thick was also found at
Gufkral (Plate VIII, No. 5). It has a 22.32 mm perforation
at the centre. It is broken at one end and is not polished
on other side, revealing its formative stage. Such thick
type of ring stones might have been used as weight units
for digging sticks.
Stone Ball
A stone ball was recovered from Balapora site
(Plate VIII, No. 6). It is smooth sling ball almost
spherical in shape. It was possibly used as loom weight
for the weaving of cloths. It might have been used as
net sinkers during the fishing operations, as it was
found near the stream originating from a spring. A
big pounder and a big quern were also seen during the
survey in the spring.
An Adze
An Adze made from shale stone was found at Gufkral.
It is thin, cylindrical and made on a flake. One of its faces
is broad, flat and sharp, while the other is broken. The
cutting edge sharp and over all finely ground. It is smaller
and lighter than a Celt. It resembles with the present
day carpenter’s metallic adze but without haft. Neolithic
people had used it for slicing, chipping, dressing the wood
and digging the earth. It is 75.20 mm long, 43.72 mm
broad and 11.72 mm thick at middle. It was found outside
a cave at Gufkral.
Beads
A bead is a small decorative object of different
minerals chiefly of rocks in various shapes, sizes and
colours. It is the artistic embellishment of the hard
work of the craftsmen to convert it into an ornament.
In almost every period of history people used things
to adorn themselves and decorate their surroundings,
because of their aesthetic sense. Same was the case with
the prehistoric people, who wore ornaments of different
materials available as adornments. No doubt simplicity
of the ornament was the general rule of the prehistoric
people. Beads were one of the ornaments used by them
for decoration, beautification and to counteract the evil

of planetary positions. Beads are of three types i.e., non-
stone, semi-precious and precious stone beads, depending
upon the availability of material used in manufacturing
in different regions. Beads are of different shapes like
disc, spherical, cylindrical, barrel, tube, globular, bicone
etc. So for the Neolithic culture of South Kashmir is
concerned we have found twelve beads of semi-precious
stones during field survey of the sites. Below is given the
description of the beads.
Description of the Beads

Twelve Beads of Carnelian, Agate, Chert, and
Jasper were collected from the archaeological mound
of Gufkral site (Plate IX). These beads were scattered
over the top of the mound near the recently constructed
water tank where about 30 feet each two trenches have
been dug as the water reservoirs. It suggests that the
beads were under soil, which came to the surface during
the digging of trenches. The description of the beads is
given as under.
Carnelian Beads
Beads Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 12 on Plate
IX are beautiful translucent red color carnelian
beads. Carnelian is chalcedony that contains iron
oxide formed in the vicinity of volcanic rocks. It is
mainly red or brown-red in colour.
Bead No. 1 is a standard long cylinder with two
convex ends carnelian bead. It has a hole pierced
in the middle with smooth polished body. It is
13.57 mm long and 15.30 mm broad.
Bead No. 3 is a short cylinder carnelian with two
convex ends. It is 12.2 mm in length and 14.14
mm broad. Both the beads have two round edges

each to give the beads convex shape.
Bead No. 5 is a circular carnelian bead with plain
ends measuring 9.22 mm X 12.83 mm. No.7 is a
pure circular carnelian bead which is 7.87 mm
long and 8.59 mm diameter.
Bead No. 8, which is 9.08 mm long and 9.90 mm
broad is also a circular carnelian with wider hole
as compared to Nos. 5 and 7.
Bead No. 9 is a long convex bicone four faced
carnelian bead with squarish ends and four
longitudinal edges and one edge at the bulging
centre of the bead. It is 17.55 mm long and 9.15
mm broad and 9.16 mm thick. No. 10 has 13.22
mm length and 7.65 mm breadth. It is a circular
long truncated convex bicone carnelian bead.
Bead No. 12 is a circular standard truncated
concave bicone carnelian bead with 12.03 mm
length and 9.01 mm breadth at centre.
Bead No. 11 is a long truncated convex cone
carnelian pendent with its hole vertically towards
the small end. It is 14.32 mm long and 8.30 mm
thick at the centre.
Other Beads
On plate IX, bead No. 2 is a circular white agate bead
with black bands or eye bead. Agate is microcrystalline
variety of silica found in various rocks. Its length is 12.60
mm and breadth is 15.59 mm.
Bead No. 4 on Plate II, is a disc shaped milky chert bead
with 18.67 mm diameter and 7.62 mm thickness. Chert is
a fine-grained silica rich microfibrous sedimentary rock.
Earlier no bead of such material has been recovered from

