Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Deeper Dive Into Materials Science
A Deeper Dive Into Materials Science
A Deeper Dive
into Materials Science
BY Stefano Cestellos Blanco, Lukas Michalek, Herbert S. Lin, and
Zhenan Bao
MATERIALS SCIENCE
Introduction
Materials are everywhere, from macro features visi- which remains a long way off, is to be able to create
ble to the naked eye to microscopic features thou- materials on demand by specification — for example,
sands of times smaller than the diameter of a single you put in a request for a material with properties x,
human hair. They shape the objects of everyday life y, and z, and a 3-D printer produces it for you.
and give rise to new possibilities. Materials science
cuts across technological areas, contributing to Broadly speaking, materials science and engineering
everything from the development of stronger and research focuses on four major areas. The first is char-
lighter materials for aircraft, to more efficient and acterizing the properties of materials. The second is
less heavy solar cells, better semiconductors, bio- modeling materials, which involves predicting mate-
compatible materials for medical implants, more rial properties based on atomic principles. The third
stable electrodes for batteries, and easily manufac- is synthesizing materials with precise control to verify
tured and recyclable plastics. whether their properties are as predicted. The fourth
area is manufacturing and processing materials with
The goal of materials science is to understand how the well-characterized properties in sufficient quantities
structure of a material influences its properties and for practical applications.
how processing that material can change its structure
and therefore its performance. This knowledge can The remainder of this document addresses seven
then be used to design new materials with desirable subfields of materials science in which Stanford fac-
properties for specific uses. The ultimate aspiration, ulty play prominent roles.
1
The ultimate aspiration, which remains a long way off, is to
be able to create materials on demand by specification.
Light–Matter Interactions Knowing how light interacts with matter, we can syn-
thesize and engineer materials that take advantage
The electromagnetic radiation spectrum contains radi of those interactions to produce desirable effects.
ation with wavelengths from a few hundred meters For example, we can make solar cells convert sun-
(AM radio) to 10–11 meters (gamma rays). Light is how light into electricity. A solar cell works by employing
we refer to a specific range in this spectrum that is a semiconducting material, such as silicon, with an
visible to us, from roughly 350 nanometers (violet) to electron excitation energy matching the energy of
800 nanometers (red). Yet radiation is all around us. some portion of the solar spectrum. When sunlight
We receive most of our radiation from the sun in the shines on the solar cell, an electron-hole pair is gen-
form of sunlight. Sunlight ranges from the infrared to erated, and each species (electron and hole) is cap-
the ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic radia- tured by electrodes. These are made to flow through
tion spectrum. In addition to perceiving the effects a circuit generating electricity.
For example, the 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Professor Jennifer Dionne and her research group
was awarded to researchers who pioneered quan- study the interaction of light and materials for photo-
tum dots. Many people may have heard of televi- catalysis and sensing.3 Her group is developing the
sion displays that employ quantum dots. They are field of nanophotonics to bring about new tools that
metallic carbonaceous or semiconductor spherical allow the control of light at the nanoscale to detect
nanocrystals that emit bright monochromatic light in pathogens and biomarkers and to direct molecular
response to excitation by a light source with a higher transformations like chemical reactions and catalysis.
energy, such as blue light from the back panel in a Her overall goal is to apply nanophotonic innova-
display. tions to challenges in areas like global health and
sustainability.
What is most interesting about quantum dots is that
their interaction with light is dictated not only by the Photocatalysis deals with the uses of materials or
intrinsic properties of the material but also by their platforms engineered to capture light and catalyze a
size. The bulk material absorbs at different wave- chemical reaction. Using photocatalytic approaches
lengths than when it is in nanoparticle form. The to reduce carbon dioxide and produce hydrogen
electronic properties of the semiconducting material and ammonia is attractive because such approaches
change as a result of this contraction in dimension. can use light from the sun (i.e., renewable solar
The diameter of quantum dots shifts the color of energy) to reduce energy costs and limit greenhouse
light that they emit, with larger quantum dots emit- gas emissions in the production of fuels.
