Modern XI Biology Page 51 - 100 Editable and Searchable

THE LIVING WORLD
2. Assertion: Rate of extinction of wildlife has become rapid in the last one hundred years. --
Reason: Unplanned human activities like population explosion, deforestation, industrialization, hunting, etc. have destroyed
the natural habitats of many spp. of wildlife
ABC D
3. Assertion: Golden langur is a vulnerable species.
Reason: Their number has reduced and their natural habitat is also disturbed.
ABC D
4. Assertion: For the management of wildlife, environmental pollution must be checked.
Reason: Environment provides the life supporting systems to wildlife.
ABC D
5. Assertion: National parks have been set up to protect wildlife.
Reason: Biosphere reserves have greater importance than the national parks.
ABC D
6. Assertion: High yielding variety of rice was produced in India by introduction of dwarfing genes called Dee-goo-woo-gen
from Taiwan.
Reason: High yielding variety of wheat was produced from dwarfing genes of Norire-Ifl from Japan in India.
ABC D
7. Assertion: In potato tubers stem is edible.
Reason: Potato tubers are full of stored food material which bear leaves and fruits on them.
ABC D
8. Assertion: Cotton and jute are fibre yielding plants.
Reason: Cotton is obtained from seed hair (lint) and jute fibres are obtained from stalks of retted jute.
ABC D
9. Assertion: With few exceptions, tropics harbour more species than temperate or polar areas.
Reason: Species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the poles.
ABC D (AlIMS 2009)
ANSWERS
t. D; 2. A; 3. C; 4. Ai 5. B; 6. B; 7. D; 8. A; 9. A.
E. ADDITIONAL MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:

Choose the correct answer:
L Some yeast, sugar and water are mixed in a test-tube.
The diagrams show the test-tube at the start and after one hour.
Which process causes this change?
(a) Growth (b) Irritability
(c) Reproduction (d) Respiration
2. Excretion, irritability and reproduction are characteristics of :
(a) All animals and plants (b) Animals only
(c) Plants only (d) Some animals and some plants only
3. Which one of the following functions is carried out by green plants but not by animals?
(a) Excretion (b) Growth
(c) Photosynthesis (d) Respiration
4. Figure shows how fish react when the glass on one side of an aquarium tank is tapped with a finger.
What characteristics of living organisms does this demonstrate?

(a) Excretion and movement. (b) Excretion and nutrition
(c) Growth and irritability. (d) Irritability and movement.
--5. Which is correct hierarchical sequence?
(a) Phylum, class, order, family
(c) Genus, species, order, family
6. A group of related genera represent
MODERN'S abc
(b) Phylum, division, family, class

(d) Division, order, class, genus.
+ OF BIOLOGY-XI
(a) Species (b) Taxa (c) Order (d) Family

7. Scientific study of diversity and evolutionary relationships of organisms is called
(a) Systematics (b) Anatomy (c) Taxonomy (d) Morphology
8. Botanical gardens provide:
(a) Natural habitat to wildlife (b) Beautiful area for recreation
(c) Ex-situ conservation of germplasm (d) Repository of tropical plants
9. Which one has a real existence?
(a) Kingdom (b) Phylum (c) Genus (d) Species
10. The living organisms can be unexceptionally distinguished from the non- living things on the basis of their ability for
(a) Reproduction (b) Growth and movement
(c) Responsiveness to touch (d) Interaction with environment and progressive evolution
11. New systematics introduced by Sir Julian Huxley is also called
(a) Biosystematics (b) Phenetics (c) Cladistics (d) Numerical taxonomy
12. Largest herbarium of India is at
(a) Lloyd Botanical Garden, Darjeeling (b) Indian Botanical Garden, Sibpur
(c) National Botanical Garden, Lucknow (d) Forest Research Institute, Dehradun
13. A condition in which internal environment of the body remains constant is
(a) Hematoma (b) Haemopoiesis (c) Homeostasis (d) Hemostasis
14. Whicll one is taxonomic aid for identification of plants and animals based on similarities and dissimilarities
(a) Flora (b) Keys (c) Monographs (d) Catalogues (e) Manuals
IS. nigrum is one species of genus
(a) Mangi/era (b) Solanum (c) Triticum (d) Pisum
16. Binomial nomenclature was proposed by
(a) Bauhin (b) Linnaeus (c) Huxley (d) de Vires
17. Royal Botanical Garden, Kew is located in
(a) Germany (b) France (c) England (d) India
18. Which taxonomic aid gives comprehensive information about a taxon
(a) Taxonomic key (b) Herbarium (c) Flora (d) Monograph
(e) Dictionary
19. The basic unit of taxonomy is
(a) Class (b) Order (c) Genus (d) Species
20. Whicll is not correct
(a) Herbarium houses dried, pressed and preserved plant specimens
(b) Botanical gardens have collection of living plants for reference
(c) Museum has collection of photographs of plants and animals
(d) Key is taxonomic aid for identification of specimens
21. Taxon is a unit of
(a) Order (b) Genus (c) Species (d) Taxonomy
ANSWERS
I. (d); 2. (a); 3. (c); 4. (d); 5. (a); 6. (d); 7. (a); 8. (c); 9. (d); 10. (a);
11. (a); 12. (b); 13. (c); 14. (b); IS. (b); 16. (b); 17. (c); 18. (d); 19. (d); 20. (c);
21. (d).
THE LIVING WORLD
--
Chapter Practice Test
Time Allowed: 1:30Hours Maximum Marks: 35

