S TA N F O R D U N I V E R S I T Y

THE STANFORD EMERGING TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

A Deeper Dive
into Materials Science
BY Stefano Cestellos Blanco, Lukas Michalek, Herbert S. Lin, and
Zhenan Bao
 MATERIALS SCIENCE

Introduction
Materials are everywhere, from macro features visi- which remains a long way off, is to be able to create
ble to the naked eye to microscopic features thou- materials on demand by specification — for example,
sands of times smaller than the diameter of a single you put in a request for a material with properties x,
human hair. They shape the objects of everyday life y, and z, and a 3-D printer produces it for you.
and give rise to new possibilities. Materials science
cuts across technological areas, contributing to Broadly speaking, materials science and engineering
everything from the development of stronger and research focuses on four major areas. The first is char-
lighter materials for aircraft, to more efficient and acterizing the properties of materials. The second is
less heavy solar cells, better semiconductors, bio- modeling materials, which involves predicting mate-
compatible materials for medical implants, more rial properties based on atomic principles. The third
stable electrodes for batteries, and easily manufac- is synthesizing materials with precise control to verify
tured and recyclable plastics. whether their properties are as predicted. The fourth
area is manufacturing and processing materials with
The goal of materials science is to understand how the well-characterized properties in sufficient quantities
structure of a material influences its properties and for practical applications.
how processing that material can change its structure
and therefore its performance. This knowledge can The remainder of this document addresses seven
then be used to design new materials with desirable subfields of materials science in which Stanford fac-
properties for specific uses. The ultimate aspiration, ulty play prominent roles.

1
 The ultimate aspiration, which remains a long way off, is to
be able to create materials on demand by specification.

efficient and cheaper catalysts. Even a modest

increase in energy efficiency of 1 or 2 percent can
Catalysis make a multimillion-dollar difference in industrial-
scale processes.
The world is powered by and made up of chemicals
and chemical compounds. Consider a car, for exam- Catalysts have touched most aspects of industrial
ple: The gas has been separated and purified from development. Notably, innovations in catalytic pro-
crude oil into a highly specialized car fuel — gasoline. cesses have been instrumental in feeding the world.
The largely plastic interior is made up of polymers A collaboration between industry and academic
that also stem from a crude oil feedstock and have researchers yielded the invention of the Haber-Bosch
been formed into specific parts. The car’s metal alloy process, which combines nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen
has been extracted from ores and machined together (H2) to form ammonia (NH3). Ammonia is, in turn, a
through highly technical metallurgical processes. critical component of fertilizers that are used every-
where for modern agriculture. The key to the Haber-
But how does the conversion of chemicals and Bosch process is a catalyst made of finely ground
materials from a feedstock occur? It is not enough to and very pure magnetite (Fe3O4), which promotes
simply put in energy in the form of heat or pressure; the reactivity of hydrogen and nitrogen to form
rather, the chemical conversion must be specifically ammonia. Fritz Haber, the inventor of this process,
guided by a catalyst. Catalysts are used to acceler- was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1918.
ate chemical reactions, making such reactions pro-
ceed more quickly or with less energy, or to more At Stanford, a number of current and previous fac-
effectively extract energy from a fuel source. ulty members and staff scientists across depart-
ments and at the SLAC (Stanford Linear Accelerator
A classic catalyst that people often consider is en­ Center) National Accelerator Laboratory study or
zymes, which are proteins present in every living have studied catalysis. The most active area of mod­
organism. Enzymes act to catalyze the conversion ern heterogenous catalysis research is on how to
of biomolecules, the modification of other proteins, apply nanotechnology to catalysis. State-of-the-art
or the extraction of nutrients from food sources. In characterization techniques and equipment — such
a similar fashion, industrial catalysts serve to convert as transmission and scanning electron micro-
feed­stocks, such as crude oil, into simple chemical scopes, X-ray diffraction, and X-ray photoelectron
molecules that can be harnessed as building blocks to spectroscopy — allow researchers to explore and
­
make an array of compounds, including plastics. Cat­ architect materials down to the nanometer and even
alysts are also used to make energy conversion more atomic scales.
efficient where energy must be extracted from fuel
sources like natural gas and other hydrocarbon fuels. Having the ability to precisely measure and charac-
terize materials has enabled scientists to understand
Thus, a vibrant area of academic and industrial how material properties influence chemical conver-
research results from the drive to design more sion and energy extraction in catalytic processes.

