Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES AND STUDIES

This chapter presents studies and literature reviews which have direct bearing to the

present study. It may have similarities and differences to the current study.

Online Learning in the Hospitality context

The term "online learning" encompasses more than just the use of the internet. It is

defined as the distribution of learning materials and content via various forms of

technology such as e-learning, computer-based learning, and multimedia technologies

(Kathawala & Wilgen, 2004). Online learning is a popular way for students to get an

education without having to attend face-to-face classes on campus. Students can learn

while also attending to other commitments that take up their time. According to

Mayadas and Miller (2014), distance serves as a differentiating factor between the

learner and the educational institution in online courses. Online courses accelerate the

convergence of three key elements: the teacher, the student, and the content. E-

learning, or online learning, has altered the global mindset in higher education. The

applications have become increasingly diverse, making it difficult to distinguish the

various types of online learning (Mayadas & Miller, 2014)

Face-to-face instruction has given way to distance learning as a result of technology-

enhanced learning. Online learning has succeeded in blurring the traditional distinctions
between face-to-face instruction and distance learning. It is becoming increasingly

difficult to distinguish between face-to-face and online instruction methods. There must

be a standard against which these various learning environments can be compared. As

a result, the learner will be able to determine his or her best approach to learning on his

or her own. Online learning must be able to meet the needs of the learner and be

appealing enough to capture the needs and expectations of online learners. According

to Daymont and Blau (2008), students are turning to online courses for a variety of

reasons. Some students may believe that online learning is best suited to their learning

style or personality. Students may prefer written communications over in-person

instruction.

The use of Practical field experience

Practical field experiences, or practical, are widely used as a primary component of

teacher education programs. Teacher educators, accrediting agencies, and

administrators all agree that practicum experiences are an important component of

teacher education programs (Simpson, 2006; Falconer & Lignugaris/Kraft, 2002; Soares

& Soares, 2002). Teachers are expected to gain valuable classroom experience and

learn how to implement new instructional strategies in authentic classroom settings

through practicals.

Pre-service teachers' field experiences frequently include weekly opportunities for

observation and participation in daily classroom activities in school settings. Facilitating

On-line Practicum for In-Service Teachers 2 are frequently used as capstone or

culminating experiences as part of a requirement for teachers seeking additional

certifications or completing graduate degrees. Regardless of the level and specifics of a

practicum experience, the primary goal is to provide participants with exposure and

"hands-on" experience. With the introduction of new technologies, practicum

experiences have the potential to have a greater impact on teachers' professional

development. Teacher education has recently begun to embrace various distance

learning models in order to allow teachers to pursue additional education and

professional growth opportunities. Teacher education programs have attempted to

reach out to field teachers by delivering courses through a variety of delivery strategies,

including audio and video conferencing, holding courses at local school sites, and using

the internet (Knapczyk, Frey, Wall-Marencik, 2005; Ludlow & Brannan, 1999). The use

of online courses is growing, and teacher education is investigating the use of online

environments to facilitate the delivery of programs such as practicum and field

experience supervision (Ludlow & Brannan, 1999; Beattie, Spooner, Jordan, Algozzine,

& Spooner, 2002). Despite the growing use of online course delivery in teacher

education programs, little research has been conducted on the effectiveness of

facilitating the practicum component of teacher education on the internet (Simpson,

2006).

Experiential Education and Internships

Dewey's work and that of his school are the best articulated guiding principles for

experiential learning programs in higher education (Kolb, 1984). Apprenticeships,

internships, practicums, work/study programs, cooperative education, studio arts,

laboratory studies, and field projects are examples of these methods (Kolb, 1984; Thiel

& Hartley, 1997). This practice has also evolved toward more actively contributing to

experiential student learnings or curriculum through community-engaged teaching and

learning (Tuma & Sisson, 2019) and academia-industry partnerships (King & Tang,

2020). All of these methods are based on the underlying concept that learning is

experiential in the sense that the learner is in direct contact with the realities being

studied. It entails having a direct encounter with the phenomenon being studied rather

than simply thinking about it or considering the possibility of encountering it doing

something about it (Kolb, 1984). Internships have long been regarded as a way to

bridge the gap between classroom theory and the world of practice in the hospitality,

events, and tourism industries (Nevett, 1985). Experiential learning through internships

has allowed students to integrate classroom learnings with real-world experiences prior

to graduation, allowing them to better prepare for their future and have a better chance

of success in their career (Chang & Chu, 2009). Supervised internship experience can

also help students who are struggling to transition from the classroom to the workplace

by acclimating them to the real world efficiently (Chang & Chu, 2009; Le Maistre & Paré,

2004). Undergraduates are frequently unsure of which job they truly desire or what they

are capable of.

Practicum experience clarifies career interests and abilities based on practical

application of skills. Students believe that internships make it easier for them to find

work after graduation. Internships allow students to closely evaluate a specific job and

narrow their career options (Busby, 2003; Rangan & Natarajarathinam, 2014; Scott,

1992). Many studies on practicum indicate that experiential learning plays an important

role in enhancing college students' preparation and success in an entry-level job market

(Callanan & Benzing, 2004; D'Abate, 2010; Gault et al., 2010). They discovered that

business undergraduates with practicum experience reported better preparation in job

acquisition skills and obtained their first jobs faster than non-internship participants.

