Prepared by Twagirimana Juvenal tutor of SET E-mail: juvenaltwagirimana1@gmail.

com

NYAMAGABE DISTRICT
CYANIKA SECTOR
GS .N.D.B.C KIYUMBA
Class: P5
Subject: S E T

TEACHER: TWAGIRIMANA JUVENAL

NOTES OF SCIENCE AND ELEMENTARY TECHNOLOGY

(S.E.T)

Class: P5

Tell:0789286859/0790434415/0723561047
UNIT 1: CARPENTRY TOOLS
KEY WORDS:

1. Carpentry tools: are the tools used by carpenters.

2. Carpentry: is the act of making wooden products.
3. Carpenter: is someone (person) who uses tools to make wooden products.
N.B: A place where carpenters work is called carpentry workshop.

1.1 Importance of carpenters in our society

1. They are source money.

2. They provide employment (job).
3. They provide wooden materials.
4. They provide tax for the government.

1.2 Identification of carpentry tools and their usage

a) Supporting tools and their usage

1. Work bench: is a wooden bench with a hard surface.
USE: It supports while cutting, chiseling and planning.
2. Clamp/ Jointer: is a metal bar with adjustable jaw.

USE: It is used to hold a piece of wood to prevent its movement.

b) Cutting tools and their usage
1. Wood saw: is made up of a flat iron blade with a wooden handle.
USE: It is used to cut wood.
2. Axe: is made up of metal blade and a long wooden handle.

USE: It is used to cut wood and fell trees.

3. A bow saw: is a bow-shaped frame saw. It has a long metal blade.

USE: It is used for straight or curved cuts.

c) Measuring tools and their usage
1. T-square: is a T-shaped measuring tool. It is made up of wood or steel.

USE: It is used to measure squareness of a piece of wood.

2. A meter ruler: is made up of wood or steel.

USE: It is used to measure length of wood.

d) Smoothening and shaping tools and their usage
1. A plane: is made up of wood. It has a sharp metal blade and a wooden frame.

USE: It is used to smoothen rough surface of a wood.

2. A wood shaper: has a large motor and a vertical spindle.
USE: It is used to shape a huge amount of wood.
3. A spoke-shave: is a planer tool.

USE: It is used to shape wooden rods, for example, wheel spokes and chair legs.
e) Drilling tool and its usage
1. A brace: is a drilling tool with a U-shaped grid.

USE: It is used to drill holes in wood.

f) Levelling tool and its usage
1. A spirit level: is made up of aluminium, plastic or wood.

USE: It is used to check whether a surface is horizontal or vertical.

g) Driving tools and their usage
1. A claw hammer: has a striking a flat face at one end. The other end has a claw.

USE: It is used to drive a nail into or remove it from a wood.

2. A mallet: is a hammer-like tool with a head. It is made up of wood.

USE: It is used to drive wooden handled chisel.

3.A screw driver: has a metal blade and a wooden or plastic handle.
USE: It is used tighten and loosen a screw.

1.3 Maintenance of carpentry tools

If we do not maintain our tools regularly, they will not work properly. It also reduces the life of
the tools. Therefore, it is important to maintain our tools regularly.
To maintain carpentry tools in good condition:
i)Keep each tool in its proper storage place.
ii) Oiling or greasing them to prevent rust.
iii) Replace the worn out parts of tools.
Iv) Keeping them on racks or in toolboxes.
v) Cleaning and drying them after use.
vi) Keeping them in clean and dry place.

1.4 Dangers of carpentry tools and security measures

a) Dangers of carpentry tools

i) Cutting fingers and limbs.
ii) Risk of getting injuries.
iii) Risk of hearing loss due to loud noise of machines and tools.
iv) Risk of lungs disease from saw dust.
v) Loose clothing or long hair can be caught by the moving part of tools.
b) Safety measures (precautions) while using carpentry tools
i) Avoid loose clothing.
ii) Wear safety glasses to protect your eyes.
iii) Wear boots with heavy soles to protect your feet from injuries.
iv) Use gloves to protect your fingers from injuries.
v) Use face mask to protect your nose from the saw dust.
vi) Use earmuffs to protect your ears from the loud noise.
UNIT 2: MASONRY TOOLS
KEY WORDS:

1. Masonry tools: are the tools used by masons.

2. Masonry: is action of cutting, dressing and laying bricks or stones in buildings.
3. Mason: is someone (person) who is skilled in cutting, dressing and laying bricks or stones in
buildings.
N.B: A place where masons work is called construction site.

2.1 Importance of masons in our society

1. They are source money.

2. They provide employment (job).
3. They provide shelters and other important buildings.
4. They provide tax for the government.

2.2 Identification of masonry tools and their usage

a) Levelling tools and their usage

1. A water level: is made up of a glass tube filled with water. The tube is enclosed in a case.

USE: It is used to check whether a surface is levelled or not.

2. A plumb-line: Consists of a line and a plumb.
USE: It is used to find out whether the wall is upright or not.
b) Shaping tools and their usages
1. A trowel: is a flat pointed metal blade with a handle.

USE: It is used to shape mortar and concrete.

2. A jointer: is an S-shaped metal plate.

USE: It is used to shape the mortar between the bricks.

3. A brick frame: is a rectangular wooden frame.

USE: It is used to make bricks in proper shapes.

c) Smoothening tool and its usage
1. A float: has a large bull float with a long handle.

USE: It is used to smoothen a concrete surface.

d) Measuring tools and their usages
1. A meter ruler: is a wooden or metal rod marked with centimeters and meters.

USE: It is used to measure small length.

2. Tape measure: is a long and flexible tape.

USE: It is used to measure length or height of a wall.

3. T-square: is a T-shaped metallic or wooden tool.
USE: It is used to check whether a structure is actually square or not.
e) Transporting tool and its use
1. Wheelbarrow: is a single wheel small hand pushed cart.

USE: It is used to transport mortars and bricks.

f) Mixing tools and their usages
1. A mortar mixer: consists of a metal drum and a mortar.
USE: It is used to mix building materials, especially mortar.
2. Hoe: is made up of a metal blade and a wooden handle.

USE: It is used to mix mortar and concrete.

3.A shovel or spade: is made up of a flat metal blade and a long handle.

USE: It is used to mix mortar.

g) Breaking tool and its usage
1. A brick hammer: is a hand tool. Its one end is a square-shaped. The other end is chisel-
shaped.
USE: It is used to break and dress bricks.

2.3 Maintenance of masonry tools

If we do not maintain our tools regularly, they will not work properly. It also reduces the life of
the tools. Therefore, it is important to maintain our tools regularly.
To maintain masonry tools in good condition:
i) Keep each tool in its proper storage place.
ii) Oiling or greasing them to prevent rust.
iii) Replace the worn out parts of tools.
Iv) Keeping them on racks or in toolboxes.
v) Cleaning and drying them after use.
vi) Keeping them in clean and dry place.
vii) Painting all metal parts to prevent rust.