1. What is monograph? (1)
2. Couplet in taxonomic key means. (1)
3. Find out the odd one: (1)
(i) Family, Class, Taxon, Phylum
(ii) indica, Ficus, Mangifera, Brassica
(iii) Plantae, Chordata, Tracheophyta, Eucalyptus
4. Which of the following cover the greater number of organisms: (1)
(i) Family or Phylum
(ii) Family or Order
(iii) Class or Phylum
5. Name the basic unit of classification. (1)
6. What is biological diversity? (2)
7. Name the largest botanical garden in the world. Name any two well known botanical gardens in India (2)
8. Write the advantages of hierarchial system of classification. (2)
9. Mention three characteristics which distinguish living beings from non-living. (2)
10. How can we relate metabolism with growth? (2)
11. Name the suffix used for family, order and class. (3)
12. Why are classification systems changing every now and then? (3)
13. illustrate the taxonomical hierarchy with suitable examples of a plant and an animal. (3)
14. Why biologists do not favour common names? (3)
15. Write briefly about flora and monograph. (3)
16. Compare taxonomy and systematics. Write briefly about classical taxonomy and modern taxonomy. (5)
ODD
To check your performance, see ANSWERS TO CHAPTER PRACTICE TEST at the end of
Part I of the book.
IN THIS UNIT. . NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION
• Understanding Text 1 How many species exist on our planet? This is
• Practice Problems with not easy question to answer. About 1.8 million species
their Answers 25,33 have been given the scientific names. Total number
of estimated species range between 10 to 100 million.
ADDITIONAL USEFUL
Many of them will become extinct before counted and
INFORMATIONS 15, 31 identified. The leading naturalists of 18th and 19th
(For Competitive Examinations) centuries spent their lives identifying and describing
CHAPTER SUMMARY 33
newly described plants and animals. Scientistsinvolved
in this task are called taxonomists. Any systematic
KEY TERMS 34 study on any organism can be made easier only, when
organism is identified. Organisms exhibit a great deal
NCERT FILE of variation in their form, structure, mode of life etc.
• NCERT Exercise Questions Unless the identified plants and animals are divided
(with Answers) 34 into distinct groups based on similarities and differences
• NCERT Exemplar Problems between them, it becomes almost impossible to study
(with Answers & Hints) 36 them.
Classification isthe scientificpracticeofidentifying,
HOTS & BRAIN TWISTING QUESTIONS 38 naming and grouping of living organisms. Thebranches
(with Answers) of Biology, which deals with classification are called
QUICK MEMORY TEST 39
taxonomy and systematics.
(with Answers) Since Darwin's time, biological classification has
come to understood as reflecting evolutionary distances
REVISION EXERCISES and relationships between organisms. The creatures of
(with previous years' CBSE & Other State Boards our time had common ancestors in the past. Basically,
Examinations) they are the members of the same family tree. The
• Very Short Answer Questions - huge diversity in organisms is mainly due to adaptive
One mark each (with Answers) 41 radiation or branching evolution (Fig. 1). This is the
diversification of a species into different lines as they
• Short Answer Questions -
adapt to new ecological niches and finally evolve into
Two marks each (with Answers) 42
distinct species.
• Short Answer Questions - Three marks each 43
• Long Answer Questions - Five marks each 43
PRESENT
COMPETITION FILE (WITH ANSWERS
& HINTS)
• Multiple Choice Questions (From
AlPMT & Other Competitive Exams.) 44
• CBSE-PMT (Main Examination) Questions 48
• Matching Type Questions 48
• Assertion Type Questions 49
• Additional Multiple Choice Questions 49 PAST
CHAPTER PRACTICE TEST 51 Fig. 1. Branching evolution.
--
-- The advantages of biological classification are :
(i) Classification makes the study of living
organisms convenient.
MODERN'S abc + OF BIOLOGY-XI
traditional five kingdom system but divides the Monera
into two "domains" leaving the remaining eukaryotic
kingdoms in the third domain.
(ii) Relationships among various groups of
organisms is revealed by classification.
(iii) It helps in specific identification of various
living beings.
(iv) The study of few representatives from each
group helps to integrate the idea of life as a
whole.
(v) Biological classification gives knowledge
about organisms which are found in specific
geographical regions.
(vi) It informs about the evolutionary relationship
by establishing the gradually increasing
complexity of form and structure in different
groups of plants and animals.
The incredible diversity of life on this planet, most
of which is microbial, is best understood in an Fig. 2. Three domains of life.
evolutionary framework-Carl Woese, 2000.
Carl Woesewon the National Medal of Sciencein
THREE DOMAINS OF LIFE November 2000.
Until comparatively recently,living organisms were 1. Domain Archaea
divided into two kingdoms : the Animalia and the
(i) No nuclear membrane, prokaryotic.
Plantae. The scheme most oftenused currently divides all
living organisms into five kingdoms: Monera (bacteria), (ii) Bear unique ancient evolutionary history for
Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. This coexisted which they are considered some of the oldest species
with a scheme dividing life into two main divisions: of organisms on earth.
the Prokaryotae (bacteria, etc.), and the Eukaryotae (iii) With distinct biochemistry and RNA markers
(animals, plants, fungi, and protists). from eubacteria.
Recent work, however, has shown that what (iv) Found in the harshest environments on earth.
were once called "prokaryotes" are far more diverse Appearing in fossil record over 3.6 billion years ago.
than anyone had suspected. The Prokaryotae are
(v) Most of the archaeans donot look different from
now divided into two domains, the Bacteria and the
bacteria under microscope,however, biochemically and
Archaea, as different from each other as either is from
genetically they are as different from bacteria as you are.
the Eukaryota, or eukaryotes (three domains of life).
No one of these groups is ancestral to the others, and (vi) They are found in most extreme environments
each shares certain features with the others as well as of the planet.
having unique characteristics of its own. Kingdom archaebacteria
The three domain system is abiologicalclassification Examples:
given by Carl Woese (1990) a professor in the (i) Methanogens (methane makers)
Department of Microbiology,University of Illinois. Dr.
• Metabolizeshydrogen and carbon dioxide
Woeseproposed that there should be a new category of into methane.
classificationoflife-the domain, a classificationcategory • Live in swamps, marshes, gut of cattle,
above kingdom. Woese, c.R., O. Kandler and M.L. termites etc.
Wheeles (1990) in publication "Proposal for the domains
Archaea, Bacteriaand Eucarya" in Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (ii) Halophiles (salt lovers)
USA 87 : 4576-4579gave this system of classification. • Thrive in salt.
In five kingdom system of classification nothing is • Live in Dead Sea, the Great Salt Lake,
said about how organisms within kingdoms may Salt evoporation ponds.
be related to each other. It divides various organisms (iii) Thennoacidophiles (temperature/acid lovers)
into (Fig. 2) :
• Prefer temperature above 60° C or near
(a) Archaea (b) Bacteria (c) Eukaryote or below freezing.
The three domain system is loosely based on
BIOLOGICAL
•
CLASSIFICATION
Live in hot sulphur springs, ocean waters

around Antarctica, under the polar caps.
2. Domain Bacteria
(ii) Bear nuclear membrane
Four kingdoms of eukaryotes are:
(i) Kingdom Protista
--
(i) No nuclear membrane, prokaryotic traditionally Examples:
called bacteria.
• Rhodophyta - red algae
(ii) Many are decomposers, some are photo-syn
• Chromalveolata - includes dinoflagellates
thesizers and few cause disease.
(ii) Kingdom Fungi
(iii) Most bacteria cause diseases by producing toxins
that harm human cells, others cause illness as a result Examples:
of glycoproteins found on the out side of their capsules. • Saccharomycotina - includes true yeasts
Kingdom eubacteria • Basidiomycota - includes shiitake mushrooms
Examples of two major divisions or phyla are: (iii) Kingdom Plantae
(i) Cyanobacteria. Photosynthetic blue green Examples:
bacteria. • Bryophyta - mosses
(ii) Spirochaete. Gram negative bacteria that include • Magnoliophyta - flowering plants
those causing syphilis and Lyme disease. (iv) Kingdom Animalia
(iii) Firmicutes. Gram positive bacteria including Examples:
Bifidobacteriurn animalis which is present in human large • Arthropoda - includes insects, arachnids, and
intestine. crustaceans.
3. Domain Eukarya (Eukaryota) • Chordata - includes vertebrates and, as such,
human beings.
(i) Eukaryotes
Table 1. Characteristics of three domains of life.

Characteristic Bacteria I Archaea Eukaryotes
Archaea resemble Bacteria
Cell volume 1 to 100 pm3 (usually) 1 to 106 pm3
DNA chromosome Circular (usually) Linear
Gene organization Multi-gene operons; Single genes;
few introns Many introns
Metabolism Denitrification, N2 fixation, lithotrophy, Respiration and
respiration and fermentation fermentation
Nuclear membrane None (nucleoid) Nuclear membrane
Multicellularity Simple Complex
Archaea resemble Eukaryotes
Monomolecular cell wall Peptidoglycan (nearly always) Absent in most species
(Methanogens have pseudopeptidoglycan)
Ribosome sensitivity to Sensitive Resistant
Cam, Kan, and Str
,
Translation initiator Formyl-Met Methionine (except mitochondrial F-Met)
RNA polymerase Bacterial Eukaryotic
Transcription factors Bacterial Eukaryotic
Archaea Differ from Bacteria and Eukaryotes
Methanogenesis No Yes No
Highest temperature growth > 90°C > no-c > 60°C
Photosynthesis Many species. Halobacteria only; Many species; bacterial
Bacteriochlorophyll bacteriorhodopsin origin. Chlorophyll, in
Chloroplasts (prokaryotic in
organization)
Chlorophyll light absorption Red and blue Green Red and blue
Membrane lipids (major) Ester-linked fatty acids Ether-linked isoprenoids Ester-linked fatty acids
-- FIVE KINGDOM SYSTEM
Afive-kingdom system isproposed here,based both

MODERN'S abc
on the following three criteria :

1. Complexity of cell structure.
2. Complexity of organism's body.
+ OF BIOLOGY-XI
on levels of organization and on types of organization 3. Mode of obtaining nutrition.

