OMF551 - PRODUCT DESIGN AND

DEVELOPMENT
UNIT III
PRODUCT ARCHITECTURE
Implications – Product change – variety – component standardization – product performance
– manufacturability – product development management – establishing the architecture –
creation – clustering – geometric layout development – fundamental and incidental
interactions – related system level design issues – secondary systems – architecture of the
chunks – creating detailed interface specifications.

PART – A

1. Define product architecture.

Product architecture is the scheme by which the functional elements of the product are
arranged into physical chunks and by which the chunks interact.

2. List the steps involved in product architecture.

3. Interpret Modular architecture.

The modular architecture of the information can be understood as a set of modules,
components and subsystems with specific functions defined (informational units / business
Units) .
4. Give the examples of product architecture.
5. List the types in modularity.
Three types of modular architectures
1. Slot-modular architecture
2. Bus-modular architecture:
3. Sectional-modular architecture
6. Illustrate slot modular architecture.
Each of the interfaces between chunks in a slot-modular
architecture is of a different type from the others, so that the various chunks in the
product cannot be interchanged. An automobile radio is an example of a chunk in a

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slot-modular architecture. The radio implements exactly one function, but its interface
is different from any of the other components in the vehicle (e.g., radios and speedometers
have different types of interfaces to the instrument panel).
7. Interpret the Bus modular architecture.
In a bus-modular architecture, there is a common bus to
which the other chunks connect via the same type of interface. A common example
of a chunk in a bus-modular architecture would be an expansion card for a personal
computer. Nonelectronic products can also be built around a bus-modular architecture.
Track lighting, shelving systems with rails, and adjustable roof racks for automobiles
all embody a bus-modular architecture.
8. Describe the section modular architecture.
In a sectional-modular architecture, all interfaces are
of the same type, but there is no single element to which all the other chunks attach.
The assembly is built up by connecting the chunks to each other via identical interfaces.
Many piping systems adhere to a sectional-modular architecture, as do sectional
sofas, office partitions, and some computer systems.
9. List the implementation in PA.
10 Define product variety.
Variety refers to the range of product models the firm can produce within a particular
time period in response to market demand. Products built around modular product
architectures
can be more easily varied without adding tremendous complexity to the manufacturing
system.
For example, Swatch produces hundreds of different watch models, but
can achieve this variety at relatively low cost by assembling the variants from different
combinations of standard chunks. A large number of different hands, faces,
and wristbands can be combined with a relatively small selection of movements and cases
to create seemingly endless combinations.
11 Express the Product changes.
An adjustment made to an existing product, usually made for greater appeal or
functionality. A modification may include a change to a product's shape, adding a feature or
improving its performance. Often a product modification is accompanied by a change in
packaging.

12 Define Manufacturability.
Extent to which a good can be manufactured with relative ease at minimum cost and
maximum reliability.

13 Demonstrate the need for component standardization.

1. Able to reduce the number of verities of components, need to maintain large
inventories.
2. Lowering the installation and starting cost, down time, maintenance cost.
3. Enabling the interchangeability of parts.
4. Improving the design with less effort, communication.
5. Provides opportunity to use specialized machines.
6. Reducing the erection and assembly time, additional alterations.
7. Increase the chances for global marketing, productivity.

14 Express the need for Product development management.

15 Define add-on.
Many products are sold by a manufacturer as a basic unit, to which the user
adds components, often produced by third parties, as needed. This type of change is
common in the personal computer industry (e.g., third-party mass storage devices may

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be added to a basic computer).
16 Define upgrade.
As technological capabilities or user needs evolve, some products can accommodate
this evolution through upgrades. Examples include changing the processor
board in a computer printer or replacing a pump in a cooling system with a more powerful
model.
17 Explain the steps involved in establishing product architecture.
18 Explain the two categories integration process.
19 Discover the secondary system.
20 Assess portfolio architecture.
The product plan identifies the portfolio of products to be developed by the
organization
and the timing of their introduction to the market. The planning process considers product
development opportunities identified by many sources, including suggestions from
marketing, research, customers, current product development teams, and benchmarking
of competitors
21. Why is product concept selection important?
23. What is concept scoring?
Concept Scoring is a more careful analysis of these relatively few concepts in order to
choose the single concept most likely to lead to product success.