2.4 Dangers of masonry tools

i) Cutting fingers and limbs.

ii) Risk of getting injuries.
iii) Risk of hearing loss due to loud noise of machines and tools.
iv) Risk of lungs disease from saw dust.
v) Loose clothing or long hair can be caught by the moving part of tools.
Causes of injuries related to masonry tools
i)Tools falling overhead.
ii) Using wrong tool for the job.
iii) Carrying sharp tools in pockets.
iv) Falling brick chips and mortars into eyes.
v) Carrying sharp tools by hand while on a ladder.

2.5 Prevention of dangers of masonry tools

i) Wear safety glasses when cutting bricks.

ii) Cutting materials away from another worker’s face.
iii) Keep tool away from foot and the paths of other people.
iv) Wearing helmet to protect head.
v) Never throw masonry tools.

UNIT 3: OBJECTS PRODUCTION

i) Object: is a material that can be seen or touched.
ii) Object production: is an action of producing toys, utility objects and
learning materials.

3.1 Making toys

Toys: are the objects that you can play with (play objects).
Making toys: is an action of producing play objects.
N.B: We can make toys from: leaves, straws, sticks, clay, banana fibrous, …………….
a) Making a toy bicycle
Materials needed: sorghum sticks, pair of scissors and a card board.
b) Making a toy house
Materials needed: sorghum sticks, straws and a knife.

3.2 Making utility objects

Utility objects: are the materials that can be used in every daily activity.
a) Making a spoon in a wood
Materials needed: a piece of soft wood, a machete, a sharp flattened nail and a hammer.
b) Making a hoe handle in a wood
Materials needed: a piece of soft wood, an axe, a clamp and spoke-shave.

3.3 Making learning materials

Learning materials: are materials that help us to learn better.

Examples: Rhombus, parallelogram and trapezium.
a) Making rhombus from a sheet of paper
Rhombus: is a four-sided flat shape whose all sides have equal length.
Materials needed: a rectangular sheet of paper and a pair of scissors.

b) Making a parallelogram in a sheet of paper

Parallelogram: is a four-sided flat shape whose opposite sides are parallel.
Materials needed: a rectangular sheet of paper and a pair of scissors.

niyodusaba is a set with a set

c) Making a trapezium from a sheet of paper

Trapezium: is a four-sided flat shape whose one pair of sides are parallel.
Materials needed: a rectangular sheet of paper and a pair of scissors.

N.B: Crease: is a line or ridge produced on paper by folding.

3.4 Maintenance of utilities and learning materials

The prepared utilities and learning materials are soft. So we must take extra care to keep them
safe. They should be:
i) Keep them in dray and clean place.
ii) Handle with care.
iii) Clean them with.

UNIT 8: WATER
Water: is the precious gift of nature.
All living things need water to live, means that all living things cannot live without water.

8.1 Importance (uses) of water

a) As human food: we use water for cooking food and drinking.

b) In sanitation: we use water in sanitary activities like bathing, washing, cleaning toilets
and mapping floors.
c) In farming: water is essential for plant’s growth so, we use water plants in our garden and
agricultural fields.
d) In industries: we use water in many industries to produce medicines, soft drinks, cement
and paper.

8.2 Sources of water

Sources of water: are the places where we can get water. There are natural and artificial (man-
made) sources of water.
a) Natural sources of water: we can get water from rivers, lakes, ponds, oceans, seas and
stream.
b) Artificial (man-made) sources of water: we can get water from dams, wells,
canals, borehole and water taps.

8.3 Properties of water

Properties are also called characteristics. Here we consider for properties of pure water.
i) Pure water is colorless.
ii) Pure water is odorless (has no smell).
iii) Pure water is tasteless.(it has no taste)
 iv) Pure water is a good solvent.
v) Pure water has melting point of 0 0C.
vi) Pure water has a boiling point of 100 0C.

8.4 Rain water

Rain: is the main source of water. We get a plenty of rain in the wet season.
Water cycle
Water cycle: is the continuous process by which water moves from the land to the atmosphere
and back to the land again.
Processes involved in water cycle
1. Evaporation: is the change of liquid (water) to vapor (gas). By heat of the sun, water
gets heated up and changes into water vapor.
2. Transpiration: is the loss of water from the plant leaves in form of vapor.
3. Condensation: is the change of water vapor to liquid water. Water vapor goes up in the
sky. It comes in contact with cool air and changes into small water droplets.
4. Precipitation: are all forms of water vapor condensed in the sky. They fall down on
earth as rainfall, snow, hail, etc.
Diagram of water cycle

Effects of rain water

Rain water has both positive and negative effects.
Positive effects of rain water
i) Rain fills lakes, rivers and ponds with water.
 ii) It helps the plants to grow.
iii) It keeps our atmosphere cool.
iv) It removes dust from our surroundings.
v) It is used at home for drinking, cooking and cleaning.
Negative effects of rain water
i) Too much rain causes flood.
ii) Too much rain causes soil erosion.
iii) Too much rain destroy infrastructure.
iv) Too much rain disrupts people’s activities.
v) When there is too much rain, water borne diseases tend to emerge and spread.
N.B: Water borne diseases: are diseases caused by drinking or using dirty (contaminated)
water.
Examples: Dysentery, salmonella, typhoid fever, cholera, hepatitis A and diarrhea.
8.5 Ways of protecting the environment from rain water
i) Planting trees: the roots of plants hold the soil firmly. When the soil particles are hold
together firmly, they cannot be washed away easily by water.
ii) Making terraces: terraces are built on very steep slopes or hilly sides of the farm. They slow
down the flow of water.
iii) Making ditches: people make ditches to reduce the flow of water.
N.B: Ditches: are narrow channels dug in the ground.
iv) Cultivating anti-erosive plants: such plants include grass, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, cow
peas and beans.
N.B: Anti-erosive plants: are the plants that grow and cover the surface of soil.

8.6 Water pollutants

Water pollution: is the contamination of water bodies as a result of human activities.

Water pollutants: are dirty (harmful) substances that make water to be polluted
(contaminated).
The following are some water pollutants
i) Human faeces and animal dung: germs from faeces enter in water bodies by rain
water and contaminate it.
 ii) Domestic wastes: those are vegetables peels, maize cobs and food leftover into
water bodies also cause water pollution.
iii) Industrial waste: industries create chemical waste during manufacturing processes.
If these wastes are channeled into water bodies such as rivers, lakes and ponds, they
contaminate water.
iv) Agricultural chemicals: farmers use chemicals like fertilizers, insecticides and
pesticides to increase yield of the crops. These get into water bodies when they are
washed away by heavy rain.
v) Dead bodies of animals: sometimes people throw dead bodies of animals into
water. When they rot, the water gets contaminated.

8.7 Dangers of water pollution

i) Spreading of water borne diseases.

ii) Polluted water can harm domestic as well as wild animals. They become sick and can die.
iii) Affect water animals (aquatic animals) like fish, turtles and crocodile.

8.8 Prevention of water pollution

i) Avoid bathing, watering animals and washing clothes in water sources.

ii) Practicing proper hygiene for example use of toilets, latrines and urinals.
iii) Use dustbins instead of dumping waste into water.
iv) Practicing farming methods that reduce soil erosion like contour and terrace farming.
v) Don’t dump solid waste in water sources.
vi) Clearing accidental oil spills as soon as they happen.
vii) Fencing around water sources.