2 STANFORD EMERGING TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

The application of nanocrystals (regularly arranged the required energy consumption. The Cargnello
atoms in a defined lattice form a crystal, and a nano- Group is making strides in understanding the best
crystal is a crystal with at least one dimension being ways to undertake this electrochemical ammonia
smaller than 100 nanometers) is a particularly excit- production.
ing topic in catalysis, as nanocrystals contain a high
number of active sites per mass and can be chemi- Additionally, the group has described strategies to
cally architected using conventional laboratory tech- make palladium catalysts more stable at high tem-
niques. Nanoparticles can also be easily integrated peratures. A big challenge with nanoparticle catalysts
into thermochemical and electrochemical reactors. is that they may not be stable at high temperatures
and pressures. The nanoparticles combine in a pro­
As an example of Stanford research in catalysis, cess called sintering to form macroaggregates that
Professor Matteo Cargnello and his research group are not as catalytically active. Cargnello Group re­
are developing new catalysts and materials for indus- searchers have shown that they can encapsulate
trial processes such as producing ammonia, gener- palladium nanoparticles in a protective aluminum
­
ating hydrogen, valorizing biomass, and converting oxide framework to prevent sintering at high tem-
carbon dioxide (CO2) to chemical building blocks.1 peratures and maintain long-term catalytic activity.
His research aims to find ways to reduce energy
usage and greenhouse gas emissions from these Another example of a process that can be catalyzed
important industrial processes through, for example, by nanoparticles is carbon dioxide fixation. Carbon
electrochemical approaches powered by nanoparti- dioxide can be converted to other hydrocarbons
cle catalysts. The main emerging technology areas and oxygenates by transferring electrons and pro-
that his group is focused on are the development of tons to it or by allowing the carbon atoms to react
novel catalysts and catalytic processes. together to form carbon–carbon (C–C) bonds. This
process is catalyzed by nanoparticles that specifi-
The general goal of the research in the Cargnello cally bind carbon dioxide and allow its conversion.
Group pertains to solving energy and environmen- The Cargnello Group has made contributions to the
tal challenges. The group specifically focuses on the study of carbon dioxide fixation and has recently
capture and conversion of carbon dioxide, emission described a method to synthesize ruthenium nano­
control and the reduction of methane and hydrocar- particles coated with a polymer that can control the
bon emissions in the atmosphere, sustainable chem- generation of specific products.
ical practices through electrocatalysis, sustainable
production of hydrogen, valorization of waste bio-
Importance and Policy Dimensions
mass, and upcycling plastics.
The research described above seeks to reduce
Recently, this research group has studied the under- energy usage and greenhouse gas emissions from
lying mechanistic process of nitrogen-to-ammonia industrial processes through the development of
conversion using electricity. The Haber-Bosch pro- new catalysts and materials. Such research would
cess, mentioned earlier, produces ammonia on an help individual operators of industrial processes
industrial scale. However, this process requires a reduce their energy costs. Furthermore, if deployed
tremendous amount of energy; globally, the Haber- on a large scale, these new catalysts and materials
Bosch process uses about 2 percent of the world’s have the potential to impact the energy landscape
energy.2 Producing ammonia at ambient conditions and reduce the amount of greenhouse gases in the
(i.e., at room temperature and pressure rather than atmosphere. This would, in turn, slow the tempera-
at the high temperatures and pressures currently ture rise on earth and prevent potentially deleterious
required) with electricity would drastically decrease climatic events.

A Deeper Dive into Materials Science 3

 Of course, a prerequisite for wide adoption of this of sunlight with our eyes, we experience them when
technology is a demonstration that it will indeed we become sunburned due to sunlight’s ultraviolet
reduce costs and also be stable and scalable. rays, and we feel heat due to the infrared portion
Government policies can play a role in the adop- of sunlight. From these effects we can deduce that
tion of new catalysts by attaching costs to carbon electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter and
emissions, thus creating financial incentives for materials (such as our skin) in ways that are specific
companies to invest more resources in the research to both the nature of the material and the wave-
and development of catalytic strategies that yield length of the incident radiation.
cleaner products and process.
When electromagnetic radiation (e.g., light) enters
Professor Cargnello is cognizant of the need to matter, it can either pass through it or interact with
improve research infrastructure through the cre- it. What properties of matter determine whether a
ation of long-term cross-disciplinary research cen- material will transmit or interact with a specific wave-
ters focused on societal challenges, where scientists length of light? Light and matter are fundamentally
from varied disciplines can work together. In addi- different. Light has no mass and can move through a
tion, a key ethical consideration when inventing vacuum at 3 × 108 meters per second, whereas matter
and discovering new technology is ensuring equal is made up of atoms bonded together into mole-
global access to the technology, particularly when it cules or materials. However, atoms made up of a
is geared toward improving environmental impact. nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud and atoms
sitting bonded to other atoms also have electric
fields that allow for interaction with electromagnetic
radiation.

Light–Matter Interactions Knowing how light interacts with matter, we can syn-
thesize and engineer materials that take advantage
The electromagnetic radiation spectrum contains radi­ of those interactions to produce desirable effects.
ation with wavelengths from a few hundred meters For example, we can make solar cells convert sun-
(AM radio) to 10–11 meters (gamma rays). Light is how light into electricity. A solar cell works by employing
we refer to a specific range in this spectrum that is a semiconducting material, such as silicon, with an
visible to us, from roughly 350 nano­meters (violet) to electron excitation energy matching the energy of
800 nanometers (red). Yet radiation is all around us. some portion of the solar spectrum. When sunlight
We receive most of our radiation from the sun in the shines on the solar cell, an electron-hole pair is gen-
form of sunlight. Sunlight ranges from the infrared to erated, and each species (electron and hole) is cap-
the ultraviolet portion of the electro­magnetic radia- tured by electrodes. These are made to flow through
tion spectrum. In addition to perceiving the effects a circuit generating electricity.

Government policies can play a role in the adoption of new

catalysts by attaching costs to carbon emissions.

4 STANFORD EMERGING TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

Many resources have been devoted to studying capture more of the solar spectrum, boosting the
and engineering materials that interact with light performance of solar panels.
in a specific manner. This research results in knowl-
edge used to harvest solar energy, improve display ° Sensors Quantum dots can be used in sen-
and lighting technology, and potentially enable sors for detecting chemicals and biological
optoelectronics. substances.