as evolved in relation to three principal means of 4. Phylogenetic relationship.
nutrition-photosynthesis, absorption and ingestion. The five kingdoms are :
Five-kingdom system ofclassificationwas advanced 1. Monera
by R.H. Whittaker (Science, 163 : 150-160, 1969). This
2. Protista
system replaced the old, two-kingdom grouping of
living organisms. As already discussed, a division of 3. Plantae (plants)
living world merely into plant and animal kingdoms 4. Fungi
is too simple. It does not take into account the gradual 5. Animalia (animals)
evolution of distinct plant and animal groups and it In this five-kingdom classification,the subdivisions
allows no place for those primitive organisms that even ofold two-kingdom classificationhave not been changed.
now are neither plants nor animals nor that are both. And this particular arrangement depicts the phylogeny
Five-kingdom classification of Whittaker is based of various life styles better.
Table 2. Characteristics of Five Kingdom of Classification.
S.No. Characters Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
1. Type of nucleus Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
2. Mitochondria Absent Present Present Present Present
3. Plastids Absent Present in some Absent Present Absent
(Chloroplast) cases
4. Cell wall and Non-Cellular Present in some Present Present Absent
Chemical nature (Polysaccharide (various type) (Non- (Cellulose)
+ Amino Acid) Cellulosic)
5. Nuclear membrane Absent Present Present Present Present
6. Multicellularity Absent Absent Present but Present Present
limited
7. Motility By flagella, gliding By cilia, flagella, By cilia, flagella By cilia and By cilia,
or non motile amoeboid, in some or flagella in flagella,
contractile fibrils mostly non- lower forms, contractile
motile mostly absent fibrils
8. Nutrition Autotrophic Photosynthetic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotro-
(chemosynthetic or heterotrophic (saprophytic or (Photo- phic
and photosynthetic), parasitic, synthesis) (Holozoic/
heterotrophic absorption) saprophytic)
(saprophyte or
parasite)
9. Sexual reprod- Conjugation, By syngamy Fertiliza tion Fertiliza tion Fertiliza tion
uction Transduction, followed by meiosis, followed by followed by followed by
Transformation conjugation or none meiosis or none, meiosis meiosis
or none Dikaryons
may be formed
10. Nervous system Absent Primitive for Absent Absent Present,
conduction of usually
stimuli complex.
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
KINGDOM MONERA
(The Prokaryotes)
budding.
6. Protosexual phenomenon also occurs.
--
5. Reproduction is primarily asexual by fission or
Monera (rnonos-single) includes prokaryotes and 7.The organisms are non-motile or moveby beating
shows the following characters : of simple flagella or by gliding.
1. They lack nuclear membranes. 8. Moneran cells are microscopic (1 to few microns
2. They are devoid of plastids, mitochondria and in length).
advanced (9+2 strand) flagella.
9. Most organisms bear a rigid cell wall.
3. They are typically unicellular organisms (but one
group is mycelial). Nutrition in Kingdom Monera
4. The predominant mode of nutrition is absorptive They show both autotrophic and heterotrophic
but some groups are photosynthetic or chemosynthetic, modes of nutrition.
D.MAJOR PRODUCER DECOMPOSER CONSUMER
ECOLOGICAL ROLE
HETEROTROPHY
C. MODE OF ABSORPTION
AUTOTROPHY
NUTRITION PHOTOSYNTHESIS
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15
A. COMPLEXITY EUKARYOTES
OF CELL ·_·_·KINc;DOM
PROKARYOTES MONERA
AUTOTROPHY--+--'1
CHEMOSYNTHESIS
Fig. 3. The five kingdoms of life. The kingdoms are arranged to show the probable phylogenetic relationships among the
kingdoms, based on fossil and other evidences. Such an arrangement allows us to visualize increase of complexity with
evolutionary time and divergence of the three modes of nutrition in the three multicellular kingdoms (plants, fungi, animals).
MONERA PROTISTA FUNGI ANIMALIA PLANTAE
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MOST MULTICELLULAR
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MONERA
FIRST CELLS
Fig. 4. Phylogenetic relationship of five kingdoms.
-- MODERN'S abc + OF BIOLOGY-XI
(/)
13
~
z
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KINGDOM
MONERA
-: BACTERIA
Fig. 5. The five kingdoms of life showing the major phyla and their probable evolutionary relationships (lines and arrows).
The dotted line separates the prokaryotic kingdom (monera) from the eukaryotic kingdoms (Protista, Plantae, Fungi and
Animalia). The arrangement of the multicellular kingdoms (Plants, Fungi, Animals) indicates how they may have
evolved from the primarily unicellular Kingdom Protista.
Autotrophs. These are able to form their own food ARCHAEBACTERIA
by one of the following methods :
(a) Photoautotrophs. They prepare their own food Archaebacteria exhibit the following characters:
by reducing CO2 using light energy. (i) They are found at most harsh habitats like:
(b) Chemoautotrophs : They form their food by (a) Extreme salty areas (halophiles)
energy derived from chemical reactions. (b) Hot springs (thermo-acidophiles)
Heterotrophs. A few live in symbiosis while others (c) Marshy areas (methanogens)
form association of commensalism. Saprophytes cause (ii) Archaebacteria have different cell wall structure
decay, fermentation or putrefaction of dead organic when compared with other bacteria. As a result,
matter. In the process of fermentation there is anaerobic they are able to tolerate extreme conditions.
break-down of carbohydrates into CO2, alcohol and Their cell membrane is constituted by branched
some energy. Putrefaction or decay is anaerobic break chain lipids.
down of proteins accompanied by foul smell due to (iii) Methanogens are found in guts of many ruminant
evil smelling gases produced in the process. animals like cows and buffaloes. They are able
to produce methane (biogas) from dung of such
The saprobes produce enzymes which convert
animals.
non-diffusible food substrates (carbohydrates, fats,
proteins etc.) into simpler diffusible form which (iv) Halophiles lie in habitats having high salinity
diffuses into the cytoplasm and is assimilated, i.e., and high light intensity. They are able to live in
converted into body cytoplasm or stored as reserve food. high salt concentration because their intracellular
Still others live on other living organisms (animals, salt concentration is equally high. Halophiles
plants or man) in the form of parasites and directly are aerobic heterotrophs which live in brine.
absorb their food from the body of host. Some of the (v) Facultative or obligate anaerobes that
parasites are non-pathogenic i.e. cause no ill-effect or chemoheterotrophically or facultative
disease in the host, while some are pathogenic causing chemoautotrophically live in hot sulphur springs
diseases in the host. are similar areas are called thermoacidophiles.
BACTERIA
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1676) discovered the