Gufkral during excavations.
Item No 6 on plate II is a dark-reddish roughly square
shaped Jasper bead. It is 19.46 x 12.85 x 16.67 mm bead
with some small depressions. Jasper is an impure variety
of silica and a form of chalcedony.
Earlier a hoard of 1400 such beads was obtained from
Burzuhom and a few from Gufkral. The beads resemble
in shape to the beads of Indus culture and these might
have been acquired from Harappa. As Harappan people
transported Alabaster and Lead from the valley through
upper Jhelum river valley. Similarly the Neolithians of
Kashmir would have transported beads from Harappan
sites. In Kashmir fine agates and carnelians occur to
the north of the Pangong Lake in the Rudok district of
Ladakh. But, there is no evidence of contact with this
region during Neolithic period. So it is obvious that these
beads are not a local production because of the absence of
the raw material in the region. There is also no evidence
of bead manufacturing at any of the sites excavated or
explored because not a single unfinished bead has been
found. But at the same time the presence of the beads at
the Neolithic sites point towards the fact that there were
trading activities going on; the economic condition of the
people was good; people were having sense of glamour
and aesthetics and were not living in a closed society.
They had impact of the neighboring and foreign cultures
as that of Harappan culture.
Pottery
The vessels or utensils made of clay and designed in
different shapes and sizes with some purposes or usage
is known as pottery. It is also known as ceramics derived
from a Greek word ‘Keromas’ meaning ‘burned stuff’ or
‘earthen ware’. The pottery being common man’s utility

since prehistoric times gives us enough information
about his daily life and the society he lived in. Man has
initially expressed his feelings, aesthetics and art through
different means but pottery is one of the impressive means
of his communication of ideas. Study of the prehistoric
pottery helps us to know the society, culture, economy,
and sometimes religious beliefs of the people. It throws
light on the petrology, engineering skills, artisanship,
and technological perfection of the people of that time.
Archaeologically pottery is conceptualized interpretative
tried suggesting that in the context of human social
evolution. It has been considered as the alphabet of
archaeology and archaeological history and an indicator of
a country’s civilization. It helps to reconstruct the history
of a particular time and space as it is non-perishable in
nature and its fragments are sufficient to indicate the
age or chronology and the various cultural stages of the
bygone societies.
Neolithic Pottery of South Kashmir

Most of the Neolithic sites of south Kashmir have been
identified and located on the basis of presence of the pot
shreds of that period as pottery is sufficiently available
throughout the Neolithic sites of Kashmir. A good number
of earthen vessels and pot shreds of different colors,
fabrics, shapes, forms and sizes have been recovered
from the excavated Neolithic sites of Kashmir. Same is
the case with unexcavated Neolithic sites of Kashmir.
During the field survey of the sites under study pot
shreds of different fabrics were collected from the sites.
On the basis of color, texture and fabrics these pot shreds
have been recognized of four types viz., Coarse thick grey
ware, Fine Grey ware, Black burnished ware and Gritty
red ware. The shreds of the different wares were found

almost at every site but in small fragments except a few
big pieces. Hence, it is not possible to draw the shapes of
the pots from these shreds. Therefore, these pot shreds
have been discussed in general on the basis of color,
surface treatment, slip, texture etc. Neolithic pot shreds
from four sites have been choosed and their description is
given below (Plates X, XI, XII and XIII).
Plate X
Item Nos. 1 to 6 in Plate X display the pot shreds
collected from tne Neolithic Site Gufkral. No 1 is
the shred of a shallow bowl with straight flared
out body in thick medium fabric Burnished Grey
ware made on slow wheel. It has featureless
rounded rim. The diameter of the mouth of the
bowl is 20.5 cm.
No. 2 is the shred of a globular bowl in dull red
ware with black patches in medium fabric. The top
portion of the rim is flattish concave with outward
projecting narrow ludge. The low neck portion
has nail pinch designs which seems to have been
executed by a youngster considering the curvature
of the nail. The diameter of the mouth of the bowl
is 20.5 cm.
No. 3 is the neck and mouth portion of a relative
straight sided pot in dull red ware of medium
fabric made on slow wheel. The diameter of the
mouth is 19.5 cm. The out curved featureless rim
has rounded edge.
No. 4 is the neck and mouth portion of a coarse
fabric dull red ware pot with out-flared rounded
rim. The neck portion has gritty exterior finish
which seems to have extended on the body. The