For example, the 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Professor Jennifer Dionne and her research group
was awarded to researchers who pioneered quan- study the interaction of light and materials for photo-
tum dots. Many people may have heard of televi- catalysis and sensing.3 Her group is developing the
sion displays that employ quantum dots. They are field of nanophotonics to bring about new tools that
metallic carbonaceous or semiconductor spherical allow the control of light at the nanoscale to detect
nanocrystals that emit bright monochromatic light in pathogens and biomarkers and to direct molecular
response to excitation by a light source with a higher transformations like chemical reactions and catalysis.
energy, such as blue light from the back panel in a Her overall goal is to apply nanophotonic innova-
display. tions to challenges in areas like global health and
sustainability.
What is most interesting about quantum dots is that
their interaction with light is dictated not only by the Photocatalysis deals with the uses of materials or
intrinsic properties of the material but also by their platforms engineered to capture light and catalyze a
size. The bulk material absorbs at different wave- chemical reaction. Using photocatalytic approaches
lengths than when it is in nanoparticle form. The to reduce carbon dioxide and produce hydrogen
electronic properties of the semiconducting material and ammonia is attractive because such approaches
change as a result of this contraction in dimension. can use light from the sun (i.e., renewable solar
The diameter of quantum dots shifts the color of energy) to reduce energy costs and limit greenhouse
light that they emit, with larger quantum dots emit- gas emissions in the production of fuels.
ting longer wavelengths. This allows for tunable light
emission based on the desired application. Professor Dionne’s group has pioneered metallic
nanoparticles that exploit light–matter interactions
Some current applications of quantum dots include: to drive chemical reactions. In more detail, these
metallic nanoparticles are optically resonant and
° Medical imaging Quantum dots are being used produce plasma oscillation (movement of the free
to improve the contrast of biomedical imaging. electron cloud) that could drive chemical reactions
They can be used as fluorescent markers to allow with high efficiency and product selectivity. Pairing
selective labeling of biological structures in vitro these plasmonic nanoparticles with more chemically
and in vivo. Additionally, biocompatible nano- reactive components to better catalyze chemical
materials can be employed as optical probes to conversion is an area of emphasis within her group’s
sense mechanical forces and electrical fields in research. Her group has provided insights to better
biological organisms, thus circumventing special- understand and motivate the field of plasmonic pho-
ized and bulky equipment, opening the possibil- tocatalysis by pioneering composite nanostructures.
ity of new experiments.
Another key application of light-active plasmonic
° Solar cells Quantum dots can improve the effi- materials derives from their ability to change how
ciency of solar cells. Their ability to absorb differ- they interact with light based on their environ-
ent frequencies of light means they can potentially ment. Professor Dionne has developed a platform

A Deeper Dive into Materials Science 5

 Shared research facilities enable the convergence of
ideas and collaboration across disciplines, which sparks
innovation.

that can rapidly and selectively detect pathogenic architecture as a solar cell, but instead of generating
bacteria based on the specific interaction between electricity, it can pair with and stimulate cardiac tissue.
the bacteria and a light-active material. The signa-
ture for pathogenic bacteria can be observed using Professor Dionne, in particular, is focusing on devel-
Raman spectroscopy (a technique that measures the oping portable, rapid-testing tools for pathogens,
interaction between light and material). The key is like tuberculosis, that can improve treatment in
that the Raman signal can be enhanced by using a developing regions. However, translating academic
plasmonic material. The plasmon-enhanced Raman research to applications faces barriers, such as a lack
signal of the material changes depending on the of information and bureaucratic hurdles. More sup-
type of bacteria that is coupled to it. The Dionne port for commercialization and stronger academia-
Group applied a deep-learning algorithm to quickly industry connections could help with this trans-
deconvolute the Raman spectrum and assign signals lation. In addition to being a research professor,
to specific bacteria. Professor Dionne serves as the senior associate vice
provost of research platforms / shared facilities at
Stanford, helping to oversee upgrades to shared
Importance and Policy Dimensions
research infrastructure spanning the life sciences,
Overall, studying light–matter interactions can sustainability, nanofabrication/characterization, and
enable new tools for sensing, directing molecular prototyping. Professor Dionne has found that shared
transformations, and powering catalysis. An exam- facilities are particularly useful for researchers to
ple of exploiting light–matter interactions for catal- share costs and purchase better equipment. It is
ysis and sustainability is converting carbon dioxide also pivotal to hire staff scientists who know the ins
to value-added products such as feedstock chemi- and outs of the equipment and can help researchers
cals and fuels. In this research a light-active platform apply those methods to their work. In general, shared
such as a silicon nanowire p–n junction can be used research facilities enable the convergence of ideas
to generate a photocurrent with solar light. This pho- and collaboration across disciplines, which sparks
tocurrent can then be transmitted to a deposited innovation. The future of such facilities requires
nanoparticle catalyst that selectively binds carbon continued investment and advocacy from university
dioxide and reduces it to other chemical species. leadership.

Light-active materials can also be used in biomedi- Professor Dionne has also noted that federal
cal applications. For example, researchers recently research funding has remained flat, making it hard
invented a wireless silicon-based device that, when to maintain a consistent level of research output.
excited by light, can help to regulate heartbeats, Graduate stipends, postdoc and staff salaries, and
like a pacemaker does. This device follows a similar equipment costs have all increased, yet government

6 STANFORD EMERGING TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

funding for the largest scientific organizations has Silicon can be used in its pure form as a single crys-
not kept up.4 Clearer and increased policymaker tal. Dopants such as boron, arsenic, or phosphorous
vision about long-term global problems could spur can also be added to silicon to give it conducting
strategic investment in fundamental research, and properties different from those of pure silicon, or it
investment in fundamental research equals invest- can be oxidized to create insulating layers on a chip.
ment in the future workforce. Finally, science educa- It can also be patterned with photoresist for lithogra-
tion and training could be made more equitable and phy and selectively etched. The innovations around
accessible through policies that promote inclusion, silicon processing allow modern society to operate.
as well as through new technologies like artificial
intelligence and open coursework. Professor Eric Pop’s research group focuses on the
applications of one- and two-dimensional materials
for electronics.5 He sees an opportunity to employ
these materials, which, in specific applications,
could have even more desirable characteristics
Nanomaterials for Electronics than conventional semiconductors. For example,
single- or two-dimensional materials — in particular,
Semiconducting materials are at the heart of all carbon nanotubes — conduct electricity better than
electronic devices. Computational devices rely on conventional semiconductors (e.g., silicon), even if
central processing units (CPUs), which process the the former are only a few atoms thick. By contrast,
instructions of a computer program — such as the the conductivity of silicon decreases in films thinner
text editor this report is being written on. A CPU than a few nanometers. Therefore, one- and two-­
comprises an array of millions of transistors that act dimensional materials could be used in applications
as logic gates regulating current flow and amplifying where extremely thin conductive films are required.
electrical signals.
Another advantage of low-dimensional materials is
The most common type of transistor in use today is that they can be grown directly on or transferred
a metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor to a variety of substrates, even amorphous ones.
(MOSFET). Broadly, a MOSFET works by controlling Materials like two-dimensional molybdenum disul-
the current flow across a channel by means of a volt- fide (MoS2) can be grown directly on amorphous
age gate with variable resistance. The MOSFET con- silicon dioxide, which could allow for the integra-
sists of two silicon-based p–n junctions not in contact tion of this material into established workflows.
with each other. In between the two p–n junctions Conventional metals and semiconductors need to
lies a metal contact separated by a dielectric metal be synthesized on a substrate with a similar crystal
oxide layer, commonly silicon dioxide (SiO2), that structure, thus possibly limiting device architectures.
electrically insulates the two p–n junctions from the Another example is carbon nanotubes, which can
metal contact. When the voltage applied to the be synthesized elsewhere and transferred directly
metal layer exceeds the threshold voltage, an inver- through simple spray coating or drop casting onto
sion layer is created between the two p–n junctions, polymer substrates, thus enabling the assembly of
allowing for current to flow. many flexible electronics.