BLUEGREEN ALGAE (CYANOBACTERIA) --
Habit and Habitat. Blue-greenalgaeorCyanobacteria
bacteria in pond water and tartar scrapped from or Cyanophyta are Gram negative and photosynthetic.
teeth and called them as animalcules. Much has The blue-green algae live virtually in all environments
been added to our knowledge about bacteria during that contain water. The organisms range from tropics
last few decades. They have following important to plains and they occur in soil, fresh water and ocean.
characters : In lakes and in the ocean they form part of plankton.
Some cyanobacteria live in the icy waters of glaciers
1. They are prokaryotic.
others in hot springs where temperatures reach 850C
2. The flagella whenever present are made up of or more. Some blue-green algae live as symbionts with
single strand. other organisms. For example, they often are the algal
3.Wellorganised nucleus, Golgibody, mitochondria members of lichens.
are absent in the cells of bacteria. Characters
4. Basically,they are unicellular. 1. Common forms are unicellular, colonial,
filamentous or heterotrichous.
5. Cell wall is made up of murein or peptidoglycan.
6. They are smallest of all the living organisms with 2. The cell wall possesses an outer sheath (outside)
a cellular organisation. which is jelly like, slimy and mucilaginous.
7. Cytoplasmic streaming and sap vacuoles are 3. The cell contents are divided into two regions,
absent in bacterial cell. In some bacteria, gas vacuoles outer chromatoplasm having photosynthetic pigments
may be present. and inner colourless centroplasm.
8. Mostly bacteria are heterotrophic due to absence 4. The cell wall is two layered. The inner wall is
of chlorophyll. Some bacteria may be photoautotrophic made up of peptidoglycan or mucopeptides built up
and chemoautotrophic. Photo-autotrophic bacteria from amino sugars (e.g. glucosamine) and amino acids
contain bacteriochlorophyll instead of true chlorophyll. (e.g. muramic, diaminopimelic).
9. Major method of reproduction in bacteria is 5. Bacteriaand blue-green algae lack mitochondria,
binary fission. true vacuoles and endoplasmic reticulum.
GAS VACUOLE
:SVANOPHYCEAN STARCH
(FOOD RESERVE)
THYLAKOID
CIRCULAR
. CHROMOSOME
PIGMENT GRANULES
. ." '... CELL MEMBRANE
_:.:~::::.>:.:.:_:..:/.:~.j//::.::~:.:.::.::'
PROTEIN CRYSTALS
Fig. 6. A Cyanobacterial-cell.
-- MODERN'S abc + OF BIOLOGY-XI
• Lactic acid bacteria can go for anaerobic respiration or fermentation even in presence of oxygen. They
are known as aerotolerant an aerobes.
• Certain forms of aerobic bacteria are able to respire aerobically even in absence of free oxygen by
utilizing oxygen of oxidised salts like nitrates e.g. dinitrifying bacteria. They are called as anaerotolerant
aerobes.
• Coccobacillus is cylindrical bacterium having length almost equal to breadth e.g. Brucella.
6. Sterols are absent in bacteria as well as 4. In many forms, plastids, (9 + 2 strand) flagella
cyanobacteria. and other organelles are present.
7. There is no membrane bounded chloroplast 5. The nutritive modes of these organisms include
and photosynthetic lamellae or thylakoids are usually photosynthesis, absorption, ingestion and combination
distributed in the peripheral cytoplasm (Fig. 6). of these.
8. True nucleus is absent. Fine fibrils of DNA are 6. Their reproductive cycles typically include both
either distributed throughout the cell or concentrated asexual divisions of haploid forms and true sexual
in the central part. Its chromosome resembles bacterial processes with karyogamy and meiosis.
chromosome. 7. The organisms move by flagella or by other means
9. Well marked reproductive organs, sexual or are non-motile.
reproduction and motile reproductive bodies are absent The organisms included in protista (Protistos
in cyanobacteria. primary) represent diverse ways of life. Many are
10. Gas vacuoles are often present to regulate the photosynthetic autotrophs e.g. unicellular coloured
buoyancy in water. algae and diatoms. They are collectively known as
11. The colour ranges from green to deep purple phytoplankton or microscopic, floating photosynthetic
often blue green. Thus the name blue green algae is organisms. Many of these bear cell wall and still several
misleading. These colours are produced by different others have flagella.
proportions of several pigments like chlorophyll a, Few other protistan organisms are predatory and
carotene, xanthophyll, blue phycocyanin and red feed on other protists. They are included in protozoa.
phycoerythrin. The last two are tetrapyrrole derivatives Cell wall is absent in protozoa and they permit ingestion
occurring uniquely in the cyanobacteria. of particulate food-showing animal like holozoic type
12. Reserve food is in the form of cyanophycean of mode of nutrition. Some protozoans are found in gut,
(myxophycean) starch. digestive tract of all types of other animals.
13. Flagella are absent in vegetative as well as Few help in decomposition of organic matter like
reproductive phase. otherwise indigestible cellulose found in cell walls of
plants, as in termites and wood consuming cockroaches.
KINGDOM PROTISTA IMPORTANT GROUPS OF PROTISTA
(Unicellular Eukaryotes) 1. Chrysophytes (diatoms and golden algae

Protists show the following characteristics : desrnids)
1. Protists include solitary unicellular or colonial
Diatoms, included in phylum Chrysophyta of algae
unicellular eukaryotic organisms which do not form are also known by the name golden algae. They have
tissues. been grouped under two categories namely pennate
types and centric types. Pennate types are bilaterally
2. Simple multinucleate organisms or stages of life symmetrical and centric types are radially symmetrical
cycles occur in a number of groups. and show the following characters :
3. The organisms possess nuclear membranes and 1. Diatoms are microscopic, single celled forms. Cell
mitochondria. is called as frustule or shell.
Table 3. Differences between Bacteria and Cyanobacteria (blue green algae).
S.No Characters Bacteria Blue green algae

1. Size Comparatively smaller. Comparatively larger.
2. Flagella May bear flagella. Flagella always absent.
3. Nutrition May be autotrophic or heterotrophic, Usually autotrophic.
4. Photosynthetic Photosynthetic pigments are Photosynthetic pigment is chlorophyll-a.
pigments bacteriochlorophyll and chlorobium
chlorophyll.
5. Accessory pigments Absent Accessory pigments like phycocyanin and
phycoerythrin are present in dominating form.
BIOLOGICAL
6.
CLASSIFICATION
Hydrogen donor During photosynthesis, hydrogen donor

is not water, as a result oxygen is not
evolved. Thus photosynthesis is anoxy
genic.
Hydrogen donor is water, oxygen
is evolved. Process is oxygenic.
--
7. Reserve food Reserve food is glycogen. Reserve food is cyanophycean starch.
8. Spore formation Spore formation is endogenous. Spore formation is not endogenous.
2. They are present in both fresh and salt water and 2. dianoflagellates
comprise an important food for the aquatic animals. They comprise the phylum Pyrrophyta of algae
However out of 5,500 species most are marine. and show the following characters :
3. They lack flagella and float mainly due to light 1.Theyare singlecelled,most ofthem aresurrounded
storage lipids present in them. by a shell made up of thick interlocking plates.
4. Diatoms have cell walls containing silica, 2. They are motile with two flagella, one projecting
constructed in two overlapping halves,which fittogether from oneend and theother running in a transversegroove.
like two parts of a soap box (pennate types) or pair of 3. Likediatoms they have fucoxanthin in addition to
petridishes (centric types). chlorophyll.TI1eyareautotrophic and photosynthetic(e.g.
5. Due to their silica impregnations, the walls of
Ceraiiumi. Blastodiniumis a colourlessparasite on animals.
diatoms are indestructible. As a result diatomaceous
earth formation has occurred due to remains of cell 4. The food reserve is in the form of oils and
walls of diatoms in the form of fossils. polysaccharides.
6.Silicawall of diatoms is designed with fine ridges, 5. Most of the dinoflagellates are marine and
lines, pores etc.These ornamentations are either radially important photosynthesizers in the ocean.
symmetrical or bilaterally symmetrical on either side of 6.Occasionallymembers like Gonyaulax accumulate
the long axis of the cell.The outer wall is called epitheca in large numbers in some parts of sea, colouring the
and inner wall is called hypotheca. water red and are responsible for red tide.
7. Diatoms may exhibit slow gliding movements 7. Some species of dinoflagellates are poisonous to
produced by streaming of cytoplasm through grooves vertebrates and when these accumulate, large number
on the surface of cell wall. of fish in that region of ocean may be killed.
8. The cell wall is made up of two units hence the 8. Some members are phosphorescent and make
name diatom. the sea glow in the dark.
9. Due to various designs over the cell wall, they
9. Dinoflagellates are covered with cellulose cell
have been regarded as jewels of the plant kingdom
walls which are divided into plates (Fig. 8). The plates
(Fig. 7).
give them armoured appearance.
10. Most of the 1000species included are marine.
11. Method of reproduction is only asexual. Sexual
reproduction is usually absent (exception-Ceratium).
12. Some species of dinoflagellates are taken as
food by mussels. These mussels remain unharmed by
Fig. 7. A diagrammatic view of a typical diatom, highly
magnified. The shells have characteristic fine lines and the
dinoflagellates but if man eats these infected mussels,
upper and lower shells fit together like the part of a soap box.
he may fall ill.
GLENODINIUM PERIDINIUM GYMNODINIUM

Fig. 8. Three species of dinoflagellates. Note the plates which enclose and encase the single celled
body and the characteristic two flagella, one of which is located in the transverse groove.
-- 3. Euglenoids
Euglenoids show the following distinguishing
characters :
MODERN'S abc
8. Some euglenoids are green and holophytic