Practicum participants also reported higher salaries and higher levels of overall job

satisfaction than non-internship participants. Saltikoff (2017) investigated the value of

unpaid internships and discovered that they have the same impact on employability and

career advancement as paid internships. Internships benefit graduates in the job

market, according to research on employers' perspectives on experiential learning

(Sonnenschein et al., 2019).

Students Learning Outcomes and Assessment of Practicum

Since academic credit has been granted to practicum, assessment of learning

outcomes has been a focus of interest among higher education institutions (Alpert et al.,

2009; Kolb, 1984; Nyanjom et al., 2020). It has also presented educators and employers

with a significant challenge to develop competence-based instruction and assessment

methods that are meaningfully related to the world of work. This emphasis on learning

outcomes and their reliable assessment is critical to establishing effective links between

education and work, because this linkage is dependent on accurate identification and

matching of personal skills with job demands (Kolb, 1984). Practicum not only help

students achieve higher order learning outcomes, but they also provide other learning

benefits such as improved understanding of content knowledge, which leads to higher

academic achievement, the development of networking skills, the provision of a set of

realistic expectations in the business world, the improvement of social and

communication skills, the growth of cultural awareness at an organizational and

interpersonal level, and the development of a positive attitude toward oneself (Bukaliya,
2012; Celio et al., 2011; Knouse & Fontenot,2008; Kurthakoti & Good, 2019; Simons et

al., 2012; Warren, 2012).

Practicum programs' success has been measured in a variety of ways. Among the

most common methods are self-reported surveys of satisfaction by internship

participants and site supervisors (Kurthakoti & Good, 2019). Oral presentations, daily

journals or weekly reports, students' internship portfolios, and evaluation by site

supervisors on student learning outcomes are some other specific tools used to

evaluate student learning outcomes of internships Students' domain content knowledge,

skills, and attitudes (Pittenger, 2018; Simons et al., 2018).

Hospitality Students’ Work Experiences

Kozar, Horton, and Gregoire (2005) surveyed a group of hospitality students to see if

working a job while enrolled in classes had an impact on class attendance, hours spent

studying, and participation in social activities. Following time management class

discussions, students recorded their daily activities for four weeks. The study included

one class of 58 students, with a response rate of 91% (N = 53). Students in the study

worked less than 12 hours per school week on average while taking a full course load

(15 credits per semester for all but 2 students). The authors used ANOVA to investigate

the relationship between student variables such as grades, attendance, study time, and

work time. According to Kozar et al. (2005), there were no statistically significant

differences among the variables; however, as students' work hours increased, so did

their study time and time spent attending classes. Barron (2007) examined part-time
employment of Australian hospitality and tourism undergraduates to document their

work habits and impressions of part-time work experiences. A questionnaire sent to the

undergraduate students yielded 486 usable responses (response rate of 94.0%); 372

(77.0%) of the students had part-time jobs. The students attended classes 12 hours per

week and worked an average of 16 hours per week; 16.0% worked less than 10 hours

and 15.0% worked more than 26 hours (Barron, 2007). Barron found students reported

negative aspects of part-time work experiences were dealing with difficult customers,

completing boring job tasks, and interacting with supervisors; 67.2% reported that

working did not detract from their studies. Jogaratnam and Buchanan (2004) explored

the potential effects of stress on hospitality students who worked part-time in industry

positions. In-class surveys were completed with a response rate of 46.0% (N = 138);

student respondents were 61.0% female and 39.0% male who met both school

enrollment (in a hospitality program) and employment (working in industry) criteria.

Based on responses using a four-point scale (1 = not part of my life, to 4 = very much a

part of my life), statistically significant differences were found between full-time (12 or

more credits) and part-time (fewer than 12 credits) students in the following situations:

developmental challenges, academic alienation, and romantic problems (2.20 and 1.69;

2.02 and 1.68; 1.82 and 1.34, respectively) (Jogaratnam & Buchanan, 2004).

Jogaratnam and Buchanan reported hospitality students who were female, freshman, or

full-time had greater exposure to stress factors compared to their peers; while in

general, all participating students acknowledged they had too many things to do at

once, too much responsibility, and struggled to meet their own academic standards.
 Barron and Anastasiadou (2008) explored part-time work habits of hospitality and

tourism students at a Scottish university. Because the study was administered during

formal class time, the controlled environment yielded 232 usable questionnaires (no

response rate indicated). The majority was female and held part-time jobs (63.0% and

65.0%, respectively). Thirty-nine percent of male students and 30.0% of female

students worked 16-20 hours per week, and more than 35.0% of both male and female

students worked more than 21 hours per week (Barron & Anastasiadou, 2008).

Founded on this information, Barron and Anstasiadou suggested universities provide

assistance to students looking for part-time jobs and lobby for more flexible education

offerings to better support students’ work demands. Martin and McCabe (2007)

explored UK postgraduate students’ part-time work habits to determine how their work

influenced future employment. A survey distributed to hospitality and tourism

postgraduate programs throughout the country yielded a response rate of 9.0% (N =

95); responses were received from eight graduate programs. Sixty-two percent of the

respondents held part-time jobs while taking classes full-time, and 86.0% believed their

part-time work experiences contributed to their applicable skills (e.g. team-work,

adaptability, communication and problem-solving). Students working part-time studied

more hours per week than those not working; 41.0% of unemployed students studied

less than ten hours per week while 13.0% of those working part-time studied less than

ten hours per week (Martin & McCabe, 2007).