State-of-the-art transistors on a CPU are manufac- Moreover, Professor Pop’s group has reported
tured at the 7-to-14-nanometer feature scale, allow- integrating carbon nanotubes into phase-change
ing for high computation capacity. However, it is materials to be used for nonvolatile data storage
the semiconducting material, namely silicon, that and reconfigurable electronics. To date, high pro-
underpins the fabrication of transistors and CPUs. gramming currents have limited the implementation

A Deeper Dive into Materials Science 7

 of phase-change materials. By integrating carbon application-driven research on semiconductors, sim-
nanotubes into phase-change materials, the group ilar to what industrial research labs like Bell Labs did
has achieved power operation two orders of magni- in the past. More focused research organizations like
tude lower than other reported devices. the Interuniversity Microelectronics Centre (IMEC)
are needed. Academic research tends to be too scat-
tered, while industry’s efforts are too incremental.
Importance and Policy Dimensions Funding that brings together academia, national
labs, and industry could help accelerate progress.
Professor Pop noted that the semiconductor indus-
try is very conservative and cautious in adopting new Finally, support for an advanced semiconductor
nanomaterials like carbon nanotubes, preferring to workforce, both during their education and after
continue using silicon as long as possible due to the graduation, is necessary if the United States wishes
massive investments already made in silicon tech- to regain prominence in this field. Increased invest-
nology. However, as the research results look more ment is needed in training the semiconductor labor
promising, industry is now taking two-­dimensional force. This industry hires highly trained workers who
semiconductors more seriously. Professor Pop believes have advanced degrees. Research funding is nec-
that adopting two-dimensional materials could extend essary not only for the research itself but also as a
Moore’s law if atomically thin transistors can be reli- method to train highly skilled engineers and scien-
ably fabricated. However, a major challenge for these tists. Furthermore, a better pathway to permanent
materials is synthesizing them in large areas with low residence upon graduation for PhD students on stu-
defect density. Point defects and unwanted charge dent visas will be necessary if the United States is to
impurity densities in monolayer two-­ dimensional retain these highly trained engineers.
semiconductors are 100 times too high.

Policymakers could consider establishing a national

rapid-prototyping facility for testing new semicon-
ductor materials and better aligning incentives for Wearable Electronics
semiconductor professionals. There are many two-­
dimensional materials left to discover and test, yet Professor Zhenan Bao’s research group concentrates
only a few have received much of the funding and on stretchable electronics and organic semiconduc-
attention. Moreover, there is a need for more focused tors.6 Traditional electronic devices are rigid, with

Policymakers could consider establishing a national

rapid-prototyping facility for testing new semiconductor
materials and better aligning incentives for semiconductor
professionals.

8 STANFORD EMERGING TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

components like sensors and circuits built on inflex- polymer physics are all needed to accelerate this
ible silicon wafers. Stretchable electronics aim to materials discovery pipeline.
create devices that can bend, stretch, and deform
like rubber without compromising their electronic The flexibility and sensing capabilities of the materi-
performance. als and devices developed by Professor Bao’s team
enable applications in areas such as biomedical
This is achieved by building electronic components devices, robotics, and wearable health monitors.
from semiconductor materials based on polymers Potential products range from conformal electron-
or organic (i.e., carbon-based) molecules rather than ics applied on human skin and implantable sensors,
from conventional silicon/inorganic semiconductors. to prosthetics with a humanlike sense of touch.
Poly­mers are long chains of repeating molecular However, it can take decades to go from initial mate-
units that can be tailored to be elastic and mallea- rial invention to an actual product, especially for dis-
ble. Organic semiconductors can transport electri- ruptive technologies.
cal charges and operate as transistors, sensors, and
other circuit components, similar to silicon, but they
Importance and Policy Dimensions
have added flexibility inherited from their polymer
material properties. Wearable sensors and health-monitoring devices
enabled by flexible electronics could help make
These materials open up entirely new product pos- healthcare more accessible and equitable across
sibilities, such as lightweight sensor skins for robots, socioeconomic groups, if they are produced at a
wearable body monitors that move with the user, low-enough cost. However, potential risks in areas
and biomedical implants that conform to organs and like data privacy would need to be carefully consid-
tissues. However, realizing this potential requires ered as these technologies develop and translate
overcoming synthetic challenges to control the into widespread adoption by society.
molecular structures of polymers and predict their
resulting electrical and mechanical characteristics. Professor Bao’s research exemplifies how cutting-
edge materials can enable revolutionary new product
In this area, a major challenge is the ability to pre- capabilities. But it also highlights some key policy
dict how the chemical structures of polymers and areas — such as research funding structures, man-
molecules will translate into the materials’ physical ufacturing capabilities, and supporting infrastruc-
properties and performance. Polymers, in particular, ture — that will impact how easily these innovations
are extremely complex, with their molecular chains can be translated from lab concept to real-world
forming three-dimensional structures that are dif- application and economic impact.
ficult to control and characterize precisely. Current
theoretical models cannot reliably predict these Professor Bao noted the importance of the struc-
structure–property relationships from just the chem- ture of funding for materials research. The typical
ical formula. three-year grant cycle is often insufficient to make
breakthroughs in an inherently slow field like applied
Professor Bao’s team tackles this problem through polymer materials discovery in combination with
an iterative cycle of synthesizing new polymer mole- device fabrication. Longer funding timelines of five
cules, characterizing their structures and properties to seven years would better match the research
through various experimental techniques, and using cycle. There is also a need for funding agencies and
that data to refine their understanding. Advances in policymakers to better understand and support the
synthesis methods, characterization tools, computa- lengthy pipeline from early-stage materials research
tional modeling, and fundamental knowledge about to new products.