8.9 Purification of water

Purification of water: is the removing of suspended wastes and germs from water.
Methods of water purification
i) Boiling: is the process of killing germs from water by heating.
ii) Filtration: is the removing of solid wastes from water. The clear water is passed
through the cloth and the insoluble solid particles like dust and sand remain above
cloth.
N.B: Filtered water is not safe for drinking because it has germs.
iii) Chlorination: is the process of killing germs from water by using chemical
treatments.
The chemicals kill harmful micro-organism in water making water safe for drinking and
domestic use.

8.10 Making a water filters

Materials needed to make water filter:

i) A large plastic bottle.
ii) A coarse sand.
iii) Beaker.
iv) Clean cotton wool.
v) Small gravel.
vi) Clean sand
vii) Sharp knife or razor blade.
viii) Charcoal
ix) Paper filter.
N.B: Do not drink this water because it contains germs in it.

8.1 Water storage

Water storage: is the storing of water safely for future use .

a) Storing potable water for drinking
i) Store the cleaned and purified water in clean container such as jerry cans, buckets
and clay pots.
ii) Always cover the water containers.
iii) Never put hands into the drinking water container.
iv) Use ladle or gourd with long handle to scoop out water from a container. Do not
drink directly with it. Use a cup or a glass.
v) Storage container should be washed or rinsed regularly.
b) Storing general purpose water
i) Store water in large containers e.g. barrels large plastic tanks and underground
tanks.
ii) Always cover the containers.
iii) Clean the water tank regularly using bleaching powder.

UNIT 9: SOIL
Soil: is the most layer of the earth’s surface.
9.1 Preparation of soil for cultivation
Soil preparation: is the process of making the soil suitable for cultivation.
These are the various steps of soil preparation:
i) Land clearing: in this stage, people clear the bushes, tree stumps and shrubs from
the land. It makes digging and ploughing easier. We use machetes and slasher.
ii) Primary cultivation (ploughing): after clearing the land, farmers plough the land
with animals and plough. The ploughing is done before the wet season starts. It
loosens the soil, but leaves some soil clods.
CLODS: are the big lamps of soil.
iii) Secondary cultivation (harrowing): to turn and break the soil clods, the farmers re-
plough the land. It is done a tractor with harrow and harrow driven by animals. It
makes the soil fine and soft for easy planting. It also helps to allow easy application
of manure and fertilizers.
iv) Levelling (seedbed preparation): in this stage, the farmers level soil to prepare the
seedbeds. It done with the help of a rake. Levelling remove the big soil and stones. It
also helps in controlling weeds.
9.2 Fertilization of soil for cultivation
Fertilization of soil: is the process of adding fertilizers to the soil.
It provides nutrients to the soil. It helps the plant grow well.
Types of fertilizers
i) Natural (Organic) fertilizers: they are also called manure. They are formed from
dead plants and animal wastes. The main organic fertilizers are: animal wastes, plant
wastes and sewage sludge.
EXAMPLES:
a) Green manure: is formed from green plants.
b) Farmyard manure: is formed from animal beddings, their dungs and urine.
c) Compost manure: is formed from rotting garbage and degradable waste.
ii) Chemical, inorganic (artificial) fertilizers: these are artificial material added to the
soil for plant growth.
Groups of chemical fertilizers
a) Straight fertilizers: are fertilizers that contain only one major type of nutrients.
EX: SSP (Single Super Phosphate) and Urea.
b) Compound (complex) fertilizers: are fertilizers that contain two or more major
types of nutrients.
Ex: NPK: Nitrogen Phosphorous and Potassium.
 CAN: Calcium Ammonium Nitrate.
DAP: Diammonium Phosphate.
9.3 Importance of fertilizers
i) It improves the growth of plants.
ii) It provides nutrition to the crops.
iii) It develops the fighting capacity of crops against pests like weeds, insects and diseases.
iv) It improves soil fertility.
v) It increases agricultural productivity.
9.4 Rules of applying fertilizers
We must follow some rules while applying fertilizers on crops. These includes:
i) Use organic fertilizers before using artificial (chemical) fertilizers.
ii) Always choose the appropriate fertilizers for each crop.
iii) Respect the dose.
iv) Apply fertilizers when the soil is moist.
v) Wear gloves while handling fertilizers.
vi) Watch weather before applying fertilizers.
vii) Never apply fertilizers if the soil is already fertile.

UNIT 10: ANIMALS

Poultry: is the activity of keeping chickens.
Chickens are the most common domestic birds in Rwanda. Chickens provide eggs, meat and
fertilizer.
N.B: i) A male chicken is called cock.
ii) A female chicken is called hen.
iii) A house of chicken is called coop.
10.1 Conditions of a good chicken house
i) It should have enough space.
ii) It should be protected from bad weather, thieves and wild animals.
iii) It should be well-ventilated.
iv) It should be clean and dry.
v) The house should be sterilized with proper disinfectants.
vi) It should have suitable drainage system.
vii) It should have clean water supply.
viii) It should have good temperature management system.
10.2 Types of breeds
Breeds: is the stock of animals having distinctive appearance.
a) Based on the origin:
i) Local breeds: those have their origin in Africa. These are kept for both meat and
eggs (dual purpose chickens).
ii) Exotic breeds: are breeds that are imported into Rwanda from other countries.
b) Based on commercial purposes:
i) Egg-laying breeds (layers): they are kept mainly for eggs. EX: White Leghorn, New
Hampshire and Rhode Island Red.
ii) Meat-type chicken (Broilers): they are kept mainly for meat. EX: Cornish Cross, Light
Sussex, Cornish Rock, Jersey Giant.
iii) Dual purpose type of chicken: they are kept for both meat and eggs. EX: Black
Austral up, Ancona, Minorca.
10.3 chicken reproduction
Chicken reproduction: is the process laying eggs followed incubation.
Steps of chicken reproduction:
a) Laying eggs: a chicken (hen) lays eggs. It can lay an average of 300 eggs per year.
b) Incubation of eggs (Brooding): is the keeping eggs under conditions that allow them to
hatch into chicks.
Types of incubation (brooding)
i) Artificial incubation (brooding): the eggs are put in a special machine called
incubator for them to hatch.
ii) Natural incubation (brooding): the broody hen sits on eggs for 21 days for them to
hatch.
Conditions for natural incubation to be successful
a) Clean water and feeds.
b) Clean dry nest made of soft materials.
c) A place with dim light.
d) A place which is free from disturbance.
N.B: Broody hen: is a hen that shows a natural tendency to sit on eggs for them to hatch.
Incubator: is a special machine that helps eggs to hatch.
Cannibalism: is the chicken that eats its eggs.

10.4 Proper feeding of chickens

Chicken feeds include: grains like maize and millet, crushed cereals, small insects and soft
vegetation.

Apart from feeds that can be obtained locally, chicken can be feed on commercial feeds.
Concentrates: are the commercial chicken feeds.
Types of commercial chicken feeds according to the breeds
1. Layers

Age of chicken Types of food Content

0-6 weeks Chick mash Protein from whole maize
and soya.
6-20 weeks Grower mash Protein from whole maize
and wheat grain.
After 20 weeks until culling Layer mash Calcium from wheat,
sorghum and oats.