Concept Screening is a quick, approximate evaluation aimed at producing a few viable

alternatives.

24. When do you use platform planning?

25. What are the ways of communicating concepts?
27. What is modularity?
Modularity is the principle of separating tasks so that different parts of a program (modules)
perform these separate tasks. Modules should interact with each other only if one module
requires another module to complete a task. The benefits of modularity include that code can
be easily reused for other tasks, or new code can easily be added to increase functionality. It's
a good technique to use, particularly if you are developing in a group, so that each partner can
work on a different part of the code.

PART -B 13 Marks
1 Describe the Product architecture. (13)

Because the product architecture will have profound implications for subsequent product
development activities and for the manufacturing and marketing of the completed product,
it should be established in a cross-functional effort by the development team. The end
result of this activity is an approximate geometric layout of the product, descriptions of
the major chunks, and documentation of the key interactions among the chunks. We
recommend
a four-step method to structure the decision process, which is illustrated using
the DeskJet printer example.

The steps are:

1. Create a schematic of the product.
2. Cluster the elements of the schematic.
3. Create a rough geometric layout.

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4. Identify the fundamental and incidental interactions.

Step 1: Create a Schematic of the Product

A schematic is a diagram representing the team’s understanding of the constituent
elements of the product. A schematic for the DeskJet is shown in Exhibit 10-6. At the end
of the concept development phase, some of the elements in the schematic are physical
concepts, such as the front-in/front-out paper path. Some of the elements correspond to
critical components, such as the print cartridge the team expects to use. However, some of
the elements remain described only functionally. These are the functional elements of the
product that have not yet been reduced to physical concepts or components. For example,
“display status” is a functional element required for the printer, but the particular approach
of the display has not yet been decided. Those elements that have been reduced to
physical concepts or components are usually central to the basic product concept the team
has generated and selected. Those elements that remain unspecified in physical terms are
usually ancillary functions of the product.

The schematic should reflect the team’s best understanding of the state of the product,
but it does not have to contain every imaginable detail, such as “sense out-of-paper
condition” or “shield radio frequency emissions.” These and other more detailed functional
elements are deferred to a later step. A good rule of thumb is to aim for fewer than
30 elements in the schematic, for the purpose of establishing the product architecture. If
the product is a complex system, involving hundreds of functional elements, then it is
useful to omit some of the minor ones and to group some others into higher-level functions
to be decomposed later.

Step 2: Cluster the Elements of the Schematic

The challenge of step 2 is to assign each of the elements of the schematic to a chunk.
One possible assignment of elements to chunks is shown in Exhibit 10-7, where nine
chunks are used. Although this was the approximate approach taken by the DeskJet team,
there are several other viable alternatives. At one extreme, each element could be assigned
to its own chunk, yielding 15 chunks. At the other extreme, the team could decide that the
product would have only one major chunk and then attempt to physically integrate all of

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the elements of the product. In fact, consideration of all possible clusterings of elements
would yield thousands of alternatives. One procedure for managing the complexity of the
alternatives is to begin with the assumption that each element of the schematic will be
assigned
to its own chunk, and then to successively cluster elements where advantageous.

To determine when there are advantages to clustering, consider these factors, which
echo
the implications discussed in the previous section:
• Geometric integration and precision: Assigning elements to the same chunk allows
a single individual or group to control the physical relationships among the elements.
Elements requiring precise location or close geometric integration can often be best
designed if they are part of the same chunk. For the DeskJet printer, this would suggest
clustering the elements associated with positioning the cartridge in the x-axis and positioning
the paper in the y-axis.
• Function sharing: When a single physical component can implement several functional
elements of the product, these functional elements are best clustered together.
This is the situation exemplified by the BMW motorcycle transmission (Exhibit 10-5).
For the DeskJet printer, the team believed that the status display and the user controls
could be incorporated into the same component, and so clustered these two elements
together.
• Capabilities of vendors: A trusted vendor may have specific capabilities related to a
project, and in order to best take advantage of such capabilities a team may choose
to cluster those elements about which the vendor has expertise into one chunk. In the
case of the DeskJet printer, an internal team did the majority of the engineering design
work, and so this was not a major consideration.