+ OF BIOLOGY-XI
(photoautotrophic) like other plants. Few are non-green

and saprobic like fungi and bacteria. Some capture and
ingest the organisms like animals (holotrophic). Green
1. Unicellular Euglena (Fig.9) and its relatives have
forms have saprobic mode in addition to holophytic
both animal and plant characteristics.
(i.e. myxotrophic). Photosynthetic forms bear many,
2. Euglenoids are more advanced than blue-green radiating chloroplasts, The chloroplastscontain pigments
algae from evolutionary point of view, for they have a like chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and xanthophyll.
definite easily stained nucleus and the chlorophyll is not Holotrophic or phagotrophic nutrition is absent in
scattered in granules but is localized in chloroplasts as Euglena. Euglenoids store carbohydrates in the form of
in higher plants. The nuclear envelope persists during paramylum chemicallydistinctfrom starch and glycogen.
division.
9. Reproduction is usually asexual by cell division
but sexual reproduction has been reported in one genus.
Under favourable conditions, euglenoids reproduce by
FLAGELLUM simple, longitudinal binary fission.
EYE SPOT
10. Flagellum disappears prior to division.
11. Most of the species produce cyst having thick
stratified membranes with deep red colouration due to
synthesis of haematochrome.
NUCLEUS 12. Besides cyst formation, many of non-flagellate
cells may get embedded in a common gelatinous sheath
resembling a pahnella stage.
13. Few examples of euglenoid flagellates are:
Euglena, Paranema, Astasia, Trachelomonas.
Fig. 9. Euglenais very much like protozoans 4. Slime Moulds
but it bears chloroplast. Slime moulds (500 sp.) (Fig. 10, 11) also known as
3. They are free living, found in fresh water ponds slime fungi, constitute a peculiar group of organisms
and ditches or in the damp soil. Euglena is more readily having several features which are animal like in their
available protist for laboratory studies.
vegetative stages and plant like in reproductive stages.
4. Euglenoids are characterised by absence of cell
wall, but they do contain flexible pellicle made up of Many workers have studied them alongwith animals
protein. due to lack of cell wall, their amoeboid movement
S. All the euglenoids have one or two flagella by and feeding habit. Now, they are studied along with
means of which they can swim easily. plants because of the presence of cellulosic cell wall on
6. Euglena bears a flagellum inserted at the anterior spores and zoospores, lack of chlorophyll like fungi,
end in a cavity. saprophytic nature and mode of reproduction like that
7. They bear a red pigmented eye spot and a gullet of primitive fungi.
near the base of the flagellum. The pigment in eye spot
is astaxanthin.
MYXAMOEBA
SP~G~;'~ (!f2~. C ~
I 0\ \..
SWARM
CELLS
MYXAMOEBAE \?)~ ~ J\ 0
E ::<>: <, FUSIO~.
~Gi\
VZYGOTE
F J
A 13
,I>
PLASMODIUM
/
dJ.
Fig. 10.Slime mould Physarum.
A. Plasmodium; B. Fruiting bodies. Fig. 11. Life cycle of Myxomycetes (slime moulds).
Occurrence
The slime moulds are widely distributed, growing in
damp and shady places. They may be found in the soil
1. Habitat. Most of zooflagellates are endoparasitic
and pathogenic and are spread by certain vectors e.g.
Trypanosoma, Leishmania, Giardia intesiinalis; Trichomonas
uaginalis etc. Some are found as symbionts e.g.
--
rich in humus, damp old planks of wood, rotting logs,
Trichonumpha.
decaying leaves etc. They prefer moisture and darkness
or dim-light for normal growth, They move to drier and
PARABASAL BODY
exposed habitats during reproductive phase. More than
100species have been reported from India. The common
genera are-Physarum, Stemonitis, Comatricha, Trichia etc.
General Features
1. The vegetative phase of the thallus is a free
living, naked, multinucleated mass ofprotoplasm called
Plasmodium.
2. The plasmodium consists of diploid nuclei, lacks
cell wall and secrets slime.
3. Chlorophyll is lacking, so these are generally FLAGELLUM
saprophytic, rarely parasitic causing abnormal swellings
Fig. 12. Trypanosoma gambiensis (causes sleeping sickness).
upon the bodies of hosts.
4. The plasmodium shows amoeboid movement by
producing pseudopodia.
S. They reproduce by means of spores produced RHIZOPLASTFLAGELLU
in sporangia.
6. The spores have cellulosic cell wall and are
produced through meiosis.
7. The slime molds are, generally, holocarpic.
8. The spores germinate to produce myxamoebae
or biflagellated swarm cells behaving as gametes.
9.The swarm cells fuse in pairs showing isogamous
type of sexual reproduction.
10. Slime moulds may be colourless or variously A B
coloured like yellow, orange, brown, etc. Fig. 13. Leishmania donooani A = Adult
Somatic structure B = Young (causes kala azar).
The thallus consists of a slimy mass of protoplasm.
It is naked (lackingcellwall) and multinucleated known
as plasmodium. The size of the plasmodium may vary RHIZOPLAST
from microscopic to several centimeters in diameter
according to the species. Due to the absence of cell
wall, there is no definite shape. The plasmodium is
surrounded by plasma membrane externally.
The plasmodium forms pseudopodia and shows
amoeboid movements creeping over the substratum. It
also grows within the substratum and in all directions,
commonly towards the moisture and avoiding light as
far as possible. It is slimy to touch and show variation
in colour depending upon the species. The plasmodium
lacks chlorophyll and engulfs solid particles of food and
can absorb food material in solution also.
S. Protozoans
All protozoans are found as predators or parasites
and are heterotrophic
Major groups of protozoans are:
A. ZOOFLAGELLATA (FLAGELLATED
PROTOZOANS)
Characters. Zooflagellates are characterised by : Fig. 14. Giardia intesiinalis (causes giardiasis).
-- UNDULATING
MEMBRANE
ANTERIOR
FLAGELLA
BASAL
BODY COMPLEX
PARA BASAL NUCLEUS
FIBRES
PSEUDOPODIUM
NUCLEUS
COSTA
NUCLEOLUS
CYTOPLASM
AXOSTYLE
Fig. 17. Entamoeba histolytica (causes amoebic dysentery).
Fig. 15. Trichomonas vaginalis (cause of leucorrhoea).
2. Locomotion. Organelles of locomotion are one (b) Filopodia. These are filamentous pseudopodia
(e.g. Trupanoeomat or more flagella (e.g. eight flagella with tapering ends and are formed of only ectoplasm
in Giardia and many flagella in Trichonymplw.). e.g. Euglypha.
3. Nutrition. Most of the zooflagellates are (c) Reticulopodia or Rhizopodia. These are
heterotrophic and saprozoic in their nutrition. Reserve filamentous and branched pseudopodia which form
food is glycogen. a network e.g. in Foraminiferans like Elphidium,
4. Reproduction. These show only asexual Globigerin.a etc.
reproduction by longitudinal binary fission. There is (d) Axopodia. These are straight and radiating
no sexual reproduction. pseudopodia each supported by axial filament e.g. in
Example: Trypanosoma gambiense. Heliozoans like Actinophrys. The pseudopodia give the
B. SARCODINA (AMOEBOID PROTOZOANS) appearance of sun-rays so heliozoans are commonly
called sun-animalcules.
1.Habitat Sarcodines are fresh-water (e.g. Amoeba) or
marine (e.g. Polystomella) or endoparasitic and pathogenic Pseudopodia are used both for locomotion and
(Entamoeba histolytica). food-capturing.
2. Locomotion. Locomotion occurs by temporary 3. Nutrition. These are heterotrophic and holozoic
finger-like pseudopodia or false feet e.g. Amoeba (Fig.16), in their nutrition.
Entamoeba etc. Pseudopodia are of following types: 4. Reproduction. Asexual reproduction occurs by
(a) Lobopodia. These have broad and rounded either binary fission or multiple fission e.g. Amoeba.
ends e.g. Amoeba. These are formed of both ectoplasm Some forms show sexual reproduction by syngamy
and endoplasm. (e.g. Pelomyxa, Actinophrys).
5. These are either uninucleate (Ameoba) or
CONTRACTILE multinucleate (Pelomyxa).
VACUOLE PLASMALEMMA}
HYALINE LAYER ECTOPLASM C. CILIATA (CILIATED PROTOZOANS)
NUCLEUS
Characters. It is the most advanced and diversified
group of protozoa. These are though one-celled
organisms but have specialized organelles to perform
the different functions like mouth, digestive tract,
anus, kidney, muscle and sense organs of multicellular
organisms. These are characterised by :
1. Habitat. Many ciliates are fresh-water (e.g.
PLASMASOL} WATERVACUOLE Paramecium) while some ciliates are endoparasitic and
PLASMAGEL ENDOPLASM pathogenic (e.g. Balantidium). Some ciliates are colonial
Fig. 16. Amoeba proteus. or sedentary (suctorians).
2. Locomotion. The organelles of locomotion are