2. Broilers

Age of chicken Types of food Content

Bellow 2 weeks Starter mash Protein from whole maize
and corn.
6 weeks until the disposal Broilers mash Protein from whole maize
and corn.

N.B: i) Feed chicken at proper time.

ii) Keep the feeders and watering troughs clean.

10.5 Chicken diseases

Chickens are susceptible to diseases.

Causes of chicken diseases

i) Poorly feed.
ii) Overcrowded.
iii) Kept in a dirty house.
iv) Feed in unclean feeders.

The following are common chicken diseases, their symptoms and preventive measures:

a. Parasitic diseases

Diseases Cause Signs and Prevention Treatment

symptoms

Coccidiosis Coccidia Bloody Keep the bedding clean Vaccinate the

diarrhea, and dry, keep any sick chickens, feed
weight loss, chicken warm. chickens with
dropping wings, feeds containing
rough feathers. coccidiostats.

Ascarids Askaris Diarrhea, Do not mix young and Vaccinate the

(round weight loss, older chickens, give chickens,
worms) slow growth clean feeds to the treating them
and big bellies. chickens. using
dewormers.

b. Infectious diseases
Diseases Cause Signs and symptoms Prevention Treatment

Salmonella Bacteria Look weak, diarrhea, they Isolate the Vaccinate the
have purple combs and infected chickens, chickens.
wattles cleaning feeds
and feeders.

Infectious Bacteria Coughing, sneezing, stop Isolate the Vaccinate the

bronchitis laying, nasal discharge. infected chickens. chickens.

Vaccination programs for chickens

Age of chicken Types of vaccine

1 day- 16 weeks Salmonellosis vaccine

1 day- 9 days Coccidiosis vaccine

16- 20 weeks 1. Infectious bronchitis vaccine

2. New castle disease vaccine

10.6 Prevention of chicken diseases

i) Keeps chicken clean.

ii) Cleaning chicken house.

iii) Feed the chickens properly.

iv) Add preventive drugs to chicken feeds or their drinking water.

v) Quarantine (isolate) sick chickens.
N.B: Quarantine: is the process of isolating infected chickens away from normal chickens.
10.7 Importance of chicken farming
i) It is a source of employment (job).
ii) It is a source of income (money).
iii) It gives us meat and eggs.
iv) It is a source of manure.
v) Chicken feathers can be used in decoration.
vii) Chicken feathers can be used in costumes in traditional music and dance.
10.8 Chicken farming process
i) Select land which is away from the population.
ii) Build cages and coops.
iii) Add feeders and water containers to the coops.

iv Select chicks
v) Feed chicks with nutritious foods.
vi) Vaccinate chickens to keep diseases free
vii) Sell chickens and their products in the market.
Methods (system) of rearing chickens
a) Free-range system: in this system, chickens are left to move freely in an area and feed
by themselves.
b) Deep litter system: in this system, chickens are put in a permanent structure. The
chickens are provided with clean feeds and water in their housing.
c) IFold system: in this system, chickens are enclosed in a movable structure. The
structure is moved to a new place every day to prevent spread of diseases and pests.
d) Battery system: in this system, each chicken is kept in a cage with sloping floor for
collecting eggs. This is an expensive method of rearing chicken.
10.9 Factors to be considered before starting the chicken farm
i) Capital: money for buying breeds and their feeds.
ii) Raw materials: materials for building coops
iii) Feed and feeding: getting feeds and organizing how you will feed your chickens.
iv) Types of breeds: selecting layers or broilers
v) Equipment and facilities: having feeders, drinkers, egg trays, heat source, waste disposal,
incubators, culling cage, clean water, feeds….
vi) Land: selecting the land which is away from population and where there is easy disposal of
waste.
vii) Market: knowing where there is market for selling chickens and their products.
UNIT 11: PLANTS AND ENVIRONMET

Plant: is a living thing that grows in the ground, usually has leaves or flowers and needs sun and
water to survive.
Environment: is everything that around us.
11.1 Importance of plants
a) Human food (food crops)
b) Animal feeding
c) Medicines
d) Cash crops 1
e) Protection of environment

a) Human food (food crops): they provide carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and
minerals to the humans.
Types of food crops
i) Cereals: these are crops grown their grains. Ex: rice, wheat, maize, oats, barley,
millet, sorghum.
ii) Legumes: these crops mainly produce their seeds in pods. Ex: peas, green grams,
beans, groundnuts, black beans.
iii) Fruits: these include: pawpaw, oranges, mangoes, bananas, pineapple, passion
fruits, pears, apples, avocado. Fruits have two scars while seeds have one scar.
iv) Vegetables: these include: spinach, kales, cabbages, broccoli, lettuce, cauliflower,
eggplant, onions, tomatoes.
v) Tubers: these are plants that store food in their roots (root tubers) or stem (stem
tubers).
1. Root tubers: carrots, cassava, radish, turnips, beetroot, arrow roots, sweet
potatoes.
2. Stem tubers: yam, and Irish/English potatoes.

b) Animals’ feeding: human and cattle like cows, buffaloes, horses feed on plant. They
plant eaters. N.B: Plant eaters: are living things that eat plant.
c) Medicinal plants: we use them as medicine in our day-to-day life.

Plants Uses
 Eucalyptus ( Inturusu) Its oil helps relieve pain of rheumatism and stiffness.
Iboza riparia Its leaves are used to heal sore chest, stomachache
and malaria.
Cinchona ( Kenkina) It contains quinine which is used to treat malaria.
Aloe Vera ( Igikakarubamba) It is used for digestive problems and loss of appetite.
Ocimum suave ( Umwenya) Its leaves are used to treat cough and diabetes.

d) Cash crops: these are crops grown mainly for sale. The farmer sells the crops to
industries for processing.

Groups of cash crops

i) Beverage crops: they are processed in industries for beverages. Ex: tea, coffee,
cocoa and barley.
ii) Fibre crops: they are grown to produce thread or fibre. Ex: cotton, sisal and flax.
iii) Oil crops: they are grown mainly for oil production. Ex: sunflower, groundnuts,
coconut, cashew nuts and cotton.
Cash crops and their products
1. Coffee: coffee drink
2. Sugar cane: sugar
3. Cotton: clothes
4. Tobacco: cigarettes
5. Pyrethrum: insecticide
6. Tea: tea drink
e) Protection of environment: making air clean, protecting against soil erosion, help in rain
formation by transpiration.
11.2 Common importance of trees on the environment
i) Improve weather condition: trees produce moisture during transpiration. This moisture
forms rain clouds. Trees also act as windbreaker by slowing down the speed of the wind.
ii) Protect soil erosion: the roots of plants hold the soil together and prevent soil erosion.
iii) Shelter of wild animals and birds: both birds and animals make their shelter in the trees.

iv) Recycle air through photosynthesis: plants need water and carbon dioxide to make food
through photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis: is the process by which green plants make their own food. It takes place in the
leaves.
Raw materials (natural resources) of photosynthesis: water and carbon dioxide.