• Similarity of design or production technology: When two or more functional elements

are likely to be implemented using the same design and/or production technology, then
incorporating these elements into the same chunk may allow for more economical design
and/or production. A common strategy, for example, is to combine all functions
that are likely to involve electronics in the same chunk. This allows the possibility of
implementing all of these functions with a single circuit board.

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• Localization of change: When a team anticipates a great deal of change in some element,
it makes sense to isolate that element into its own modular chunk, so that required
changes to the element can be carried out without disrupting any of the other chunks.
The Hewlett-Packard team anticipated changing the physical appearance of the product
over its life cycle, and so chose to isolate the enclosure element into its own chunk.
• Accommodating variety: Elements should be clustered together to enable the firm to
vary the product in ways that will have value for customers. The printer was to be sold

around the world in regions with different electrical power standards. As a result, the
team created a separate chunk for the element associated with supplying DC power.
• Enabling standardization: If a set of elements will be useful in other products, they
should be clustered together into a single chunk. This allows the physical elements of
the chunk to be produced in higher quantities. Hewlett-Packard’s internal standardization
was a key motive for using an existing print cartridge, and so this element is preserved
as its own chunk.
• Portability of the interfaces: Some interactions are easily transmitted over large distances.
For example, electrical signals are much more portable than are mechanical
forces and motions. As a result, elements with electronic interactions can be easily
separated from one another. This is also true, but to a lesser extent, for fluid connections.
The flexibility of electrical interactions allowed the Hewlett-Packard team to
cluster the control and communication functions into the same chunk. Conversely, the
elements related to paper handling are much more geometrically constrained by their
necessary mechanical interactions.

Step 3: Create a Rough Geometric Layout

A geometric layout can be created in two or three dimensions, using drawings, computer
models, or physical models (of cardboard or foam, for example). The above diagram
shows a geometric layout of the DeskJet printer, positioning the major chunks. Creating
a geometric layout forces the team to consider whether the geometric interfaces among
the chunks are feasible and to work out the basic dimensional relationships among the
chunks. By considering a cross section of the printer, the team realized that there was a
fundamental trade-off between how much paper could be stored in the paper tray and the

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height of the machine. In this step, as in the previous step, the team benefits from generating
several alternative layouts and selecting the best one. Layout decision criteria are
closely related to the clustering issues in step 2. In some cases, the team may discover
that the clustering derived in step 2 is not geometrically feasible and thus some of the
elements would have to be reassigned to other chunks. Creating the rough layout should
be coordinated with the industrial designers on the team in cases where the aesthetic and
human interface issues of the product are important and strongly related to the geometric
arrangement of the chunks.
Step 4: Identify the Fundamental and Incidental Interactions
Most likely a different person or group will be assigned to design each chunk. Because
the chunks interact with one another in both planned and unintended ways, these different
groups will have to coordinate their activities and exchange information. In order to
better manage this coordination process, the team should identify the known interactions
between chunks during the system-level design phase.

2 Generalize the Product development management. (13)

Product management

Product management is a unique function [6]. It is an important area in marketing because it

paves the way for sustainable product performance and profitability for companies. Bjernulf
and Billgren define product management as “the task that consist of product planning
(making sure that the right product is offered), product marketing (enabling the product to
reach its potential market), product strategy (the guide for product value delivery over the life
cycle), and creating insights (understanding legacy, ecosystems/markets and driving forces)”
Haines and Ausura also define it as a strategic and tactical management of products which are
already in the market. In addition, Windley sees product management as the process of
designing, building, operating, and maintaining a good or service.

From these definitions, it can be clearly seen that product management is all about
conceiving, developing, maintaining, and controlling the product sustainably over its life
cycle. It deals with deciding on what the product will be and ensuring that it remains like
that in the market profitably. Thus, an effective and high performing product management
in a nutshell, enables companies to sell what is developed and develop what they can sell.