diameter of the mouth of the pot is 26.5 cm.
No. 5 is the bottom portion of a black slipped ware
having a hallow disc base in fine fabric.
No. 6 is the mouth portion of a pot in dull red ware
of medium fabric having evidence of burnishing
on the surface. The out-flared mouth is uniformly
thick with rounded edge which seems to have
been finished by hand. The diameter of the pot at
mouth is 23 cm.
Plate XI
From No. 1 to 6 of Plate XI the shreds have been
collected from Neolithic site Waztal of South Kashmir.
The description of the items is given as under.
No. 1 is a piece of wide conical bowl in coarse
dull red ware with uneven exterior finish. The
diameter of the mouth of the vessel is 24.5 cm. the
edge of the rim is gradually narrowed to give a
rounded finish. It is slow wheel made pot.
No. 2 is the bottom portion of a pot in medium
grey fabric having burnished finish on the both
the inner and exterior surfaces. It is a wheel
throne pot with a low disc base.
No. 3 is a pottery piece of a flared out rim of a pot
in dull red medium fabric. The featureless rim has
rounded finish.
No. 4 is a portion of an out-flared mouth of a big pot
in medium fabric. The featureless rim has flattish
termination at the edge. It is dull red ware.
No. 5 is the mouth portion of a pot with extremely
out-flared rim made of medium red fabric, but
coated with a slip that has given it grayish
lustrous smooth finish. The gradually thickness

of rim portion has rounded finish.
No. 6 is the neck portion of a pot with slightly
slanting straight neck made in medium red fabric.
The pot is given grayish slip giving it lustrous
smooth surface.
Plate XII
Plate XII show the pot shreds collected from the
Neolithic site of Sombur. Below is given the description
of the pottery fragments collected there during field
survey.
No. 1 is the mouth portion of a dull red ware in
medium fabric with flared-out rounded rim with
reduced thickness towards the exterior. It is a
wheel made but the exterior has gritty appliqué
finish. The diameter of the mouth of the pot is
22.5 cm.
No. 2 is a grey ware shred of a slanting straight
sided mouth portion of a pot in medium fabric
with rounded featureless rim. The diameter of the
rim of the pot is 39 cm.
Item No. 3 of the Plate is a rim portion of a dull
red ware in medium fine fabric with grayish
slip on the interior which has turned reddish on
exterior. The Diametre of the mouth of the pot is
45 cm. The rim of the pot is rounded with thumb
thick section having slightly slanting profile on
the exterior.
No. 4 is the mouth portion of a dull red ware with
flared-out rounded featureless rim in medium
fabric. The diameter of the mouth of the pot is 21
cm.
No. 5 is the mouth portion of a pot in dull red ware

of medium fabric with featureless flared-out rim
in medium fabric.
No. 6 is the mouth portion of a dull red ware
with straight curved sides having drooped down
exteriorly extended rim in medium fabric. The
diameter of the mouth of the pot is 19.5 cm.
Plate XIII
Item nos. 1 to 6 of Plate IV are the pot shreds belonging
to the Neolithic site of Hariparigom in south Kashmir.
The description of the pot shreds is gives as under.
Item No. 1 of the Plate XIII is a mouth portion of
a fine red ware having near horizontal flared-out
rim with slightly elevated and having out-ward
double indent exteriorly. The inner portion of the
rim also has deep indented line near the rim. The
shred is given thin grayish red slip exteriorly. The
diameter of the mouth of the pot is 14 cm.
Item No. 2 is the mouth portion of a hand-made
Grey ware with slightly out curved rim. The rim
portion is unevenly finished.
Item No. 3 is the mouth portion of a Grey ware
in medium fine fabric with extremely flared-out
rounded featureless rim, which is thinned down
gradually towards the exterior. The neck portion
is given slanting line decoration.
Item No. 4 is the bottom portion of a dull red ware
in fine fabric with rounded bottom and with disc
base.
Item No. 5 is a shred of a fine grey ware with
exterior basket impression of fine reed. No. 6 is the
shred of a grey ware in medium fabric containing