Products of photosynthesis: sugar and oxygen.

Conditions of photosynthesis

i) Sun light: speed up reaction.

ii) Chlorophyll: attracting sun light.

Carbon dioxide + Water sugar + Oxygen

N.B: Plants take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen.
11.3 Other importance of trees
i) Ornamental trees: trees that are grown for decoration. Ex: Rose, Lavender, Cherry trees.
ii) Fruit trees: mango, orange and banana.
iii) Agro-forestry: is the planting trees with other crops.
iv) Fuel and timber tress: they are used as fire wood or for making timber.
N.B: Casuarina is the best fuel tree in Rwanda.
11.4 Effects of afforestation and deforestation on the environment
Afforestation: is the activity of planting trees where there is not exist.
Deforestation: is the cutting down trees.
Importance of afforestation
i) It increases the amount of rain fall.
ii) It keeps environment cool.
iii) It controls soil erosion.
iv) It maintains a balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide.
v) It prevents floods.
Causes of deforestation
i) To make more land available for farming.
ii) To make more land available for housing and urbanization.
iii) To clear land for mining.
iv) To get wood and charcoal.
Effects of deforestation
i) It increases the amount of rainfall which can lead to drought.
 ii) It causes flood.
iii) It causes soil erosion.
iv) Displacement of wild animals which lead to loss of tourist.
v) Lack of charcoal and firewood.
Prevention of deforestation (conservation of trees)
i) Re-afforestation: planting trees where there were existed.
ii) Afforestation: planting trees where there were not existed.
iii) Making laws of protecting forest: one cannot cut trees without getting permission
from the government.

Different ways of maintaining trees

i) Planting trees by digging hole in the soil.
ii) Fencing the trees to protect it from stray animals.
iii) Watering the trees regularly.
iv) Remove weeds and grasses around the trees.
v) Add organic manure to the trees.
vi) Trim the trees regularly.

UNIT 12: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestive system: is the system which concern for how a food is broken down into nutrients
that the body can absorb.
Digestive system is made up of:
i) Alimentary canal: are all the parts food pass through. Ex: mouth, oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine (ileum and duodenum), large intestine (colon, caecum and
rectum) and anus.
N.B: Peristalsis: is the process by which food move down through alimentary canal.
ii) Digestive gland: are the gland which make secretions that help in digestion of food.
Ex: Salivary glands, gastric glands, liver, gall bladder and pancreas.
10.1 Parts of digestive system and their functions

1.Mouth: chewing the food. It is done by helps teeth and saliva.

Types of human teeth and their functions

Types of Incisors Canines Premolars Molars Total

teeth
Numbers 8 4 8 12 32

Parts of tooth

2. Salivary gland: secrete saliva which moistens the food.

3. Food pipe (oesophagus): carries food from the mouth to the stomach.
4. Liver: it produces bile which helps in digestion of fats.
5. Gall bladder: it stores bile.
6. Bile duct: it carries bile from gall bladder to duodenum.
7. Stomach: produce hydrochloric acid which kill germs in the food.
9. Gastric gland: produce gastric juice.
8. Pancreas: produce pancreatic juice.
N.B: Pancreas also produces insulin and glucagon which control sugar regulation.
9. Small intestine: produces digestive enzymes and also absorbs digested food.
N.B: Small intestine consists:
i) Duodenum: produce hormones and receives secretions from the liver (bile) and
pancreas (pancreatic juice).
ii) Jejunum: absorbs sugars, amino acids and fatty acid.
iii) Ileum: digest food coming from the stomach and other parts of small intestine.
10. Large intestine: reabsorbs water.
N.B: large intestine consists:
i) Colon: reabsorb fluid and process waste products from the body and prepare for its
elimination.
ii) Caecum: absorb fluids and salts that remain after completion intestinal digestion and
absorption.
11. Appendix: act as a storehouse for good bacteria.
12. Rectum: stores undigested food until eliminated.
13. Anus: eliminates undigested food.
12.2 Functions of digestive system
i) Digestion: is the process by which is broken down into smaller particles.
ii) Absorption: is the process of uptaking the nutrients from the food.
12.3 Stages of digestion
1) Ingestion
2) Digestion
3) Absorption (assimilation)
4) Elimination (egestion)
1) Ingestion: is the entering of food in the mouth. We should ingest clean food and digestible
food.
2) Digestion: is the process by which is broken down into smaller particles.
a) Digestion in the mouth: the ingested food is chewed using teeth and mixed with saliva from
salivary glands.
Saliva: is the digestive juice that moistens the food.
The tongue rolls the food into small rounded balls called boluses. Saliva also contains digestive
enzymes called amylase that break down starch into simpler form.
Enzymes: are chemical substances that speed up digestion.
b) Digestion in the stomach: the food enters in the stomach from the oesophagus. The lining of
the stomach produces hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid: kills germs that may be present in the food. The stomach serves as a
temporary store food. From time to time, food is released into the small intestine.
c) Digestion in small intestine: small intestine is divided into two parts: upper part (duodenum)
and the lower (ileum).
Most digestion in small intestine takes place in the duodenum. In the duodenum, bile and
pancreatic juices mix with food. Pancreatic juices help in further digestion of food.
The ileum is involved in the absorption of digested food. After digestion in the ileum, fats,
proteins and carbohydrates are ready for absorption.
N.B: Digestion starts in the mouth and ends in the small intestine.
3) Absorption: is the uptaking the nutrients from the food to the blood. It is also known as
assimilation. The digested food is absorbed into the blood stream through the walls of the
ileum.
N.B: Absorption takes place in the small intestine.
4) Elimination: is the entering of unabsorbed food and water into the large intestine. The large
intestines consist of the colon and the rectum.
In the colon: most of water is reabsorbed into the blood stream. The remaining food waste
passed down to the rectum.
Egestion: is the removal of undigested food outside the body.
12.4 Hygiene of digestion
i) Chew the food properly.
ii) Do not drink water while taking meals.
iii) Eating balanced diet.
iv) Do not overeat.
v) Drink a lot of water daily.
vi) Wash hand before and after eating.
vii) Exercise regularly.
12.5 Groups of food (balanced diet)
A balanced diet: is a meal that contains all the nutrients needed by the body.
A meal: is food eaten during any occasion in the day.
Different foods have different functions. Based on their functions foods are grouped into:
 i) Body building foods: those foods help to grow and build strong muscles. These
foods provide us protein. Ex: meat, fish, eggs, pulses, beans,………..
ii) Energy giving foods: those foods give us energy to jump, run and play. Those foods
provide us carbohydrate and fats. Ex: cassava, yam, potato, cooking oil,……………
iii) Protective foods: those foods make our body strong to fight against diseases. These
foods provide us vitamins and minerals. Ex: banana, spinach, cabbage, carrots,……….
12.6 Components (elements) of balanced diet
Food groups should contain the following:
a) Carbohydrate: provide the body with energy to work. These foods also keep the body
strong and warm. Ex: sweet potato, maize, rice, yam, wheat,………
b) Proteins: they necessary for the growth and repair of body tissues. Ex: beans, milk, fish,
eggs, meat,………
c) Vitamins: these foods protect the body against diseases. Fresh fruits and vegetables are
the main sources of vitamins. Ex: oranges, water melon, pineapple, avocado,
strawberries,………
Types of vitamins
Water soluble vitamins: vitamin C and B complex.
Fat soluble vitamins: vitamin A, D, E and K.
d) Minerals: they present in many foods. They are required by the body in the small
quantities. Ex: calcium, phosphorus, iron, iodine, potassium, sodium and zinc.
The following table shows some minerals, their uses in the body and their sources:

Minerals Uses in the body Sources

Calcium . Building strong bones and Milk and milk products,
teeth. whole grain cereals and
. Helps in clotting of blood. small fish eaten whole.
Phosphorus Formation of strong bones Milk, beans and eggs.
and teeth.
Iron Helps in formation of Liver, kidney, meat, eggs
blood. spinach and other green
vegetables.
Iodine Prevention of goiter. Common salts and onions.

e) Lipids (fats and oils): provide the body with energy. They also make the skin shiny and
healthy. Fats exist in solid form while oils are in liquid form. Ex: avocado, sunflower,
sesame, corn, coconut, ground nuts, milk product (butter, ghee and cheese).
f) Water: the body needs water in order to stay healthy.
Functions of water in the body
i) Regulating our body temperature.
 ii) Digestion of food.
iii) Carrying nutrients and oxygen to various parts of our body.
iv) Absorption of nutrients by our body.
v) Removal of toxins and wastes from our body.
12.7 Nutritional deficiency diseases and their prevention
Nutritional deficiency diseases: are diseases caused by lack of enough nutrients in the diet.
If we do not get a balanced diet to eat, we shall become weak. We shall suffer from nutritional
deficiency diseases.
The following are some common nutritional deficiency diseases:

Diseases Cause Signs and symptoms Prevention

Kwashiorkor Lack of protein in the Thin body, swollen Eating food with
diet. face and belly, slow proteins. Ex: meat,
body growth, hair fish, eggs, milk, soya
turns reddish brown, bean, legumes.
loss of muscle mass.
Marasmus Lack of protein and Thin body with Eating balanced diet
carbohydrate in the prominent ribs, face with protein and
diet. looks like that of an carbohydrate. Ex:
old man or woman, meat, fish, eggs, milk,
rapid loss of weight. soya bean, legumes.
Goiter Lack of iodine in the Swelling of thyroid Eating sea foods and
diet. gland, difficulty in iodinated salts.
swallowing and
breathing, change in
voice such as
hoarseness.
Rickets Lack of vitamin D, Pain in bone, bending Daily have an early
calcium and of legs and morning sun light
phosphorous. backbones, swelling exposure, eat foods
at the wrist, knees that include an
and ankles, dental adequate amount of
deformities. calcium and vitamin
D. Ex: milk, eggs, fish,
…
Anaemia Lack of iron in diet. Feeling weak and Eating protein
tired, headache, supplements and
paleness, shortness balanced diet. Ex:
of breathing. green leafy
vegetables, meat,
 fish, milk and eggs.

12.8 Prevention of nutritional deficiency diseases

i) Take different types of fruits and vegetables.
ii) Get calcium rich foods.
iii) Take protein rich foods.
iv) Find a balance between food and physical activity.
v) Avoid tobacco use.
vi) Maintain a healthy weight.
12.8 Preparation of balanced diet
We can make a balanced diet by using food from each group of food.
Example: fish, bread, cabbage and mango.
N.B: A balanced diet protects us from nutritional deficiency diseases.

UNIT 13: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

13.1 Human reproductive system
Reproductive system: is a system that concern for how a living things produce new living
things.
Reproduction: is the process by which a living things produce new living things.
a) Functions of reproductive system
i) To produce ovum and sperm cells.
ii) To transport and sustain these cells.
iii) To nurture the developing offspring.
iv) To produce hormones.
Fertilization: is the union of sperm and ovum.
Sperms: male cells.
Ovum: female cell.
N.B: After fertilization, the fertilized egg forms a zygote which grows into an embryo. The
embryo then gradually develops into a complete baby in the mother’s womb.
Zygote embryo fetus infant
b) Male reproductive external organs

a) Penis: is external male sex organ. Role: i) Elimination of urine.

ii) Sexual intercourse.
a) Scrotum: It is the muscular sac that contains testicles (testes). Role: Protect testicles or
testes.
b) Testes: Those are two oval shaped glands. Role: Produce sperm.
c) Urethral opening: conducting urine from bladder to the outside of the body.
d) Female reproductive external organ
The main external organ is the vulva. Vulva: it is the female reproductive external organ
including the labia (majora and minora), clitoris, anus, urethral opening and vaginal opening.
13.2 Hygiene of the female genital organ
i) Wash or clean the external parts of reproductive organ every day with clean and water.
ii) After the bath, dry the genital area with a clean towel.
iii) Remove genital hair whenever it grows.
iv) During the menstruation change the pad or napkin regularly after 3-4 hours.
v) Don’t sit on unclean public toilets.
vi) Avoid touching your genitals with dirty hands.
13.3 Hygiene of the male reproductive system
i) Wash or clean the externa parts of reproductive organ every day with clean and water.
ii) After the bath, dry the genital area with a clean towel.
iii) Remove genital hair whenever it grows.
iv) Shaking the penis gently after urination to expel the remaining drops of urine.
v) Clean under the foreskin gently for those who are uncircumcised.
13.4 Secondary characteristics at puberty
Puberty: is a period where a boy or a girl reaches sexual maturity. When girls and boys into
puberty, they are capable or reproducing sexually. This stage occurs earlier in girls than in boys.
Adolescence: is a period when a girl or a boy is between being a child or an adult.
Boys: 9-14 years
Girls: 8-13 years
Stages of growth in human
Infancy: 0-2 years
Childhood: 3-6 years
Middle childhood: 7-11 years
Adolescence: 12-18 years
Adulthood: 19-40 years
Similarity of puberty characteristics in both girls and boys
i) Increase of height and weight.
ii) Hair grows under armpits.
iii) There is an increase in body smell.
iv) Change of voices.
v) Growing of pubic hair.
vi) Pimples may appear on the face.
Difference between puberty characteristics in boys and girls

Boys Girls
Ejaculation start (wet dream) Menstruation start
Enlargement of shoulders Enlargement of hips..
Development of chest. Development of breast
Voice become deep Voice become soft

N.B: i) Ejaculation: is the releasing of semen (sperm and fluid) from the penis.
ii) Menstruation: is the releasing of blood from the vagina during monthly period.
Regularly, it occurs in 28 days after ovulation.
iii) Ovulation: is the releasing of ovum from the ovary.
Emotional changes in girls during puberty
i) Shyness due to enlargement of body parts.
ii) Some may lose confidence and become self-critical.
iii) Girls may be embarrassed by their menstrual flow.
iv) Some girls become conscious about their weight and physical appearance.
v) Attraction to the opposite sex. Girls get attracted to boys.