Similarly, product management can be seen as the act of effective customer life cycle
Management. According to Windley, “customer life cycle consists of two phases; customer
buying the product and customer using the product,”. Here, it is important to add the third
stage, which is the decision to discard the product by the same customer. But in product
management, companies are always trying to avoid the third stage because it leads to
product decline or death in the market. In general, there are two methods of managing a
product; the product life cycle and individual product management strategies.

Perhaps a more comprehensive definition of product lifecycle management is the one

offered by Razvan Udroiu who views it as “a business strategy for managing the entire
lifecycle of products. This strategy includes the management of conception, design, design
validation and simulation, prototyping, manufacturing, quality control, use, maintenance
and disposal of products, having integrated people, methods, CAx tools, processes,
documentation, and data management solutions” .

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The import of this definition is that product life cycle management can be seen from two
different angles; traditional and modern perspectives. The traditional product life cycle
management is very conservative and outdated. There is no innovation and creativity in it
but rather a dormant, rigid, and stone-age orientation. Traditional farming system, local
textiles, blacksmith, cobblers, and pottery especially in some African countries fall in this
category. There is no modification or addition of new features but a religious utilization and
protection of the past.

The modern perspectives on the other hand deals with the use of modern technology to
produce and manage products overtime. There is creativity, innovation, and frequent
modifications here which, in turn, lead to the development of many products variants and
even new inventions. The application of computer-aided designs (CAD), robotics, drones,
internet facilities, and other digital devices fall into this category. The design, manufacture,
use and management of airlines services are examples of modern product life cycle
management. To remain competitive and relevant in today’s market, a company has to
adopt the modern perspective of product life cycle management.

Product life cycle management strategies

The key focus here is to successfully and proactively manage products throughout their
lifetime, by applying the appropriate resources and sales and marketing strategies, depending
on which stage a product is in the cycle.

Strategies in the introductory stage

The nature and characteristics of the introductory stage have been discussed earlier in this
chapter. Therefore, the main challenge in this stage is that when a new product is launched,
there is typically small market which translates into low sales. There is high cost associated
with research and development, marketing, and promotion. These costs notwithstanding,
most companies will see negative profits in this stage with limited competition especially if
the product is entirely new in the market.

A company can adopt any of the four product introduction strategies; rapid skimming
strategy using high promotion with higher initial price, rapid penetration strategy (involving
high promotion with low price), slow penetration strategy (using low promotion with
associated lower price), and slow skimming strategy (involving low promotion with higher
initial price). Each of these strategies is built upon the objectives of the company of either
market penetration or market skimming, i.e., higher profit. This, in turn, depends on how
price sensitive the market is. In any case, it is always better to adopt penetration strategy in
order to encourage more product adoption which produces higher sales volume.

Growth stage strategies

At this stage, brand managers have to effectively manage the challenge of increased
competition as new manufacturers seek to benefit from a new, developing market, and its
resultant effects. In response to the growing number of competitors that are likely to enter the
market during the growth phase, manufacturers tend to lower their prices in order to achieve
the desired increase in sales. Marketers should also change the focus of their promotion from
product awareness to brand preference which will help to increase the size of the market and
sharp increase in sales.

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Strategies in the maturity stage

In product management, this stage can be quite challenging and difficult to manage for
manufacturers. In the first two stages, companies try to establish a market and then grow
sales to achieve increased market share. However, during the maturity stage, the primary
focus for most companies will be maintaining their market share amidst many challenges
such as market saturation, decreasing market share, and profits caused by stiff competition.

While the market may reach saturation during the maturity stage, manufacturers might be
able to grow their market share and increase profits in other ways. Kotler and Keller opine
that market, product and marketing modification are the three broad strategies that can be
used to manage products in the maturity stage While the market may reach saturation during
the maturity stage, manufacturers might be able to grow their market share and increase
profits in other ways. Kotler and Keller opine that market, product and marketing
modification are the three broad strategies that can be used to manage products in the
maturity stage.

Market modification calls for expanding the existing market by getting more users for the
product, developing new uses for the product and promoting more usage for the product. For
example, for Unilever to encourage buyers of its Close-up toothpaste to use it three times
after every meal. This will increase the usage rate and need for replacement. Product features
modification involves quality, features and style improvements, and other innovative
marketing campaigns to improve market share through differentiation. In the same vein,
marketing program on pricing, distribution, advertising, sales promotion, and services can be
modified to further stimulate sales and market share for the product.