basket impression exteriorly.
From the above description of the pot shreds from the
Neolithic sites of south Kashmir we come to know that
the pottery of the Neolithic culture of Kashmir belongs
to two technological classes i.e., medium coarse and
medium fine fabrics in grey, black, and dull red ware.
Coarse fabric is characterized by crude and handsome
pottery in which clay used for manufacturing the pottery
is not well levigated. And the different colors are because
of uncontrolled firing. In fine fabric the clay used for
manufacturing of pottery is well levigated, refined by
elutriation and of small particles. Burnished grey ware,
red ware and shades of these wares like black, ashy,
buff etc. are main wares of this fabric. Both handmade
and mostly slow wheel throne pottery was found at
most of the sites under study. While examining the
shreds it seems strip and coil techniques were utilized
for the production of pottery. Handmade pottery could
have been given shapes by pressing hollow ball of clay
in thumbs and then thinning thin walls between the
thumb and finger, specifically in shaping the small
sized vessels. The neck and rims of the pots were made
in various forms and mostly the pots were having disc
bases. The main decoration types found on the pot shreds
are nail impressions, basket impressions, grass and reed
impressions, mat impressions, ridging and notches on the
rims and the necks of the vessels. There is no evidence
of colored or painted pottery from any of the sites. The
shreds of mouth portions of the vessels show that the
pots were having flaring rims, short curved and straight
long necks and wide and open mouths.
The virtue of the Neolithic pottery of south Kashmir
lies in the fine mastery of form and style The above given
description of the shreds in plates X to XIII suggest that

Neolithic people of produced pottery of different shapes
and sizes and for various purposes. The main uses of
the pottery could have been storage of various things,
cooking, dishes used while eating etc. It is obvious that
the Neolithic folk of south Kashmir knew the skillful
craft of pottery production, which had gone through
different stages of pot making. However, what are
lacking are the evidences for substantiating the different
stages of experiments in pottery production. While as
the handmade and wheel throne, pot shreds in different
fabrics and colors clearly show that the Neolithic pottery
of south Kashmir belonged to different sub-cultural
phases and stages of Neolithic period.
Plate I: General view of Gufkral

Plate II: Menhirs at Gufkral

Plate III: A standing menhir at Dadsar

Plate IV: A View of Begund.

Plate V: A view of Hariparigom

Plate VI: A Neolithic Cave at Olchibag.

Plate VII: A standing Menhir at Waztal.

Plate VIII: Neolithic Tools

Plate IX: Neolithic beads from Gufkral.

136
►
Neolithic Culture – An Introduction
Plate X: Neolithic Pottery from Gufkral.

Plate XI: Pot shreds from Waztal.

138
►
Neolithic Culture – An Introduction
Plate XII: Neolithic pottery from Sombur.

Plate XIII: Pot Shreds from Hariparigom

CHAPTER
8
Conclusion
Neolithic Period was that stage of human history

which we can call ‘modern age of prehistory’ because, no
doubt, presently we live in an age of technology, but the
main basic necessities and demands of living are same
in the form of food and shelter with the same sources.
Therefore, the single most profound change in human
cultural history was the domestication of plants, which
altered the basic patterns of life during Neolithic period.
Other developments in the culture were the bi-products
of the process of cultivation of food. Man came to terms
with his surroundings and learnt the exploitation of the
natural resources. Some other general features which
distinguish Neolithic Period from its preceding cultures
are discussed below.
The Survey of the cultural assemblage of the
Neolithic communities of Indian sub-continent
presented in the preceding pages amply demonstrate
that the transition from the hunting-gathering stage
to the food producing stage was a gradual process and
differed from region to region. It emerged at different
Conclusion ◄ 141
points of time due to ecological and environmental