Emotional changes in boys during puberty

i) Shyness due to deepening of voices.
ii) Boys may be embarrassed by their rapid development. Some become clumsy.
iii) Showing behavior related to the identity. They begin to identify with adult role
models and heroes.
iv) They easily angered due to sudden mood swings.
v) Winning becomes important. They derive satisfaction in playing competitive games.
13.5 Safe responsible behavior
 Safe responsible behavior: is the knowledge and skills that you need to develop so as to make
right decisions concerning your life.
Safe responsible behavior in boys and girls include:
i) Abstinence: not making sex behaving sex before marriage.
ii) Making informed choices: learn to say no to situations that may leave you with
lifetime consequences.
iii) Choose good friend: choose friends who encourage you to do what is right.
iv) Develop positive values and behavior: by reading motivational books, participating
in communal work, sports and other recreational activities that help you to learn.
v) Avoid risky behavior: such as drug abuse, fighting, and participating in crimes such
as robbery or theft.
Effects (consequences) of risky behavior
i) Death by mob justice.
ii) Being jailed (imprisonment).
iii) Rejection by family members or the community.
iv) Drug addiction, which can lead to death.
13.6 Love and infatuation
Love: is a faithful commitment to another person. It is driven by mutual feeling for each other.
Love can last over a long time.
Infatuation: is intense feelings for another person. It is driven by sexual desire and physical
attraction. It doesn’t last over a long period of time.

UNIT 14: LIGHT

Light: is a form of energy.
Energy: is ability to do a work.
Forms of energy
i) Light energy
ii) Electrical energy
iii) Chemical energy
iv) Mechanical energy
v) Elastic energy
vi) Wind energy
vii) Solar energy
 viii) Hydro-power energy
14.1 Importance of light
i) It allows us to see all objects.
ii) It allows plant to make photosynthesis (sunlight).

iii) Sunlight give us vitamin D.

Sources of light

i) Natural source of light: sun and stars

ii) Artificial sources of light: electric light, torch, candle, lamps……

N.B: The moon is not source of light because it uses the light from the sun.

14.2 Light propagation

Propagation: means to move, spread or travel.
a) Light travels in a straight line.
b) Light travels in all directions.
c) Light travels in form of a ray or rays.
Ray: is an element of beam.
Beam: is a set or group of rays.
14.3Types of medium for light transmission

i) Transparent medium: is material that allows light to pass through them. Ex: glass
windows, colorless drinking glasses, air, clear water and windscreens.
ii) Translucent medium: is material that allows some light (little light) to pass through
them. Ex: frosted glass, waxed paper and thin piece of cloth or paper.
iii) Opaque medium: is material that does not allow light to pass through them. Ex:
stones, wood, metal sheets, books, timber and the human body.
14.3 Laws of light propagation
i) Reflection
ii) Refraction
Reflection of light
Reflection: is the bouncing back of light when it falls on a surface.
N.B: Smooth shiny surfaces reflect most of light that falls on them. They are good reflector of
light.

a) Incident ray: is the ray falling on the mirror.

b) Reflected ray: is the ray bouncing off the surface.
c) Incident angle: is angle between the normal and incident ray.
d) Reflected angle: is angle between the normal and reflected ray.
e) Normal: is the line which is perpendicular to the mirror.
N.B: Brightly colored surface reflect light better than dull surfaces.

Plane mirror
Plan mirror: is a mirror with a flat reflective surface.

Characteristics of image formed in a plane mirror

i) The image and their objects have the same size.
ii) It is virtual: formed behind the mirror.
iii) Object distance in front of mirror is equal to image distance behind the mirror.
iv) It is upright.
 v) It is laterally inverted: its appearance is reversed left to right or right to left.
Types of reflection
i) Regular reflection: it occurs when light falls on a flat (smooth) shiny surface such as
mirror.

N.B: The beam of light is reflected as paralleled beams.

ii) Irregular (diffused) reflection: it occurs when light falls on a rough surface.

N.B: Reflected light spreads in different directions.

Refraction of light
Refraction: is the bending of light ray when it travels from one medium to another.
A medium of light: is a substance that allows light to pass through it.
It may pass through air to glass, air to water, glass to water or vice versa.
When light moves from air to clear glass, its speed is interfered with and it slows down. This
interference causes it to change its direction of movement. As it changes direction, it bends.
This bending is the refraction of light.
The diagram below shows how light bends when it travels from air to glass and from glass to
air:

Apparent and real depth

Apparent depth: is the depth of an object in a denser medium as seen from the rarer medium.
Its value is smaller than real depth.
Real depth: is the actual distance of an object beneath the surface, as would be measured by
submerging a perfect ruler along with it.

Application of refraction in real life

i) A pencil in water appears bent because of refraction of light.
ii) A coin at the button of a container with water appears raised because of refraction
of light.
iii) Riverbeds appear shallow because of refraction of light.
iv) The floor of the swimming pool appears raised because of refraction of light.
v) When the sun shines through droplets of rain water it causes rainbow to appear.
N.B: Rainbow: is a big arc of seven colors (spectrum).
Spectrum: is a band of seven colors.
 Dispersion of light: is the splitting of a white ray of light into the seven colors of
the spectrum.
Those colors are (ROYGBIV):
1) Red
2) Orange
3) Yellow
4) Green
5) Blue
6) Indigo
7) Violet

UNIT 15: ELECTRICITY

Electricity: is the form of energy. It is generated from different sources.
15.1 Importance of electricity
i) It is used to power radios, televisions, computers and phones.
ii) It is used to light homes, schools and other important places.
iii) It is used to power vehicles and machines.
iv) It is used for heating in ovens and micro waves.
Wv) It is used for air conditioning and refrigeration.
vi) It is used to press clothes (ironing) and to dry clothes in dry cleaning shops.
vii) It is used to solder (press together) metals.
viii) It is used in factories to produce various.
15.2 Production (sources) of electricity
a) Bicycle dynamo: producing electricity by changing mechanical energy into electrical energy.
It done by rotating a wheel of bicycle.
b) Solar panel: producing electricity by changing light energy from the sun into electrical
energy. The electricity produced can be stored in a battery (storage unit). It is then used when
there is no sunlight especially at night.
c) Wind power: producing electricity by changing wind energy into electrical energy.
d) Hydro power: producing by changing energy of running water to generate electricity.
e) Thermal (heat) power: producing electricity by changing heat energy into electrical energy.
f) Dry cell: producing electricity by changing chemical energy into electrical energy. Dry cell has
two terminals: positive (+ve) and negative (-ve) terminal.
Dry cell