ting longer wavelengths. This allows for tunable light
emission based on the desired application. Professor Dionne’s group has pioneered metallic
nanoparticles that exploit light–matter interactions
Some current applications of quantum dots include: to drive chemical reactions. In more detail, these
metallic nanoparticles are optically resonant and
° Medical imaging Quantum dots are being used produce plasma oscillation (movement of the free
to improve the contrast of biomedical imaging. electron cloud) that could drive chemical reactions
They can be used as fluorescent markers to allow with high efficiency and product selectivity. Pairing
selective labeling of biological structures in vitro these plasmonic nanoparticles with more chemically
and in vivo. Additionally, biocompatible nano- reactive components to better catalyze chemical
materials can be employed as optical probes to conversion is an area of emphasis within her group’s
sense mechanical forces and electrical fields in research. Her group has provided insights to better
biological organisms, thus circumventing special- understand and motivate the field of plasmonic pho-
ized and bulky equipment, opening the possibil- tocatalysis by pioneering composite nanostructures.
ity of new experiments.
Another key application of light-active plasmonic
° Solar cells Quantum dots can improve the effi- materials derives from their ability to change how
ciency of solar cells. Their ability to absorb differ- they interact with light based on their environ-
ent frequencies of light means they can potentially ment. Professor Dionne has developed a platform
that can rapidly and selectively detect pathogenic architecture as a solar cell, but instead of generating
bacteria based on the specific interaction between electricity, it can pair with and stimulate cardiac tissue.
the bacteria and a light-active material. The signa-
ture for pathogenic bacteria can be observed using Professor Dionne, in particular, is focusing on devel-
Raman spectroscopy (a technique that measures the oping portable, rapid-testing tools for pathogens,
interaction between light and material). The key is like tuberculosis, that can improve treatment in
that the Raman signal can be enhanced by using a developing regions. However, translating academic
plasmonic material. The plasmon-enhanced Raman research to applications faces barriers, such as a lack
signal of the material changes depending on the of information and bureaucratic hurdles. More sup-
type of bacteria that is coupled to it. The Dionne port for commercialization and stronger academia-
Group applied a deep-learning algorithm to quickly industry connections could help with this trans-
deconvolute the Raman spectrum and assign signals lation. In addition to being a research professor,
to specific bacteria. Professor Dionne serves as the senior associate vice
provost of research platforms / shared facilities at
Stanford, helping to oversee upgrades to shared
Importance and Policy Dimensions
research infrastructure spanning the life sciences,
Overall, studying light–matter interactions can sustainability, nanofabrication/characterization, and
enable new tools for sensing, directing molecular prototyping. Professor Dionne has found that shared
transformations, and powering catalysis. An exam- facilities are particularly useful for researchers to
ple of exploiting light–matter interactions for catal- share costs and purchase better equipment. It is
ysis and sustainability is converting carbon dioxide also pivotal to hire staff scientists who know the ins
to value-added products such as feedstock chemi- and outs of the equipment and can help researchers
cals and fuels. In this research a light-active platform apply those methods to their work. In general, shared
such as a silicon nanowire p–n junction can be used research facilities enable the convergence of ideas
to generate a photocurrent with solar light. This pho- and collaboration across disciplines, which sparks
tocurrent can then be transmitted to a deposited innovation. The future of such facilities requires
nanoparticle catalyst that selectively binds carbon continued investment and advocacy from university
dioxide and reduces it to other chemical species. leadership.
Light-active materials can also be used in biomedi- Professor Dionne has also noted that federal
cal applications. For example, researchers recently research funding has remained flat, making it hard
invented a wireless silicon-based device that, when to maintain a consistent level of research output.
excited by light, can help to regulate heartbeats, Graduate stipends, postdoc and staff salaries, and
like a pacemaker does. This device follows a similar equipment costs have all increased, yet government
State-of-the-art transistors on a CPU are manufac- Moreover, Professor Pop’s group has reported
tured at the 7-to-14-nanometer feature scale, allow- integrating carbon nanotubes into phase-change
ing for high computation capacity. However, it is materials to be used for nonvolatile data storage
the semiconducting material, namely silicon, that and reconfigurable electronics. To date, high pro-
underpins the fabrication of transistors and CPUs. gramming currents have limited the implementation
Other challenges include the lack of domestic manu- They are made up of polymer chains that are lightly
facturing capabilities and an engineering workforce to cross-linked into a network, giving them their dis-
enable scaling up and commercializing new materials tinctive gel-like consistency.
technologies developed through academic research.