variations within the sub-continent. That is why there
are different trends in Neolithic cultures in different
areas of the sub-continent.
The similarities that were found among all the
Neolithic regions are manufacturing of Hand-made and
kiln fired wares in earlier stages and later wheel thrown
pottery. Black and black burnished, grey, brown and
red-wares were common fabrics. Evidence of structural
remains was seen in all the regions showing sedentary
and settled life style of the Neolithians. Polished stone
tools and implements and bone tools at some places
was another common feature of these cultures. Disposal
of the dead with some regional peculiarities were also
witnessed almost in all Neolithic regions.
Almost all the sites of the different regions have
yielded the remains of wheat, barley, Lentil, Pea and rice
as the source of food. Faunal assemblages in the form of
bones dominated by wild animals in the lower levels and
gradually leading to the domesticated ones in the upper
Neolithic levels show that the Neolithic people ate meat
and were animal hunters and herders. It is supported by
the evidence of butchering, skinning and filleting marks
on the animal bones.
The other interesting observation about the Neolithic
cultures of India is that each Neolithic region maintained
their own unique and distinctive character delineated
by varieties of pottery types, tools and tool typology and
techniques, organized economy, etc. But, at the same
time all these cultures maintained cultural contacts with
their counterparts in the neighboring areas or within the
region. This interchange of ideas, exchange of skills and
swapping of material culture was then the balanced need
of the both sides.
In terms of chronology of the Neolithic cultures of

Indian sub-continent, there are variations in the C14
dates given by the different experts. The chronological
time-spreads vary not only from one Neolithic region to
another region but different levels within the sites in the
region. According to Sankalia, the Neolithic era of India
dates from 3500 BCE to 2000 BCE D.P. Agrawal in ‘The
Archaeology of India’ has given detailed chronological
time periods of the Neolithic cultures of India. On the
basis of half-life value of 5730 years, the radiocarbon
dates show that the Neolithic culture at Kili Ghul
Mohammad started around c.3500 BCE and according
to Habib’s Prehistory, Mehargarh pre-ceramic period
began in 7000 BCE to mature Neolithic culture 4000
BCE. The Northern Neolithic represented by Kashmir
has a bracket of c.2400-1500 BCE. The Chirand in Bihar
started around c.1600 BCE, while as the Southern
Neolithic time-spreadis confined to c.2500 to 1000 BCE.
Hand-made ceramics and rice cultivation was done in
Period I in Eastern Neolithic dates between 2500-2000
BCE Vidhyan Neolithic culture began in c.3500 BCE and
continued till 1200 BCE.
The present study titled ‘Neolithic Culture of
South Kashmir’ was intended to full exploration and
documentation of the unexcavated Neolithic sites of South
Kashmir region accompanied by the surface collections.
After going through the available literary sources, field
survey and analysis of the surface collections, the general
features of the Neolithic culture of south Kashmir that
came forward are summarized below.
Geologically, it is proved that due to the rise of the
Pir Panjals around four million years ago uplifted and
folded the lake sediments and shifted the lake to the
Himalayan flank. The rise of the range continued till
Conclusion ◄ 143
the final drain out of the Primeval Lake around 85,000