cilia which always beat in coordination. The cilia are
generally distributed on whole body surface and also
--
help in food collection. Some ciliates lose their cilia in
adult stage e.g. Podophyra.
CONTRACTILE
3. Nutrition. Ciliates are mostly heterotrophic VACUOLE --~iif,;+:_
and holozoic in their nutrition. These generally have
cytostome (cell-mouth), a well-developed feeding
apparatus and a cytopyge or cytoproct (cell-anus).
Digestion is intracellular and occurs in a food-vacuole
which takes a definite path (comparable to digestive
tract) in the cytoplasm. FOOD--~:.t
VACUOLE 2
4. Reproduction. These show both asexual and -:'-:"":-ki=--ORAL
MICRONUCLEUS~~~~ GROOVE
sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction occurs by
transverse binary fission while sexual reproduction ~"""'''''''';:'_-CELL
generally occurs by conjugation (comparable to MOUTH
cross-fertilization) or autogamy (comparable to
self-fertilization). Some forms also show endomixis
(comparable to parthenogenesis). Sexual reproduction FOOD
VACUOLE--~~~~f-+..
especially conjugation is highly advantageous to the FORMING
ciliates because it helps in :
RADIATING CANALS -'79t-..,,:.:\
(a) Recombination of genes producing variations. OF VACUOLE
(b) Replacement of abnormal macronucleus with
depression stage by a normal macronucleus. FOODVACUOLE-l
Other important characters of Phylum Ciliata
5. Nuclear Dimorphism. All the ciliate protozoans
show nuclear dimorphism. Micronucleus is smaller and
generative as controls reproduction while macronucleus Fig. 18. Paramecium.
is larger and vegetative in function.
7. Pellicle. These are externally covered by flexible
6. Fresh-water ciliates e.g. Paramecium (Fig. 18),have
pellicle so have definite shape.
contractile vacuole for osmoregulation.
Table 4. Differences between four groups of Protistan Protozoans.

Characters Zooflagellata Sarcodina Sporozoa Ciliata
1. Habitat Mostly endoparasitic. Some are fresh-water All are endoparasitic and These are fresh-water or
Some are symbiotic in while some are endo- pathogenic. endoparasitic in habitat.
their habitat. parasitic.
2. Organs of food One or more flagella. Temporary finger or Absent due to parasitic Most of ciliates have cilia
capturing and ray like false feet called mode of life. for locomotion and food-
locomotion Pseudopodia. gathering.
3. Nutrition Heterotrophic and Heterotrophic and Heterotrophic and Heterotrophic and
saprozoic. holozic. saprozoic holozoic.
4. Asexual By longitudinal binary By binary fission or By multiple fission called By transverse binary
reprodution fission. multiple fission. sporogony or schizogony. fission.
5. Sexual Absent Some forms show By gamogony. These By conjugation or auto
reproduction syngamy. show alternation of gamy or endomixis.
generations.
6. Nucleus Mononucleate except Mononucleate or Mononucleate. Always binucleate.
Giardia (binucleate) multinucleate Nuclei show nuclear
(e.g. Pelomyxa) dimorphism.
7. Trichocysts Absent. Absent. Absent. Present and are organelles
of defence and anchorage.
8. Example Trypanosoma, Giardia, Amoeba, Entamoeba Plasmodium, Nosema. Paramecium, Vorticella,
Leishmania, Trichomonas Actinophrys, Pelomsjxa Balantidium.
-- 8.Trichocysts.Thesearefusiform-shapedectoplasmic
structures of ciliates which act as organelles of defence
and anchorage.
3. Nutrition. These are always heterotrophic and
saprozoic in nutrition.
4. Reproduction. These generally show alternation
D. SPOROZOA of generation between asexual (multiple fission) and
Characters.Thesehave simplebody organisationdue sexual (syngamy) generation. Lifecyclealways involves
to their parasitic mode of life and are characterized by : the formation of haploid cells called sporozoites. Life
1. Habitat. All are endoparasitic and pathogenic. cycleshows alternation ofgeneration and is monogenetic
or digenetic.
2. Locomotion. The organelles of locomotion and
food-capturing are absent due to parasitic life. Example: Plasmodium (Malarialparasite) (Fig.19).
OOCYST
GROWING OOCYST
~
SPOROGONY (f/'
ASEXUAL CYCLE IN THE
STOMACH WALL OF
MOSQUITO
ERYTHROCYTIC
CYCLE
\
HAEMOZOIN GRANULES __J..__.......,;~
-:
SCHIZOGONY IN
LIVER OF MAN MACROMETA·
CRYPTOMEROZOITES
Fig. 19. Life cycle of Plasmodium.vivax.
1.
Characters
Nucleus Prokaryotic
Table 5. Differences between Monera and Protista.
Monera
Eukaryotic
Protista
--
2. Cell size Comparatively small (0.1 - 5 1lID) Comparatively large (10 - 100 1lID)
3. Cell wall Made up of peptidoglycan Made up of cellulose
4. Flagella If present, unistranded It present, 11 stranded
5. Envelope system Single Double
6. Ribosomes 70S type Cytoplasmic ribosomes : 80S
Organelle ribosomes : 70S
7. Organelle Membrane bound cell organelle absent Membrane bound cell organelle present
8. Sap vacuole Absent Present
9. Cell division Mitotic spindle absent, cell division is of amitosis Mitosis due to formation of spindle
type
10. Sexual Absent Present
reprod uction
11. Meiosis Absent Present
Table 6. Comparison between Plasmodium and Pseudoplasmodium.

Characters Plasmodium Pseudoplasmodium
1. Definition Plasmodium is free living multinucleate Pseudoplasmodium is an aggregation of Amoeba
amoeboid mass of protoplasm. like cells (or plasmodia). Here identity of every
cell is maintained.
Table 7. Differences between Flagella and Cilia.

Characters Flagella Cilia
1. Length Long with length about 150 urn Small with length 5-10 um.
2. Number Few, (1-4) per cell Large (3000 - 14000) per cell.
3. Beating Beat independently and exhibit undulatory motion. Beat in coordination in succession.
ADDITIONAL USEFUL INFORMATIONS ABOUT PROTISTAN PROTOZOA

FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS
• Basis of classification of Protistan Protozoans is argans of locomotion.
• Galdfuss: Gave the term Protozoa. Protozoans are unicellular protist animals.
• ZOOFLAGELLATA:
<0'" Trtjpanasoma gambinese : Antelope is reservoir host. It was first reported by Ford and Dutton (1902) while its vector
host tse-tsefly was reported by Klein (1909). It is a polsjmorphic protozoan and occurs in [ourforms.
<0'" T. rhodesiense : Causes East African or Rhodesian sleeping sickness. Its vector is Glossina morsitans.
<J;- T. cruzi : Cau.sesSauth American sleeping sickness or chagas disease. Its vector is a bloodsucking bug, Panstrangylus
megistus (Iriatoma megista).
<J;- Leishmania donouani : Dogs and cats act as reservoir hosts. It was reported by Leishman and Donovan.
<J;- L. brasiliensis : Causes muco-cutaneus leishmaniasis (Espundia) Vector host is P. sergenti :
<0'" L. tropica i Causes cutaneus leishmeiniasis or alien tal sore. Vector host is P. intermedius.
<J;- Giardia intestinalis : It was reported by Leeutoenhack (1681) in his own faeces and was first pathogenic protozoan to be
discovered. A binucleate flagellate.
<0'" Trichomonas hominis : In large intestine of man.and cau.sesdiarrhoea.
<J;- Opalina: An endocommensal in the rectum offrogs, toads, etc. A multinucleate protozoan and undergoes plasmatamy.
• SARCODINA:
<0'" Pseudopodia malj be lobopodia (with broad and rounded tips e.g. (Amoeba); or filopodia (with filamentous pseudopodia
with tapering ends e.g. Euglypha); or reticulopodia. (branched peeudopodiaforming network e.g. Elphidium); or axopodia
(e.g. radiating pseudopodia with axoneme e.g. Aciinophrvs),
-- <ii""
<ii"" Amoeba proteus:

Rosenhof (1755) : DiscoveredAmoeba proteus. Called it little proteus.
Mastigamoeba : Has bath pseudopodia and flagellum So'acts as connecting link betweenflagellates and sarcodines.
Exiernallu coueredIn) plasma-membrane and rLO pellicle.