A Deeper Dive into Materials Science 9

 The typical three-year grant cycle is often insufficient
to make breakthroughs in an inherently slow field like
applied polymer materials discovery in combination with
device fabrication.

Other challenges include the lack of domestic manu- They are made up of polymer chains that are lightly
facturing capabilities and an engineering workforce to cross-linked into a network, giving them their dis-
enable scaling up and commercializing new materials tinctive gel-like consistency.
technologies developed through academic research.
The United States excels at generating innovative Most hydrogels are based on a particular kind of
ideas but frequently sees those breakthrough tech- chemical bond known as a permanent covalent
nologies commercialized first in other countries with bond. Professor Eric Appel’s research group inves-
stronger manufacturing infrastructures. Policy initia- tigates hydrogels formed instead by supramolecular
tives like the Creating Helpful Incentives to Produce interactions (bonds based on non-covalent forces
Semiconductors (CHIPS) Act of 2022 aim to address such as hydrogen bonding or electrostatic interac-
this by rebuilding domestic semiconductor manufac- tions).7 The use of such interactions allows the hydro-
turing. However, Professor Bao argues that the focus gels to self-assemble and disassemble in response
should be on developing next-generation advanced to stimuli like temperature or pH changes. It also
manufacturing capabilities rather than just re-creating enables dynamic rearrangement and flow properties
conventional fabrication facilities. that are advantageous for injection and controlled
drug release.
Professor Bao also sees opportunities for policy to
extend the support for shared research infrastruc- By precisely engineering the molecular interac-
ture and expertise that would benefit multiple aca- tions within these supramolecular hydrogels, it is
demic and industry laboratories. For example, possible to finely tune their properties for different
having centralized staff with specialized skills in applications — such as undergoing shear-thinning
areas like device prototyping, printed circuit board during injection then rapidly regaining a solid struc-
design, data science, and software integration could ture or achieving the right degradation rate for long-
accelerate research outputs across groups com- term drug delivery. Harnessing these fundamental
pared to each group trying to develop such capabil- supramolecular principles has opened up exciting
ities individually. new possibilities for creating “smart” hydrogel mate-
rials that could revolutionize fields like medicine,
environmental protection, and beyond.

Many of the top drugs today are large proteins or

Hydrogels biomolecules rather than traditional small-molecule
drugs. However, the existing delivery technologies
Hydrogels are materials that can hold large amounts were designed for small molecules and often don’t
of water while maintaining a solid-like structure. work well for keeping these delicate protein drugs

10 STANFORD EMERGING TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

stable and controlling their release over time. Pro­ potentially making these cutting-edge therapies
fessor Appel’s group is engineering hydrogels that more affordable and accessible.
can encapsulate protein drugs and release them in a
controlled way over periods of weeks or months with
Importance and Policy Dimensions
just a single injection or administration.
From a policy perspective, a key issue is enabling trans-
For example, the group has developed an injectable lation of promising research technologies like these
hydrogel that can provide four months of continu- hydrogel platforms into real-world use. Currently,
ous insulin delivery for diabetics from just a single there are only a few sources of funding available to
injection. This could vastly improve patient compli- take a technology through crucial de-risking steps
ance and disease management compared to daily like pilot manufacturing and field-testing before it
or weekly insulin injections. Similar hydrogel tech- is ready for commercial investment or clinical trials.
nologies could enable monthslong delivery for other New translational “accelerator” funding or shared
protein-based drugs, as well. pilot facilities could help bridge this gap.

Hydrogels can be used as environmentally friend­ly Another challenge highlighted by Professor Appel’s
wildfire prevention and suppression technologies. They research is the difficulty of coordinating among dif-
can be sprayed onto vegetation to allow fire retardants ferent government agencies and jurisdictions to run
to stick and persist for long periods, preventing fires field trials or pilots, even when a technology shows
from starting or quickly extinguishing new fires before clear potential benefit. More streamlined regulatory
they spread out of control. Field tests have already pathways could accelerate deploying preventative
demonstrated the effectiveness of this approach. innovations, like wildfire protection hydrogels, in
high-risk areas. Similarly, clearer Food and Drug
The team is also working on hydrogels for improved Administration (FDA) pathways and funding support
delivery of cells, like chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) for improving drug delivery technologies — and
T-cell therapies for cancer. By co-delivering thera- not just developing new drug molecules — could
peutic cells along with activating signals in the lead to better formulations that reduce healthcare
hydrogel, they may be able to reduce the need for costs and patient burdens from frequent dosing
complex ex vivo cell processing and manufacturing, requirements.

Currently, there are only a few sources of funding available

to take a technology through crucial de-risking steps . . .
before it is ready for commercial investment or clinical
trials. New translational “accelerator” funding or shared
pilot facilities could help bridge this gap.