years B.P. The point here is that the Karewas in the
Southern Part of Kashmir were first exposed and became
the abode of early man. As the earliest Paleolithic tools
in Asia were recovered in the Lidder Valley and Sombur
of South Kashmir region also justify that the Neolithic
people of the region were their successors and hence
these Neolithic sites are earliest in the valley.
The Neolithic sites are mainly located in the areas of
high elevation between 1550 to 1650 meters above sea
level, on the Karewas, which suggest that the water was
not fully drained out of the valley or the land could have
been swampy, hence inefficient for the cultivation and
the Neolithians might have done their cultivation on the
Karewa beds or terrace cultivation. It is substantiated
by the distribution pattern of the sites which show a
preference for the elevated areas for both settlements and
the terrace farming as is done presently on these Karewas.
All the sites are located close to the water sources, which
might have been utilized for drinking water, farming, and
fishing and may be for transportation. In other words, all
the sites are mainly located on the banks of river Jhelum
and other streams. And all the sites are near the hills
with the availability of rocks as raw material for tool
manufacturing and forests for food gathering, hunting
and cattle rearing.
The occurrence of the Neolithic pottery on the surface
of the sites in the region of South Kashmir, indicate the
site formation process and possible use of associated
tools in the region. The number of sites demarcates
the region as a potential area for the domestication of
both plants and animals.1 Unfortunately, all the sites
1 Sharma, A.K., ‘Gufkral 1981: An Aceramic Neolithic Site in the Kashmir
Valley’, in Asian Perspectives, Vol. XXV (2), 1982-83, pp. 26-39.
are unexcavated except Burzahom and Gufkral so very

little is known of the subsistence, environment and
ecological transformations of these Neolithic Sites.
Making subsistence mode of the Gufkral as the base of
our evidence we can say that the people who lived in
other Neolithic sites near it were agriculturalists and
animal herders. The distance between the sites from
one or other ranges from one to ten kilometers except
Balpora, which suggests that there were demographic
changes and increase in the population. All the sites are
near or around Gufkral, with almost same pottery types,
points towards the fact that the people shared common
cultural trends. Common features in pottery suggest that
people and craftsmen maintained close contacts between
the settlements.
The recovery of various Neolithic stone tools, bone
pendent and fractured bones of a human body and
pottery fragments of various fabrics and colors testify
activities associated with Neolithic people. The presence
of this material culture points towards the fact that
Neolithic people of south Kashmir were good craftsmen
and practiced the art of pottery and tool manufacturing.
The recovery of the semi-precious beads of carnelian,
agate and chert from the sites without raw material found
locally and resemblance with that of Harappan beads,
attest that the Neolithic people of south Kashmir were
having contacts with the outside cultures. It also shows
that there were trading activities during that period. In
order to find out the extent and volume of contact it is
necessary to excavate the sites under reference.
As for as the chronology of the partially excavated
site Gufkral is concerned, there is the presence of a well-
defined aceramic Neolithic level going back to 2797-1850
Conclusion ◄ 145
BCE2 the earliest not only in Kashmir but in India. This

is also a proof that south Kashmir was earliest abode of
Neolithic people in Kashmir.
At all the Neolithic sites under study except Olchibag,
Panzgom and Balpora Menhirs are found, which are
evident for the succeeding Megalithic phase in the
region. It indicates some sort of movement of the new
comers in the valley or adoption of new practices. These
people could have brought new traits with them, which
also show that Neolithic period was succeeded by the
Megalithic period with different features and some past
continuities. In order to know more about this cultural
stage it is necessary to excavate the sites, collect and
analyze material culture of the period.
The distribution of Neolithic sites and material culture
in South Kashmir encourages speculation about the
wider nature of Neolithic culture in Kashmir. Inferences
about the past behavior certainly depend on accurate
descriptions of the materials on which they are based,
and additional attempts to enlarge our knowledge of the
data base are essential. But these sites are still waiting
for the archaeologists dig and investigation so that many
issues can be resolved. Many empirical and theoretical
problems are yet unresolved about the Neolithic culture
of Kashmir. There are much more exciting avenues of
research well worth pursuing regarding the Neolithic
culture of Kashmir in general and of south Kashmir in
particular.
2 Sharma, A.K., Excavating in a Cave, Cist and Church, Delhi, 2005, p.37.
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Index
A Axes 32, 41, 42, 45, 50, 51,