Thus, the main goal here is companies to develop innovative ways to make their product
more appealing to the consumer that will maintain, and perhaps even increase, their market
share.

Decline stage strategies

The key focus here is to be able to harvest the declining product by offering cheaper
products, selling to the laggards’ market segment that is the last to adopt an innovation. Firms
can also offer discounts and other promotional activities to increase sales in the short run. In
the long run, a company can think of entering a new market with the existing product,
product modification or even selling the product in foreign market thereby starting a new life
cycle entirely. However, poorly managed product cannot withstand the harsh conditions of
this stage which gives organization no option other than to phase the affected product out of
the market. To do this, a company should establish a product review committee consisting of
members from marketing, finance, engineering, production, and research and development to
study the performance of a declining product.

After the review, the team can then recommend a product or products that can be built
through re-investment, those to harvest, hold, or divest from the portfolio. Therefore, decision
on phasing out a product should not be taken haphazardly in a rush; rather, it should be based
on an informed decision. Consequently, the product life cycle curve needs to be applied with
a certain amount of care, even though it is still a useful model which provides businesses and
their marketing departments with the opportunity to plan ahead and be better prepared to
meet those future challenges.

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Product mix and product-line analysis
product line in the product management discourse. This is because of the relevance of the
two concepts in determining the level and complexity of managing a product portfolio. A
product mix is the set of all products and items a particular company offers for sale. It is the
total product portfolio that a company manages. While a product line is a group of closely
related products that are considered a unit because of marketing, technical, or end-use
considerations. In other words, a product line consists of a set of brands that are closely
related due to the similar functions they perform, they are sold to the same customer groups,
use the same channel of distribution or fall within the same price range . For instance, a
personal computer is one product line. An example of a product mix and product line width,
length, depth, and consistency for Jaiz Bank Nigeria is depicted in below table.

A company’s product mix has a certain width, depth, and consistency. The width of a product
mix refers to how many different product lines the company carries. In the table, Jaiz Bank
has four lines of services. Product mix depth is the total number of product items under each
line. In above Table, the depth of retail banking line is 11 different services. While the
consistency is the degree to which all the products in the mix are related in one or the other.
This may be in terms of the market being served, distribution channel used, or common
production processes. All the services of Jaiz Bank are consistent in their banking focus.
Companies normally develop a basic platform and modules that can be added to meet
different customer requirements. This modular approach enables the company to offer variety
while lowering production costs.
Product differentiation
Successful product management cannot be achieved without product differentiation which is
a process of designing and formulating unique and meaningful features that provides an
identity around company’s products. Differentiation can be built around goods or services
such as automobiles, furniture, designer shoes, bags, and healthcare services. The aim is to
make the target market identify and recognize the difference. If the market perceives no
difference between two competing products, then the only possible means of competition is
through pricing. In a situation such as this, products are viewed by customers as very easy
substitutes for one another.
Products can be differentiated through many different ways. This differentiation may for
example take the form of different packaging, marketing and product features, performance,
conformance, durability, reliability, reparability, style, and design. As long as a business can
come up with a creative way to differentiate its product or service, gaining a competitive
advantage is possible.

OTHER PRODUCT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

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Apart from the life cycle product management strategies, companies also have an array of
specific product strategies to use in managing their product assortments. These, products
include, among others, the following:

1. Limited versus full-line product strategy

2. Line filling strategy

3. Line stretching strategy

4. Line modernization

5. Line Featuring
6. Line pruning

7. Brand extension strategy

8. Product repositioning strategy

9. Planned product obsolescence

10. Product deletion strategy

3 Illustrate the different types of modularity. (13)

Modular architectures comprise three types: slot, bus, and sectional (Ulrich, 1995). Each
type embodies a one-to-one mapping from functional elements to chunks and welldefined
interfaces. The differences between these types lie in the way the interactions
between chunks are organized. The below diagram illustrates the conceptual differences
among
these types of architectures.
• Slot-modular architecture: Each of the interfaces between chunks in a slot-modular
architecture is of a different type from the others, so that the various chunks in the
product cannot be interchanged. An automobile radio is an example of a chunk in a
slot-modular architecture. The radio implements exactly one function, but its interface
is different from any of the other components in the vehicle (e.g., radios and speedometers
have different types of interfaces to the instrument panel).
• Bus-modular architecture: In a bus-modular architecture, there is a common bus to
which the other chunks connect via the same type of interface. A common example
of a chunk in a bus-modular architecture would be an expansion card for a personal
computer. Nonelectronic products can also be built around a bus-modular architecture.
Track lighting, shelving systems with rails, and adjustable roof racks for automobiles
all embody a bus-modular architecture.

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• Sectional-modular architecture: In a sectional-modular architecture, all interfaces are

of the same type, but there is no single element to which all the other chunks attach.
The assembly is built up by connecting the chunks to each other via identical interfaces.
Many piping systems adhere to a sectional-modular architecture, as do sectional
sofas, office partitions, and some computer systems.
Slot-modular architectures are the most common of the modular architectures because
for most products each chunk requires a different interface to accommodate unique
interactions between that chunk and the rest of the product. Bus-modular and
sectionalmodular
architectures are particularly useful for situations in which the overall product
must vary widely in configuration, but whose chunks can interact in standard ways with
the rest of the product. These situations can arise when all of the chunks can use the same
type of power, fluid connection, structural attachment, or exchanges of signals.

4 Connect the architecture in product architecture. (13)

5 Express the way by which the product will be created and clustered in architecture.
(13)
6 Explain Fundamental interaction, incidental interaction and secondary Systems in
detail with examples. (13)
7 Summarize the design issues make an impact in related system in product
architecture. (13)
8 Describe the interface specification of Product architecture. (13)
9 Describe the rough geometric layout with example. (13)
A geometric layout can be created in two or three dimensions, using drawings,
computer
models, or physical models (of cardboard or foam, for example). Exhibit 10-8
shows a geometric layout of the DeskJet printer, positioning the major chunks. Creating
a geometric layout forces the team to consider whether the geometric interfaces among
the chunks are feasible and to work out the basic dimensional relationships among the
chunks. By considering a cross section of the printer, the team realized that there was a
fundamental trade-off between how much paper could be stored in the paper tray and the
height of the machine. In this step, as in the previous step, the team benefits from generating
several alternative layouts and selecting the best one. Layout decision criteria are
closely related to the clustering issues “Cluster the Elements of the Schematic”. In some
cases, the team may discover
that the clustering derived “Cluster the Elements of the Schematic”. is not geometrically
feasible and thus some of the
elements would have to be reassigned to other chunks. Creating the rough layout should
be coordinated with the industrial designers on the team in cases where the aesthetic and
human interface issues of the product are important and strongly related to the geometric
arrangement of the chunks.
11 Explain the architecture of the chunks. (13)

Some of the chunks of a complex product may be very complex systems in their own
right. For example, many of the chunks in the DeskJet printer involve dozens of parts.
Each of these chunks may have its own architecture—the scheme by which it is divided
into smaller chunks. This problem is essentially identical to the architectural challenge

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posed at the level of the entire product. Careful consideration of the architecture of the
chunks is nearly as important as the creation of the architecture of the overall product. For
example, the print cartridge consists of the subfunctions store ink and deliver ink for each
of four colors of ink. Several architectural approaches are possible for this chunk, including,
for example, the use of independently replaceable reservoirs for each ink color.

12 Explain the differentiation plan and commonality plan. (13)

13 Describe the cluster elements of the schematic layout with example. (13)
14 Describe create a schematic of the product layout with example. (13)

PART C 15 Marks
1 Plan a schematic for a wrist watch, using only functional elements.
2 Formulate a schematic including the essential functional elements. Identify two or
three possible clustering’s of these elements into chunks.
3 Judge - A firm cannot achieve high product variety without a modular product
architecture.
4 Explain how product architecture will differ for a product (bicycle) developed for an
economically lower segment of market vis-a-vis the same product (bicycle) developed
for upper segment of market.

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