A Deeper Dive into Materials Science 11

 Overall, Professor Appel emphasizes the need materials used can be plastics, metals, ceramics, or
for long-term funding stability to sustain high-risk, composites dispensed as filaments or powders that
high-reward research programs. The current system are fused together.
of renewing grants yearly with low success rates
makes it very difficult for labs to pursue ambitious This additive approach has numerous advantages.
multiyear projects or start major new initiatives. For example, it allows for creating highly complex
geometries that would be difficult or impossible to
From an equity perspective, improved drug and ther- achieve with conventional manufacturing like mold-
apy delivery platforms could help reduce healthcare ing or machining. It reduces material waste since
disparities. Monthslong dosing could ease treatment the only material used is what is needed for the final
barriers and costs for members of underserved popu- part. And it enables combining different materials
lations with chronic conditions. And more affordable into a single product that has varying properties in
cell therapies could greatly expand patient access to different areas.
potentially curative treatments currently limited due
to manufacturing complexities. However, standard 3-D printing has difficulty produc-
ing artifacts with very small feature sizes or complex
In summary, the hydrogel research by Professor micro-architectures. Professor Joseph DeSimone’s
Appel’s group illustrates the importance of invest- “light gated” 3-D printing overcomes these lim­
ing in cutting-edge materials and delivery technol- itations by using light patterns to control the
ogies, in addition to investing in drug development curing and solidification of liquid resins, enabling
itself. Supportive policies around funding translation, three-­dimensional fabrication down to the micro­
field-testing, interagency coordination, and clearer scale.8 This micro 3-D printing capability opens
regulatory pathways could help transformative inno- up new product possibilities across industries
vations like these to reach real-world application like electronics, biomedical devices, energy com-
faster for the benefit of human health, safety, and the ponents, and more. It allows an unprecedented
environment. level of control over microstructures and material
properties.

One key area is the ability to print multi-material

objects that combine different properties like con-
3-D Printing ductivity (for electronics) and mechanical strength.
By precisely controlling the 3-D printing process,
Additive manufacturing, often referred to as 3-D Professor DeSimone’s techniques enable the pro-
printing, is a fundamentally different way of making duction of microscale components and devices with
things compared to traditional manufacturing meth- finely tuned characteristics.
ods. Traditional manufacturing involves starting with
a solid block of material and then removing material A major advantage of this advanced 3-D printing is the
to create the final shape (subtractive manufactur- ability to achieve the desired material properties by
ing). Additive manufacturing processes build up the precisely designing the complex three-­dimensional
product layer by layer. geometry itself rather than by using exotic materi-
als. The shape and structure can be optimized to get
3-D printers work by taking a digital three-­dimensional superior strength, flexibility, insulation, or other prop-
model and slicing it into many thin horizontal layers. erties from standard materials. This allows for creat-
The printer lays down sequential layers of material, ing high-performance products while minimizing the
slowly building up the three-dimensional shape. The total materials needed.

12 STANFORD EMERGING TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

Professor DeSimone’s work also addresses the ° Diversity, equity, and inclusion Ensuring equi-
development of sustainable and recyclable materials table access to education and research opportuni-
that enable a closed-loop manufacturing process. ties is critical, as innovation thrives by combining
The goal is to create a circular economy in which diverse perspectives and ideas. Policies that
products can be broken down and the materials promote diversity in science, technology, engi-
continually reused, minimizing waste. In particular, neering, and mathematics (STEM) can enhance
designing objects with minimal material use from research and development.
the start is key to improving recyclability.
° Translation and commercialization While they
Overall, Professor DeSimone aims to transform man- are strong on fundamental research, universities
ufacturing by unleashing the power of 3-D printing could improve processes for translating discov-
to produce materials and products with optimized eries into marketable products and technolo-
properties while drastically reducing materials con- gies that provide societal benefits. Having clear
sumption and waste. His techniques have appli- guidebooks and support for entrepreneurship
cations across industries such as medical devices, would help bridge this gap.
electronics, and transportation.
In summary, while Professor DeSimone’s advanced
3-D printing research pushes technical boundaries,
Importance and Policy Dimensions
realizing its full potential requires an aligned policy
Professor DeSimone highlighted several important landscape. This includes incentives, standards, inter-
policy areas that could help advance and scale up disciplinary approaches, funding reform, diversity
innovative manufacturing approaches like the 3-D initiatives, and streamlined pathways for commer-
printing techniques his lab develops: cialization. Addressing these policy areas could
accelerate sustainable manufacturing innovations.
° Incentives and standards for sustainability
While minimizing material use and enabling recy-
clability is desirable, regulatory incentives and
standards need to be put in place to make it finan-
cially viable for industry to prioritize sustainability. Novel Organic Materials
° Integrated policy institutes Universities could Professor Yan Xia’s research focuses on developing
benefit from dedicated institutes that bring powerful synthetic methods to create novel organic
together experts across policy, law, engineering, materials.9 Organic synthesis involves creating intri-
and business. These cross-disciplinary teams could cate carbon-based molecules by carefully combin-
help smooth the path for translating research into ing and rearranging smaller molecular building
real-world adoption and impact by developing blocks, much like an architect constructs a large
appropriate policies, standards, business models, structure from smaller components. This bottom-up
and incentive structures. approach allows a high level of control and customi-
zation in materials design. By tweaking the structure
° Research funding reform The peer review and composition of individual organic molecules,
system and low success rates for grant funding can researchers can fine-tune properties like porosity,
slow progress, especially for younger research- reactivity, and electronic behavior. It’s akin to having
ers. Professor DeSimone suggests more dynamic a molecular toolbox, where each tool can be crafted
funding mechanisms to support promising work and combined to create materials with unique and
across career stages. extraordinary characteristics. This process enables

A Deeper Dive into Materials Science 13

 Funding agencies and policymakers must recognize the
importance of supporting fundamental research without
the pressure of immediate commercial applications.