The United States excels at generating innovative Most hydrogels are based on a particular kind of
ideas but frequently sees those breakthrough tech- chemical bond known as a permanent covalent
nologies commercialized first in other countries with bond. Professor Eric Appel’s research group inves-
stronger manufacturing infrastructures. Policy initia- tigates hydrogels formed instead by supramolecular
tives like the Creating Helpful Incentives to Produce interactions (bonds based on non-covalent forces
Semiconductors (CHIPS) Act of 2022 aim to address such as hydrogen bonding or electrostatic interac-
this by rebuilding domestic semiconductor manufac- tions).7 The use of such interactions allows the hydro-
turing. However, Professor Bao argues that the focus gels to self-assemble and disassemble in response
should be on developing next-generation advanced to stimuli like temperature or pH changes. It also
manufacturing capabilities rather than just re-creating enables dynamic rearrangement and flow properties
conventional fabrication facilities. that are advantageous for injection and controlled
drug release.
Professor Bao also sees opportunities for policy to
extend the support for shared research infrastruc- By precisely engineering the molecular interac-
ture and expertise that would benefit multiple aca- tions within these supramolecular hydrogels, it is
demic and industry laboratories. For example, possible to finely tune their properties for different
having centralized staff with specialized skills in applications — such as undergoing shear-thinning
areas like device prototyping, printed circuit board during injection then rapidly regaining a solid struc-
design, data science, and software integration could ture or achieving the right degradation rate for long-
accelerate research outputs across groups com- term drug delivery. Harnessing these fundamental
pared to each group trying to develop such capabil- supramolecular principles has opened up exciting
ities individually. new possibilities for creating “smart” hydrogel mate-
rials that could revolutionize fields like medicine,
environmental protection, and beyond.
Hydrogels can be used as environmentally friendly Another challenge highlighted by Professor Appel’s
wildfire prevention and suppression technologies. They research is the difficulty of coordinating among dif-
can be sprayed onto vegetation to allow fire retardants ferent government agencies and jurisdictions to run
to stick and persist for long periods, preventing fires field trials or pilots, even when a technology shows
from starting or quickly extinguishing new fires before clear potential benefit. More streamlined regulatory
they spread out of control. Field tests have already pathways could accelerate deploying preventative
demonstrated the effectiveness of this approach. innovations, like wildfire protection hydrogels, in
high-risk areas. Similarly, clearer Food and Drug
The team is also working on hydrogels for improved Administration (FDA) pathways and funding support
delivery of cells, like chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) for improving drug delivery technologies — and
T-cell therapies for cancer. By co-delivering thera- not just developing new drug molecules — could
peutic cells along with activating signals in the lead to better formulations that reduce healthcare
hydrogel, they may be able to reduce the need for costs and patient burdens from frequent dosing
complex ex vivo cell processing and manufacturing, requirements.
precise control over properties and functions, facili- applications. History has shown that many ground-
tating the exploration of exotic and unusual chemis- breaking inventions and technologies have emerged
tries and molecules. from basic scientific discoveries that were initially pur-
sued out of sheer curiosity and a desire for knowledge.
Professor Xia’s group has pioneered various types
of chemistry to generate diverse molecular ladder Furthermore, Professor Xia’s research highlights the
materials with high microporosity, antiaromaticity, or importance of international collaboration and the free
responsive behaviors. Additionally, it has developed exchange of ideas in the scientific community. The
techniques for producing polymers with controlled recent policy decisions by the federal government
microstructures and degradation, as well as dynamic to investigate scientists’ ties to foreign governments,
polymer networks and hydrogels. particularly to China’s, have placed undue stress on
researchers of Chinese origin. This has made collabo-
rations and discussions on basic research much more
Importance and Policy Dimensions
difficult or even impossible.