It produces a force which pushes electricity through the circuit. The pushing power is called
voltage (V). The unit of voltage is called volts (v). Each cell has 1.5 V.
Types of dry cells
Primary cells: are the cells that cannot be recharged.
Secondary cells: are the cells that can be recharged.
N.B: Dry cells store chemical energy and produce electrical energy.
15.3 Common tools and materials used in electricity
a) Tools used in electricity
i) A plier: is used to cut, hold or tighten wires.
ii) Screw driver: is used to loosen or tighten screws.
iii) Wire stripper: is used to remove the plastic cover from electric wire.
iv) Tester: is used to check whether electricity is flowing through a conductor or not.
v) Rubber gloves: prevent us from electric shocks.
b) Materials used in electricity
1) An electric meter: is used to measure the consumption of electricity in a building.
2) Fuse: it breaks the circuit if electricity exceeds the safe limit. It breaks electricity by melts it
when there is too much current flowing through a circuit. When the fuse melts, the circuit is
broken. By breaking the circuit, electrical damage is prevented.
3) A plug: is used to connect appliances to the sockets. Materials used in electricity are either
conductors or insulators.
Conductors: are used to make conducting wires, contacts in switches and fuses, plugs and
sockets.
Example of conductors of electricity: silver, aluminum, copper
N.B: The best conductor of electricity is silver.
Insulators: are used to insulate electric cables and prevent short circuiting.
A plug usually has three wires connected in a cable. These include the live, neutral and earth
wires.
i) A live wire (L): is colored red or brown. It carries electricity from the electricity
supply point (mains) to an appliance.
ii) The neutral wire (N): is colored black or blue. It carries electricity from the
appliance and back to the electricity supply (mains). This help to complete the
circuit.
iii) The earth wire (E): is colored green or yellow. It conducts away excess current to
the earth (underground). This prevents electric shock.
15.4 Components of simple electric circuit
Electric circuit: is a path through which electricity flows.
i) Dry cell: is a source of electricity. It produces electricity from the chemicals stored
inside it.
ii) Switch: it either breaks or complete the circuit.
iii) Connecting wires: It provides path to electricity to complete the circuit.
iv) Bulb: it gives light when the circuit is complete. It has two forms of energy: light and
heat energy.
N.B: A bulb has very thin metal in its center called filament.
This filament is coiled in order to increase resistance. This filament is made from
tungsten and has the mineral called wolfram. A bulb also has nitrogen and argon
gas which prevent the filament.
Parts of bulb
Controlling electric circuit
An electric circuit can be controlled by switch. The switches help to control the flow of electric
current by switching it on or off.
i) When you switch on, you complete the circuit.
ii) When you switch off, you break the circuit.
OBSERVATIONS
SET UP: A

Question: Does the bulb light in set up A light?

Answer: The bulb does not light when you disconnect the switch end from the dry cell. This is
also because the circuit is incomplete.

SET UP: B
Question: Does the bulb light in set up B light?
Answer: The bulb light when you connect the switch to the dry cell. This is also because the
circuit is complete.

Common materials used in electric circuit functions and their symbols.

15.5 Dangers of electricity
When mishandled electricity can cause dangers such as:
i) Burns
ii) Electrocution
iii) Fires
iv) Deaths
v) Destruction of electrical appliances.
15.6 Ways of preventing the dangers of electricity
i) Avoiding inserting nails and other metallic objects into sockets.
ii) Avoiding touching electrical appliances with wet hands.
iii) Avoiding repairing electrical appliances while plugged.
iv) Avoiding operating electrical appliances with damaged cables (wires).

UNIT 16: MATERIALS

Materials: are the things which around us.
16.1 Classification of materials
Natural materials can be classified broadly into two:
a) Metals
b) Non-metals.
a) Non-metals: is material that lacks metallic characteristics.
Properties of non-metals
i) They are poor conductors of both heat and electricity.
ii) They are soft and break easily.
iii) Most have a dull appearance.
Examples of non-metals: bricks, paper, plastics, wood and glass.
b) Metals: is a material that is typically hard and shiny. In nature metals are found on or in the
earth crust.
Properties of metals
i) They are shiny.
ii) They are sonorous: most make bell-like sound when hit.
iii) They are good conductors of both heat and electricity.
Examples of metals: aluminium, zinc, iron, tin, copper, lead, silver and gold.
16.2 Uses of common metals
i) Iron: is used to make roofing materials like hoes, shovels, screws, nails, iron sheets….
ii) Copper, silver and bronze: are used to make coins and medals.
N.B: Copper is used to make electric wires and water pipes.
iii) Gold and silver: are used to make jewelry and other decoration items.
iv) Tin: is used to make cans and tin lamps.
v) Aluminium: is used to make saucepans.
16.3 Maintenance of metals
i) Painting: is the process of coating the iron surface with paint.
ii) Galvanization: is the process of applying protective zinc coating to steel or iron.
iii) Store in dry place: all metallic tools and equipment need to be stored in a dry safe place.
iv) Oiling: moving or rotating metallic parts should be oiled to reduce friction.
16.4 Calculation of density
Mass M
Density = D=
Volume V

Density: is the mass of substance per unit volume.

Mass: is the quantity of matter in a body.
Volume: is the amount of space that is occupied by a container.
g
N.B: i) The standard unit of density is grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) ( ) or
cc
kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3).

iii) Instrument used to measure density is densitometer.

Example: A metallic block has a mass of 500g and volume of 50cm3 Calculate the density of the
block.
Solution
M
Given: Mass = 500g Question: Density =? Formula: D =
V
Volume = 50cm3
M 500 g
Calculation: D = = = 10g/cm3
V 50 cm3

Measuring the volume of irregular materials

Volume of irregular materials is obtained by using displacement method.
a) Materials needed: water, measuring cylinder and stone.
 b) What to do:
i) Collect water in a measuring cylinder.
ii) Note the initial (first) level of water in the cylinder. Record it as initial volume of
water.
iii) Tie a piece of thread around a stone.
iv) Lower the stone gently into the measuring cylinder or container.
v) Note the final (last) level of water in the cylinder. Record it as final volume of
water.

Volume of stone = final volume- initial volume

V of stone = V2 - V1
Example: A piece of stone weighs 90g. When put in a measuring cylinder, the water level rose
from 48cm3 mark to 78cm3 mark. Find the density of the stone.
Solution
M
Given: Mass = 90g Question: Density =? Formula: D =
V
Volume: V1= 48cm3
V2= 78 cm3
V of stone = V2 - V1 = 78 cm3 - 48cm3 = 30cm3
M 90 g
D= = = 3g/cm3
V 30 cm3
16.5 Relative density
Relative density: is the ratio between the density of substance to the density of a given
reference material.
Normally, the reference material is the density of pure water.
density of a substance
Relative density =
density of water

N.B: i) Instrument used to measure relative density is called hydrometer.

ii) The density of water is 1g/cm3 or 1kg/m3.
Example: the density of kerosene is 0.8g/cm3. If the density of water is 1g/cm3 , calculate the
relative density of kerosene.
Solution
density of a substance 0.8 g /cm3
Relative density = = = 0.8
density of water 1 g /cm3

Floating and sinking

i) Floating: to remain on the surface of water. The objects which float on water
surface are less dense than water.
ii) Sinking: To go down below the surface of water. To become submerged. The objects
which sink are denser than water.
16.6 Application of relative density
The following are some real life applications of relative density:
i) Making the ship hallow reduces its density which help it to float.
ii) It is used to determine the purity of some substances. Ex: lactometer is used to
measure density of milk to find out if it is pure or water has been added.
iii) The knowledge of relative density is applied to determine the mineral content in a
rock.
iv) It is considered during the design of swimming and diving equipment.
v) Materials used for building the parts of aeroplanes should have a low density. A
good example of such material is aluminium.