precise control over properties and functions, facili- applications. History has shown that many ground-
tating the exploration of exotic and unusual chemis- breaking inventions and technologies have emerged
tries and molecules. from basic scientific discoveries that were initially pur-
sued out of sheer curiosity and a desire for knowledge.
Professor Xia’s group has pioneered various types
of chemistry to generate diverse molecular ladder Furthermore, Professor Xia’s research highlights the
materials with high microporosity, antiaromaticity, or importance of international collaboration and the free
responsive behaviors. Additionally, it has developed exchange of ideas in the scientific community. The
techniques for producing polymers with controlled recent policy decisions by the federal government
microstructures and degradation, as well as dynamic to investigate scientists’ ties to foreign governments,
polymer networks and hydrogels. particularly to China’s, have placed undue stress on
researchers of Chinese origin. This has made collabo-
rations and discussions on basic research much more
Importance and Policy Dimensions
difficult or even impossible.
Professor Xia’s research is of significant importance
because it pushes the boundaries of what is possi- Policymakers must strike a balance between address-
ble in materials science. By exploring the synthesis ing legitimate national security concerns and fos-
of unique and exotic molecules, his work has the tering an environment that promotes scientific
potential to uncover materials with novel properties collaboration and the free flow of ideas. Science
and functions that could revolutionize various indus- thrives on open communication and the sharing of
tries and technologies. knowledge across borders, and any policies that
hinder this exchange could potentially stifle innova-
From a policy perspective, Professor Xia’s research tion and scientific progress.
illustrates the need for long-term funding of basic
science, as it exemplifies the importance of pursuing In conclusion, Professor Xia’s research into exotic
scientific exploration without necessarily targeting materials at the interface of chemistry and materials
specific applications. While some of his discoveries science is both fascinating and important. By explor-
may lead to materials with potential applications, ing the synthesis of unique molecules and materials,
the true value of his research lies in the pursuit of his work has the potential to uncover novel proper-
knowledge and the exploration of what is possible ties and functions that could lead to groundbreaking
in chemistry and materials science. applications. However, for this research to flourish,
policymakers must prioritize long-term funding for
Funding agencies and policymakers must recognize fundamental science and promote an environment
the importance of supporting fundamental research that fosters international collaboration and the free
without the pressure of immediate commercial exchange of ideas within the scientific community.

14 STANFORD EMERGING TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

NOTES FURTHER READING

1. Matteo Cargnello is an associate professor of chemical engi- CATALYSIS

neering and, by courtesy, of materials science and engineer-
ing and a Silas Palmer Faculty Scholar at Stanford University. Aitbekova, Aisulu, Chengshuang Zhou, Michael L. Stone, Juan
Professor Cargnello leads a research group specializing in the Salvador Lezama-Pacheco, An-Chih Yang, Adam S. Hoffman,
synthesis and fabrication of inorganic nanocrystals and nano- Emmett D. Goodman, Philipp Huber, Jonathan F. Stebbins,
structures to catalyze the production of valuable chemicals. Karen C. Bustillo, Peter Ercius, Jim Ciston, Simon R. Bare,
His goal is to understand how the specific structure of a given Philipp N. Plessow, and Matteo Cargnello. “Templated Encapsu-
nanomaterial, down to the atomic level, influences the catalytic lation of Platinum-Based Catalysts Promotes High-­Temperature
properties of a system. Stability to 1,100 °C.” Nature Materials 21 (November 2022):
1290–97.
2. Timur Gül, “Ammonia Technology Roadmap: Towards More
Sustainable Nitrogen Fertiliser Production,” International Friend, Cynthia M., and Bingjun Xu. “Heterogeneous Catalysis: A
Energy Agency, October 2021, https://www.iea.org/reports Central Science for a Sustainable Future.” Accounts of Chemi-
/ammonia-technology-roadmap. cal Research 50, no. 3 (2017): 517–21.