52, 53, 54, 65, 66, 78
Aceramic 37, 39, 62, 64,
71, 75, 144 B
Adze 50, 53, 65, 66, 113, Balapur 94, 95, 98, 112
116
Barus 98, 109
Agate 48, 54, 56, 113, 117,
Barley 32, 40, 43, 46, 47,
118, 144
62, 65, 74, 76, 141
Agriculture 3, 4, 5, 6, 20,
Begagund 24, 95
24, 33, 34, 40, 42, 51,
57, 88 Blades 38, 41, 44, 46, 48,
54
Anantnag 19, 24, 60, 77,
80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, Bomai 72, 78
89, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, Bone Tools 34, 38, 48, 53,
106 54, 61, 68, 74, 111, 141
Archaeology 33, 79, 83, Borers 48, 53, 94, 111
113, 120, 142 Brah 24, 26, 96, 98, 106,
Arrowheads 44, 48, 69 112
Artifacts 23, 42, 44, 46, Burials 25, 41, 58, 71, 72,
49, 50, 53, 54, 82, 84, 108
94, 96, 104, 110, 111 C
Arts 45, 57, 72, 144
C14 45, 96, 142
Awls 38, 41, 48, 54, 69,
111 Carnelian 41, 56, 70, 111,
Index ◄ 157
113, 117, 118, 119, 144 Fine Grey ware 75, 78,
Cattle 33, 44, 45, 56, 58, 120, 124
62, 64, 65, 73, 143 Fish 4, 16, 33, 41, 46, 47,
Celt 33, 42, 44, 46, 48, 50, 54, 56, 57, 62, 65, 67,
51, 52, 63, 66, 75, 78, 69, 103, 106, 143
111, 112, 113, 114, 116 Flake 22, 23, 32, 33, 46,
Cereals 4, 56, 65 50, 94, 102, 109, 116
Chirand 46, 47, 142 G
Chisel 42, 51, 52, 53, 54,
Glacial 10, 23, 87, 89, 90,
65, 66, 76, 78
94
Coarse ware 50
Gordon Childe 4
Copper 20, 26, 27, 28, 32,
Graffiti 71
39, 46, 53, 54, 56, 68,
70, 76, 96, 111 Graves 41, 58, 72, 78
Cultures 20, 25, 32, 35, H
36, 41, 58, 60, 61, 68,
Hafted 24, 38, 67, 69, 114,
73, 74, 97, 110, 119,
115
140, 141, 142, 144
Hair pin 68, 70
D Handmade 27, 44, 49, 55,
Discoid 94, 112 75, 111, 125, 126
Dog 56, 62, 64, 72 Harappan 20, 26, 56, 68,
Domestication 3, 4, 5, 32, 74, 76, 119
33, 34, 37, 40, 43, 47, Haribous 25, 98, 109
51, 52, 64, 140, 143 Hariparigom 26, 95, 96,
Dwelling Pits 25, 47, 63, 97, 103, 112, 124
64, 105 Harpoons 69, 112
E Harvester 50, 62, 65, 67,
69
Eocene 9, 11 Hearth 4, 37, 57, 63, 64
F Himalayan 8, 15, 36, 42,
62, 65, 142
Farming 33, 37, 43, 56,
143 Holocene 9, 12, 13, 32, 60,
87, 90 P
J Points 38, 41, 48, 54, 67,
70, 75, 94, 111, 141,
Jhelum 13, 17, 18, 28, 84,
144
88, 91, 95, 98, 101,
103, 104, 105, 119, 143 Palaeosol 15
Pestles 38, 46, 68, 111
K Pits 25, 42, 47, 57, 63, 64,
Karewa 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 72, 73, 105, 109
15, 24, 61, 63, 75, 78, Post-holes 45, 67, 75
84, 87, 89, 92, 96, 97,
98, 99, 101, 102, 103, Q
104, 105, 106, 108, 143 Querns 38, 44, 46, 48, 53,
Knives 23 68, 111
L R
Lidder 23, 60, 88, 94, 143 Radiocarbon 46, 76, 142
Rambiara 92, 108
M
Religion 20, 72
Mace heads 52, 53, 65, 78
Rice 2, 24, 43, 46, 47, 51,
Manasbal 19 52, 56, 62, 65, 74, 76,
Mat impression 40, 49, 70, 88, 96, 141, 142
125 Rituals 22, 41, 58
Megaliths 25, 100, 107
S
N
Sacrifice 72
Needles 2, 46, 48, 67, 68, Sarai khola 37, 40, 41, 74
69, 116
Seeds 20, 40, 56
O Sheep 32, 40, 43, 56, 64,
65, 68
Ornaments 48, 56, 58, 70,
110, 116 Siwalik 10, 12, 17, 42
Ochre 20, 38, 41, 45, 49, Skeletal Remains 72, 74,
55, 57, 64, 71, 72 80, 110, 113
Index ◄ 159
Sombur 23, 94, 95, 96, 97, 41, 44, 48, 56, 57, 70,
104, 112, 124, 143 78, 96, 111
Spear 69, 72 Trade 3, 20
Spindle whorls 48, 111 W
Storage 37, 55, 57, 63, 64,
73, 99, 126 Waztal 24, 26, 96, 98, 106,
107, 112, 122
Swat 42, 74
Weaving 57, 67, 116
T Wedges 53, 65, 66
Terracotta 26, 27, 28, 38, Wheat 2, 20, 32, 40, 47,
62, 65, 74, 76, 141