Human (1917) proposed sol-gel theory af pseudopodia[ormation. Supported by Pantin (1923) and Mast (1926).
Goldacre and Lorch (1952) proposed molecular folding-unfolding theoru.
Sporulation occurs in unencysted adult and produces 200 spares.
<ii"" Entamoeba histolytica : It wasfirst discovered by Lambie but its pathogenic nature was reported by Losch (1875).
<ii"" E. gingiualis : Commonbj called mouth amoeba. It is found in tartar af teeth and aggravates pyorrhoea.
<ii"" E. coli: Found as an endocommensal in the colon.af about 50% population. It is non-pathogenic.
<ii"" Pelomyxa: Also called giant amoeba. It is multinucleate and has 100-1000 monomorphic nuclei.
<ii"" Heliozoans: (called SUfIanimalcules) have axopodia and are shelled protozoans e.g. Actinaphrys
<ii"" Radiolarians and Foraminiferans are giant sarcodines.
,.... Egyptian pyramids areformed af Foraminiferan ooze. Limmuliuie limes cf Eaceneperiodarealsofanned C!ffarammiferanooze.
• SPOROZOA:
-s- Plasmodium
Term malaria was coined by Macculoch and means "bad air".
Laueran (1880) : Discouered malarial parasite (amoeboidstage) in RBCs af man.
Ronald Ross (1897) : Reported malaria-mosquito relationship.
Grassi (1900) : Described the life cycle af Plasmodium in the stomach.affemale Anopheles.
Re. Granham : Detailed monograph ofmalarial parasite.
Cerebral malaria caused by R falciparum is mast serious type of malaria as it damages brain.
20th August is called malaria day, white 29th August is called mosquito day.
NMEP (National Malaria Eradication Programme) was started in 1953.
Haemozoin : A toxic pigment farmed In) pratealysis af Hb af RBCs.
~- Nosema bombycis : Causespebrine disease in the silk W017rIS sa reducesthe silk production. It is inherited thraugh the eggs.
• CIUATA:
-s- Coordinated.cilinnJ beating may be metachronous (when. cilia af transverse raws beat simulianeouslu) 0'1' synch1'Onous
(when. cilia af longitudinal raws beat eimultaneouelsj),
-s- Nuclear dimorphism : Presence af twa morphologicalluand physialagically different nuclei e.g. in ciliates.
-s- Trichocysts: Reported by Ellis. Hill (1752) : Discovered Paramecium.
<ii"" T.H. Sonneborn (1917) : Reported that Paramecium caudatum has 16 syngens (varieties shawing conjugation), while R
aurelia has 14 syngens. He also reported the cutoplasmic inheritance of Kappa particles in Paramecium.
<ii"" R bursaria (green spp.) shotos SlJmbiosiswith green alga, Zoochlorella.
<ii"" Depression or senile decay: A stage at which meganucleus becomesinactive and vegetative [unctions are stopped.
<ii"" Vorticella (Bell animalcule) : An epizoic and colonial protozoan. It was first protozoan to'be discovered.
KINGDOM FUNGI (g) Gradual and progressive reduction of sexuality

is present.
(Multicellular decomposers)
Along with some heterotrophic bacteria they are
The distinctive characters of Fungi are :
major decomposers. They are required for recycling of
(a) They are heterotrophic due to absence of inorganic resources in the biosphere. Like some of the
chlorophyll. bacteria, some fungi also produce diseases. Especially
(b) They become either parasites or saprophytes important are the fungal diseases of plants, for fungi
(heterotrophs). are more harmful to plants than bacteria are to human
(c) Thallus is made up of colourless filamentous beings. Branch of biology which deals with the study of
structure called hyphae. The hyphae with branches and fungi is called mycology. The study of diseases caused
sub-branches form complex network called mycelium. in plants are included in plant pathology.
(d) Food material is stored in the form of glycogen
and oil globules. FUNGAL STRUCTURE AND NATURE OF GROWTH
(e) Cell wall is made up of fungus cellulose. The basic unit of the fungus is a hypha, a tubular
(f) The nuclei are eukaryotic in nature. often branched filament. Numerous hyphae are usually
--
ASEPTATE HYPHAE SEPTATE HYPHAE
A B
PROSENCHYMA PSEUDOPARENCHYMA
C o
Fig. 20. Various types of fungal hyphae.
intermesbed as an irregular network, so called packed, so lose their identity completely and appear as
mycelium. Fungi extract energy from their environment isodiametric cells giving the appearance ofparenchyma
by the process of extracellular digestion and absorption cells in higher plants. The protoplasm in a hypha may
ofthe digested materialin the form ofsolution.Sincethey be continuous i.e. without any cross walls of septa
lack chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments, (aseptate) (Fig. 20 A) or it may be interrupted by cross
they are incapable of carrying on photosynthesis, hence wall i.e. (septate) (Fig. 20 B).
they do not require light for growth and metabolism. The hyphal wall is made up of fungus cellulose in
Some grow as parasites on all types of plants from which cellulose is impregnated with chitin and contains
simple algae to most advanced flowering plants. Some nitrogen in addition to carbon and hydrogen.
live on dead organic matter like dung, bread, jams etc. The cell wall encloses the protoplast. In Rhizopus
as saprophytes. Some live symbiotically with algae the protoplast is non-septate acellular or coenocytic in
as lichens. Some of them are entirely subterranean the actively growing condition, septa however may
(tuffles), others are aquatic (SaproZegnia). In septate appear in old hyphae. The protoplast is covered by a
hyphae, there usually occurs a central pore in septum thin semipermeable plasma membrane. The cytoplasm
through which protoplasmic connections are made
between adjacent cells.
Abody which consistsofsinglecelland is completely
converted into a reproductive structure is known as
holocarpic but if only a part of the thallus is used up
in the formation of reproductive structure, it is called
eucarpic.
CELL AND TISSUE STRUCTURE
When the mycelium gets organised into loosely
or compactly woven tissue like structure is called
plectenchyma. Prosenchyma is the mycelium in which
hyphae are loosely interwoven and lie more or less
parallel to each other (Fig. 20 C). Pseudoparenchyma Fig. 21. Structure of aseptate, multinucleate
is the mycelium in which the hyphae are very loosely (coenocytic) hypha of Rhizopus.
--
appears granular and contains many minute nuclei
scattered in the peripheral layer.The nuclei are very small
and inconspicuous. The cytoplasm contains many small
(vi) Gemmae. They resemble chlamydospores in
structure but not very durable and thick walled.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
vacuoles filled with cell-sap or a number of small gas
filled vacuoles. The vacuoles are small, few or absent in (i) Spore formation. The spores in fungi vary
the activelygrowing tips of themycelium.Thehypha also in shape. Spores are usually unicellular, thin walled,
may be seen to have mitochondria, dictyosomes (Golgi spherical and diameter ranging from 5-501-1. They
body), ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, oil drops may be hyaline or coloured. Several types of spores
and glycogen granules etc. under electron microscope. are reported in fungi e.g. zoospores, sporangiospores,
uredospores, teleutospores,pycniospores etc.Sometimes
REPRODUCTION the spores may be multicellular also. Sometimes the
spores are produced endogenously in special sac-like
The fungi reproduce by all the three methods
asexual reproductive bodies called sporangia. Spores in
vegetative, asexual and sexual.
SUcl1cases are called sporangiospores. Zoospores are
Vegetative reproduction. It is affected in various uniflagellate or biflagellate structures.
ways: (ii) Conidia formation. The detachable sporangia
(i) Fragmentation. The hyphae of fungus break are often called conidia. Hyphae bearing conidia are
into small pieces and each piece may later grow into called conidiophores. The conidiophores in groups may
new mycelium. form structures like coremia, acervuli, synnemata etc.
(ii) Fission. It is common in yeasts etc. The cell The conidia may behave as sporangia by developing
divides into daughter cellswhich separate by constriction motile zoospores. When the environment is dry, conidia
or transverse walls. germinate directly.
(iii)Budding. In this casedaughter bud appears from
parent cell.After getting the normal size bud breaks off. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
When the buds fail to separate, after repeated budding Fungi may be dioecious or unisexual. Some are
from pseudomycelium. monoecious or bisexual. Former are heterothallic and
MOTHERCELL latter are homothallic. The gametes are formed within
. gametangium. All the three types ofsexual reproduction
is present in fungi :
C2i)~ (a) Isogamy. Fusing gametes are exactly alike in
DIVIDEDCELL appearance and functions.
BUDDING DIVIDINGCELL (b) Anisogamy. Fusion of dissimilar gametes is
FISSION
called anisogamy. In anisogamous forms both fusing
OlDIA~
fJo male and female gametes are usually motile.
(c) Oogamy. Fusion of male (micro) gamete (small,
flagellated and active)with female (mega)gamete (large,
non-motile and passive) is called oogamy.
Sometimessexual reproduction occursbetween two
gametangia. Such fusion is called conjugation in contrast
to gameticfusion.When gametangia canbe differentiated,
they are called antheridium and oogonium representing
male and female sex organs respectively. In higher
fungi somatic hyphae may fuse to show somatogamy.
OIDIA CHLAMYDOSPORES FRAGMENTATION Fertilization involves two steps called plasmogamy and
Fig. 22.Different types of vegetative reproduction infungi. karyogamy. Plasmogamy is the fusion of cytoplasm and
karyogamy is the fusion of nuclei.
(iv) Oidia. Oidia are rounded or oval structures When nuclei lie side by side, they represent
having thin walls. The hyphae undergo segmentation dikaryon. Sexually fusion gametes result in the
and produce yeast like cells called oidia. Each oidium formation of diploid oospores or zygospores. In fungi
on germination produces new mycelium. imperfectii or deuteromycetes, sexual reproduction
(v) Chlamydospores. Some fungi produce is absent. Meiosis occurs in zygospores to produce
chlamydospores which are thickwalled restingcells.They haploid spores. These spores are genetically different
are intercalary in position. They are capable of forming a and are with new combination of characters due to
new plant on approach of favourable conditions. crossing over in meiosis.
SPORANGIAL WALL
--
A
CONIDIUM
CONIDIOPHORES
G
Fig. 23. Types of conidia and conidiophores, A : Sporangia and sporangiophores; B : Sporangiospores
in a sporangium; C : Conidia arising from a conidiophore; D : Acervuli having setae and conidia;
E-H : Development of an endoconidium from a conidiophore; I : Synnemata.
SUSPENSOR
ANTHEROZOID GAMETANGIA
ANTHERIDIUM
OOGONIUM
ANTHERIDIUM
Fig. 24. Various aspects of fungal body, sexual structure A: Anisogametes on left, bicillate zygote on right
B: Male and female gametangia, C: Isogametangia, D: Somatogamy, E: Differentiated gametangia.
-- Non-septate mycelium
Eumycetes (True fungi)
MODERN'S abc
Septate mycelium
+ OF BIOLOGY-XI
(Lower fungi) (Higher fungi)