Professor Xia’s research is of significant importance
because it pushes the boundaries of what is possi- Policymakers must strike a balance between address-
ble in materials science. By exploring the synthesis ing legitimate national security concerns and fos-
of unique and exotic molecules, his work has the tering an environment that promotes scientific
potential to uncover materials with novel properties collaboration and the free flow of ideas. Science
and functions that could revolutionize various indus- thrives on open communication and the sharing of
tries and technologies. knowledge across borders, and any policies that
hinder this exchange could potentially stifle innova-
From a policy perspective, Professor Xia’s research tion and scientific progress.
illustrates the need for long-term funding of basic
science, as it exemplifies the importance of pursuing In conclusion, Professor Xia’s research into exotic
scientific exploration without necessarily targeting materials at the interface of chemistry and materials
specific applications. While some of his discoveries science is both fascinating and important. By explor-
may lead to materials with potential applications, ing the synthesis of unique molecules and materials,
the true value of his research lies in the pursuit of his work has the potential to uncover novel proper-
knowledge and the exploration of what is possible ties and functions that could lead to groundbreaking
in chemistry and materials science. applications. However, for this research to flourish,
policymakers must prioritize long-term funding for
Funding agencies and policymakers must recognize fundamental science and promote an environment
the importance of supporting fundamental research that fosters international collaboration and the free
without the pressure of immediate commercial exchange of ideas within the scientific community.
3. Jennifer Dionne is an associate professor of materials science McShane, Eric J., Valerie A. Niemann, Peter Benedek, Xianbiao
and engineering and of radiology (by courtesy) at Stanford Uni- Fu, Adam C. Nielander, Ib Chorkendorff, Thomas F. Jaramillo,
versity. She is also the senior associate vice provost of research and Matteo Cargnello. “Quantifying Influence of the Solid-
platforms / shared facilities, helping to oversee upgrades to Electrolyte Interphase in Ammonia Electrosynthesis.” ACS
shared research infrastructure spanning the life sciences, sus- Energy Letters 8, no. 10 (2023): 4024–32.
tainability, nanofabrication/characterization, and prototyping. Zhou, Chengshuang, Arun S. Asundi, Emmett D. Goodman, Jiyun
Professor Dionne’s research group is dedicated to studying Hong, Baraa Werghi, Adam S. Hoffman, Sindhu S. Nathan,
nanophotonics for biosensing and molecular control. In more Stacey F. Bent, Simon R. Bare, and Matteo Cargnello. “Steer-
detail, Professor Dionne strives to develop new tools that allow ing CO2 Hydrogenation Toward C–C Coupling to Hydro
control of light at the nanoscale to detect pathogens and bio- carbons Using Porous Organic Polymer/Metal Interfaces.”
markers as well as direct molecular transformations like chemi- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119, no. 7
cal reactions and catalysis. (2022): e2114768119.
4. Mitch Ambrose, “Many Science Agencies Cut in Final FY24
Budget,” American Institute of Physics, March 5, 2024, https://
ww2.aip.org/fyi/many-science-agencies-cut-in-final-fy24-budget.
LIGHT–MATTER INTERACTIONS
5. Eric Pop is the Pease-Ye Professor of electrical engineering and
professor, by courtesy, of materials science and engineering Alivisatos, A. P. “Semiconductor Clusters, Nanocrystals, and Quan-
and applied physics at Stanford University. Professor Pop leads tum Dots.” Science 271, no. 5251 (1996): 933–37.
research on one- and two-dimensional materials for electron- Ho, Chi-Sing, Neal Jean, Catherine A. Hogan, Lena Blackmon, Ste-
ics, data storage, and energy. fanie S. Jeffrey, Mark Holodniy, Niaz Banaei, Amr A. E. Saleh,
6. Professor Zhenan Bao leads a highly interdisciplinary research Stefano Ermon, and Jennifer Dionne. “Rapid Identification of
group at Stanford University that focuses on developing new Pathogenic Bacteria Using Raman Spectroscopy and Deep
polymers and materials for flexible and wearable electronics. Learning.” Nature Communications 10, no. 4927 (2019).