3. Jennifer Dionne is an associate professor of materials science McShane, Eric J., Valerie A. Niemann, Peter Benedek, Xianbiao
and engineering and of radiology (by courtesy) at Stanford Uni- Fu, Adam C. Nielander, Ib Chorkendorff, Thomas F. Jaramillo,
versity. She is also the senior associate vice provost of research and Matteo Cargnello. “Quantifying Influence of the Solid-­
platforms / shared facilities, helping to oversee upgrades to Electrolyte Interphase in Ammonia Electrosynthesis.” ACS
shared research infrastructure spanning the life sciences, sus- Energy Letters 8, no. 10 (2023): 4024–32.
tainability, nanofabrication/characterization, and prototyping. Zhou, Chengshuang, Arun S. Asundi, Emmett D. Goodman, Jiyun
Professor Dionne’s research group is dedicated to studying Hong, Baraa Werghi, Adam S. Hoffman, Sindhu S. Nathan,
nanophotonics for biosensing and molecular control. In more Stacey F. Bent, Simon R. Bare, and Matteo Cargnello. “Steer-
detail, Professor Dionne strives to develop new tools that allow ing CO2 Hydrogenation Toward C–C Coupling to Hydro­
control of light at the nanoscale to detect pathogens and bio- carbons Using Porous Organic Polymer/Metal Interfaces.”
markers as well as direct molecular transformations like chemi- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119, no. 7
cal reactions and catalysis. (2022): e2114768119.
4. Mitch Ambrose, “Many Science Agencies Cut in Final FY24
Budget,” American Institute of Physics, March 5, 2024, https://
ww2.aip.org/fyi/many-science-agencies-cut-in-final-fy24-budget.
LIGHT–MATTER INTERACTIONS
5. Eric Pop is the Pease-Ye Professor of electrical engineering and
professor, by courtesy, of materials science and engineering Alivisatos, A. P. “Semiconductor Clusters, Nanocrystals, and Quan-
and applied physics at Stanford University. Professor Pop leads tum Dots.” Science 271, no. 5251 (1996): 933–37.
research on one- and two-­dimensional materials for electron- Ho, Chi-Sing, Neal Jean, Catherine A. Hogan, Lena Blackmon, Ste-
ics, data storage, and energy. fanie S. Jeffrey, Mark Holodniy, Niaz Banaei, Amr A. E. Saleh,
6. Professor Zhenan Bao leads a highly interdisciplinary research Stefano Ermon, and Jennifer Dionne. “Rapid Identification of
group at Stanford University that focuses on developing new Pathogenic Bacteria Using Raman Spectroscopy and Deep
polymers and materials for flexible and wearable electronics. Learning.” Nature Communications 10, no. 4927 (2019).
Their goal is to create electronics that can mimic the properties Murray, C. B., D. J. Norris, and M. G. Bawendi. “Synthesis and
of human skin: flexible, stretchable, self-healing, and able to Characterization of Nearly Monodisperse CdE (E = Sulfur, Sele-
sense various stimuli like pressure, strain, heat, and chemicals. nium, Tellurium) Semiconductor Nanocrystallites.” Journal of
7. Professor Eric Appel and his research group at Stanford Uni- the American Chemical Society 115, no. 19 (1993): 8706–15.
versity are working on developing novel hydrogel materials for Schuller, Jon A., Edward S. Barnard, Wenshan Cai, Young Chul
applications in healthcare, environmental sustainability, and Jun, Justin S. White, and Mark L. Brongersma. “Plasmonics for
other areas. A key focus is using these supramolecular hydrogel Extreme Light Concentration and Manipulation.” Nature Mate-
materials for better delivery of modern protein-based drugs for rials 9, no. 3 (2010): 193–204.
vaccines, cancer therapies, and treatments for diabetes.
Sytwu, Katherine, Michal Vadai, Fariah Hayee, Daniel K. Angell,
8. Professor Joseph DeSimone is working at the cutting edge of Alan Dai, Jefferson Dixon, and Jennifer A. Dionne. “Driving
3-D printing technology, pushing the boundaries of what is Energetically Unfavorable Dehydrogenation Dynamics with
possible with additive manufacturing. His research focuses on Plasmonics.” Science 371, no. 6526 (2021): 280–83.
developing advanced light-based 3-D printing techniques that
allow for the creation of incredibly small and intricate structures
with complex geometries.
9. Professor Yan Xia’s research lies at the fascinating intersec- NANOMATERIALS FOR ELECTRONICS
tion of chemistry and materials science. His primary focus is
on designing and synthesizing unique small and large mole- Bae, Myung-Ho, Zuanyi Li, Zlatan Aksamija, Pierre N. Martin, Feng
cule building blocks to create materials with unique proper- Xiong, Zhun-Yong Ong, Irena Knezevic, and Eric Pop. “Ballis-
ties. Through a combination of catalysis, organic and polymer tic to Diffusive Crossover of Heat Flow in Graphene Ribbons.”
chemistry, and advanced characterization techniques, Profes- Nature Communications 4, no. 1734 (2013).
sor Xia’s group can construct novel (macro)molecular structures Das, Saptarshi, Amritanand Sebastian, Eric Pop, Connor J. McClel-
and organic materials with tailored conformations, nanostruc- lan, Aaron D. Franklin, Tibor Grasser, Theresia Knobloch, et al.
tures, properties, and functions.

A Deeper Dive into Materials Science 15

 “Transistors Based on Two-Dimensional Materials for Future 3-D PRINTING
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16 STANFORD EMERGING TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

About the Authors
Stefano Cestellos Blanco is a postdoctoral scholar at Herbert S. Lin, SETR director and editor in chief, is a
Stanford University in the research labs of Professor senior research scholar at the Center for International
Zhenan Bao and Professor Karl Deisseroth. He works Security and Cooperation, and the Hank J. Holland
at the intersection of materials science and neuro- Fellow in Cyber Policy and Security at the Hoover
science, with expertise in semiconductors, electro- Institution, both at Stanford University. His research
chemistry, bioelectronics, and catalysis. He received interests relate broadly to emerging technologies
his PhD in materials science and engineering from and national security. He received his doctorate in
the University of California–Berkeley. physics from MIT.

Lukas Michalek is a postdoctoral scholar at Stanford Zhenan Bao is the K. K. Lee Professor in Chemical
University in Professor Zhenan Bao’s research lab. Engineering and professor, by courtesy, of chemistry
His research work focuses on the advancement of and materials science and engineering at Stanford
soft-matter materials through comprehensive mate- University. She has more than 700 refereed pub-
rials characterization. He received his PhD in mate- lications and 80 patents. Her research focuses on
rials science and polymer chemistry at Queensland organic electronics, including skin-inspired materials,
University of Technology in Brisbane, Australia. dynamic energy storage, and recyclable, reprocess-
able materials. She received her PhD in chemistry
from the University of Chicago.

The Stanford Emerging Technology Review

Stanford University is tightly coupled to the scientific and technological innovation ecosystem and has been for
many years. The Stanford Emerging Technology Review (SETR) is a joint effort from the Hoover Institution and
Stanford University School of Engineering spanning the efforts of more than s­ eventy-five Stanford scholars and
scientists to identify barriers, needs, and opportunities for progress in ten technology fields. This series of Deeper
Dives, intended to be read in conjunction with the annual Stanford Emerging Technology Review, probes more
deeply into the science and technology across selected technology fields covered in the original report and trans-
lates them for a policy audience.

SETR is co-chaired by Condoleezza Rice, John B. Taylor, Jennifer Widom, and Amy Zegart.

The publisher has made this work available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivs license 4.0.
To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0.

Copyright © 2024 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University

The topics covered reflect the interests of the specific Stanford faculty engaged for this effort. Had other faculty
from the same departments been involved, the coverage would likely be somewhat different, emphasizing
different topics and offering a different perspective on the technology landscape.

setr.stanford.edu | hoover.org

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A Deeper Dive into Materials Science 17

setr.stanford.edu