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NEOLITHIC CULTURE

Abdul Adil Paray

First Published 2020

[All right reserved. No part of this publication

“Alhamdulillahi Rabbil Aalameen”

Although this is essentially a textbook, it is aimed at

01 June 2020 —Abdul Adil Paray

The term Neolithic has been derived from two Latin

behaviour yet that these considerations are of great

ii. shaping of the tool by grinding in addition to

1 Avebury, Lord, 1900 Prehistoric times as illustrated by ancient

and settlement (v) there must be a pressing necessity

4 Condolle, Alphonse, 1884 Origin of cultivated plants, London, P.2

Fertile Crescent had come to know their habitat so well

7 Braidwood, R.I., 1958 ‘Near-Eastern Prehistory ’, Science, 127, PP.

by man to expand the ecological range of certain heavily

12 Bhattacharya, D. K., 1987 ‘Conditions of the emergence of

2.1. Geology of the Region

(144 MY BP) the various parts of supercontinent known

Eon Era Period/System Beginning of

It was in 1935, Hellmut de Terra and T.T. Paterson

Murree Series Miocene

To sort out the problems and issues raised by the

of the project has given the stratigraphy, produced in the

Age Siwalik Stratigraphy Karewa Stratigraphy

Source: Dr. D.K.Bhatt, 1992, New Delhi, Table 1, p. 49

7 Bhatt, D.K. ‘A review of the stratigraphy of the Karewa group (Pliocene-

height, the basin or Lake Floor tilted towards the north,

sandstones are very less. The sequence is overlain by a

Map 1: Karewa distribution map of Kashmir valley.

This conglomerate is succeeded by sandstone-

bones, gastropods and biological debris.10 The upper

2.2. Geography of Kashmir

range in the south and west and the Karakoram Range

Mountains and Passes

13 Raina, A.N. Geography of Jammu and Kashmir State, Jammu, 2002, p. 4.

1. Karakoram (8615.17 M) and Kyunlun Ranges:

valley towards Pahalgam.

Manasbal Lake, Gangabal Lake, Gadsar Lake, Sheshnag,

District Population District Population

2.3. Brief History of the Region

After Wadia (1970)

Literary traditions give us accurate information about

Nagas lived during the summer months and the Pisachas

Palaeolithic Period. Prof. H.D. Sankalia assisted by S.L.

18 Sankalia, H.D. ‘New Evidence for Early Man in Kashmir’, Current

Evidence regarding the presence of Mesolithic man

In the Sindh valley near the confluence of Krankindi

Menhir type of standing stones. These upright stones

25 Gaur, G.S., ‘Semthan Excavations’ in Archaeology and History:

and surface. The figurines are usually prepared out of a

29 Stein, M. A., Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, Vol. I, Delhi, 2009, pp. 71-74.

We may pass over the next 20 kings whose names

tribe and conquered Afghanistan. He was succeeded by

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries Danish

100,000 to 40,000 years ago, and the upper Palaeolithic

Terminology Stone Tool Types Subsistance

Terminology Stone Tool Types Subsistance

slow process, an evolution and a transformation of living

Characteristic Features of Neolithic Culture

The studies show that the Neolithic phase in Indian

subcontinent into six geographical regions,1 including,

1 Thapar, B.K., ‘Problems of Neolithic Culture in India: a Retrospect, in

4.1. North-Western Region