Their goal is to create electronics that can mimic the properties Murray, C. B., D. J. Norris, and M. G. Bawendi. “Synthesis and
of human skin: flexible, stretchable, self-healing, and able to Characterization of Nearly Monodisperse CdE (E = Sulfur, Sele-
sense various stimuli like pressure, strain, heat, and chemicals. nium, Tellurium) Semiconductor Nanocrystallites.” Journal of
7. Professor Eric Appel and his research group at Stanford Uni- the American Chemical Society 115, no. 19 (1993): 8706–15.
versity are working on developing novel hydrogel materials for Schuller, Jon A., Edward S. Barnard, Wenshan Cai, Young Chul
applications in healthcare, environmental sustainability, and Jun, Justin S. White, and Mark L. Brongersma. “Plasmonics for
other areas. A key focus is using these supramolecular hydrogel Extreme Light Concentration and Manipulation.” Nature Mate-
materials for better delivery of modern protein-based drugs for rials 9, no. 3 (2010): 193–204.
vaccines, cancer therapies, and treatments for diabetes.
Sytwu, Katherine, Michal Vadai, Fariah Hayee, Daniel K. Angell,
8. Professor Joseph DeSimone is working at the cutting edge of Alan Dai, Jefferson Dixon, and Jennifer A. Dionne. “Driving
3-D printing technology, pushing the boundaries of what is Energetically Unfavorable Dehydrogenation Dynamics with
possible with additive manufacturing. His research focuses on Plasmonics.” Science 371, no. 6526 (2021): 280–83.
developing advanced light-based 3-D printing techniques that
allow for the creation of incredibly small and intricate structures
with complex geometries.
9. Professor Yan Xia’s research lies at the fascinating intersec- NANOMATERIALS FOR ELECTRONICS
tion of chemistry and materials science. His primary focus is
on designing and synthesizing unique small and large mole- Bae, Myung-Ho, Zuanyi Li, Zlatan Aksamija, Pierre N. Martin, Feng
cule building blocks to create materials with unique proper- Xiong, Zhun-Yong Ong, Irena Knezevic, and Eric Pop. “Ballis-
ties. Through a combination of catalysis, organic and polymer tic to Diffusive Crossover of Heat Flow in Graphene Ribbons.”
chemistry, and advanced characterization techniques, Profes- Nature Communications 4, no. 1734 (2013).
sor Xia’s group can construct novel (macro)molecular structures Das, Saptarshi, Amritanand Sebastian, Eric Pop, Connor J. McClel-
and organic materials with tailored conformations, nanostruc- lan, Aaron D. Franklin, Tibor Grasser, Theresia Knobloch, et al.
tures, properties, and functions.
Lukas Michalek is a postdoctoral scholar at Stanford Zhenan Bao is the K. K. Lee Professor in Chemical
University in Professor Zhenan Bao’s research lab. Engineering and professor, by courtesy, of chemistry
His research work focuses on the advancement of and materials science and engineering at Stanford
soft-matter materials through comprehensive mate- University. She has more than 700 refereed pub-
rials characterization. He received his PhD in mate- lications and 80 patents. Her research focuses on
rials science and polymer chemistry at Queensland organic electronics, including skin-inspired materials,
University of Technology in Brisbane, Australia. dynamic energy storage, and recyclable, reprocess-
able materials. She received her PhD in chemistry
from the University of Chicago.
Stanford University is tightly coupled to the scientific and technological innovation ecosystem and has been for
many years. The Stanford Emerging Technology Review (SETR) is a joint effort from the Hoover Institution and
Stanford University School of Engineering spanning the efforts of more than s eventy-five Stanford scholars and
scientists to identify barriers, needs, and opportunities for progress in ten technology fields. This series of Deeper
Dives, intended to be read in conjunction with the annual Stanford Emerging Technology Review, probes more
deeply into the science and technology across selected technology fields covered in the original report and trans-
lates them for a policy audience.
SETR is co-chaired by Condoleezza Rice, John B. Taylor, Jennifer Widom, and Amy Zegart.
The publisher has made this work available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivs license 4.0.
To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0.
Copyright © 2024 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University
The topics covered reflect the interests of the specific Stanford faculty engaged for this effort. Had other faculty
from the same departments been involved, the coverage would likely be somewhat different, emphasizing
different topics and offering a different perspective on the technology landscape.
setr.stanford.edu | hoover.org
30 29 28 27 26 25 24 7 6 5 4 3 2 1