Phycomycetes
Mastigomycetes Zygomycetes
(Flagellate members) (Non-flagellate members) Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Deuteromycetes
FUNGUS CLASSIFICATION 3. Asexual reproduction takes place by motile

zoospore formation or non-motile aplanospores.
Fungi has been variously classified by different 4. Gametes may be similar morphologically
authors depending upon the criteria they have used for (isogamous) or dissimilar (anisogamous or oogamous).
the purpose. However, there is more or less agreement
Examples: Rhizopus, Mucor, Albugo and Phytophthora.
to classify true fungi into four different classes as given
above: ASCOMYCETES-THE SAC FUNGI
Because in fungi structure of mycelium does not
1. The largest class of fungi ascomycetes more than
exhibit much variation, following criteria are considered
35,000 species are included.
mainly for classification:
2. In ascomycetes, the spores are produced in sac
(a) Morphology of reproductive structures.
shaped structures called asci.
(b) Physiology and biochemistry of various fungal
members. 3. Each ascus bears 4-8 ascospores.
4. Ascomycetes includes yeast, powdery mildews,
PHYCOMYCETES (ALGAL-FUNGI)
moulds, etc.
This group is characterised by the following 5. In some fungi imperfectii discovery of sexual
characters : stages have led to their inclusion in ascomycetes.
1. Phycomycetes are called algal-fungi because of 6. The ascomycetes may be unicellular as in yeasts,
aquatic habitat and form of thallus. They are also found many celled filaments as mycelia as in powdery mildews
on decaying wood in moist damp places or on plants or as thickened and fleshy as in tuffles.
as obligate parasites. 7. Reproduction is accomplished asexually by
2. Hyphae are multinucleate and aseptate budding (yeasts) or by spores called conidia that develop
(coenocytic). in sequence at the tips of certain hyphae.
SPORANGIUM HYPHAL WALL

COLUMELLA OIL DROPS
\: O;O"_"-"7" NUCLEI
00 CYTOPLASM
B
SPORANGIOPHORES
ARE MUCH LONGER 00 SPORANGIAL SPORANGIAL WALL
WALL
___J SPORES
DEVELOPING
SPORANGIO·
SPORES
COLUMELLA
PLASM
(VACUOLATE)
c 0
Fig. 25. Rhizopus A. Mycelium B. Hypha showing structure C. and D. Two developmental stages of sporangium.
--
ASCOSPORG )\
(n)
Fig. 26.Penicillium showing mycelium with conidiophores,

! ~ SEXUAL
MEfSI:. •••• ~O,\ (RA~~COGONIUM ANTHERIDIUM

8. Sometimes conidiophores bearing conidia are ~ ASCUS ~ '. Q'~ (n) (n)
I""~~~\::
..
'. 1 1
organised into fruiting bodies of various kinds like
pycnidia, acervuli etc.
9. Sexual reproduction in ascomycetes may occur
by hologamy, gametangial contact, spermatisation and d i
ASCUSMOTHERCElL
".FEMALENUCLEI
". MALENUCLEI
somatogamy. (n+n) ". (n)~ (n)
10. Hologamy takes place in yeasts. Haploid cells \ DlKARYOPHASE•••••.•. )
directly act as gametes. ASCOGENOUSHYPHAE ' -, -,
11. In some fungi like Penicillium male sex organs (PAIREDNUCLEI) PAIRINGOF NUCLEI
(nTn)~
are differentiated into antheridia and female sex organs
are called ascogonia. Eachascogonium issituated on one Fig. 27. Graphical life cycle of Penicillium.
or two small basal cells called stalk cells and apex forms
elongated trichogyne. Only plasmogamy occurs in the to form crozier or hook. After division in the terminal
beginning as a result male and femalenucleiliein pairs to cellthree cellsare delimited-the terminal cell containing
form dikaryons. single nucleus, the subterminal or penultimate cell
containing two nuclei and the antepenultimate cell
12. In spermatisation some ascomycetes bear containing single nucleus.
minute spore-like spennatia on spermatophores. 16. Fusion occurs in penultimate cell now called
And they are transferred to ascogonial hyphae. ascus mother cell.
Few show the tendency for the antheridium to 17. Diploid nucleus in ascus mother cell undergoes
become functionless and pairing occurs between meiosis to form 4nuclei followed by mitosis to constitute
the nuclei of ascogonium itself thus representing 8 haploid ascospores in newly developed ascus.
autogamy. 18. While the ascus development is going on, the
13. In somatogamy vegetative hyphae of opposite mycelia surrounding the sexual structures grow up
strain fuse. properly to cover the ascogenous hyphae, asci etc.
14. Pairs in the ascogonium undergo conjugate The fruiting body or ascocarp thus formed may be
divisions and ascogonium forms, hyphal outgrowths of Cleisothecium, Perithecium, Hysterothecium and
called ascogenous hyphae. Apothecium type (Fig. 28).
15.The terminal cellof each ascogenous hypha bend 19. Under favourable conditions each ascospore
genninates to give rise to new hypha.
ABC 0
Fig. 28. Diagrammatic representation of various types of ascocarps in surface view.
A. Apothecium; B.Perithecium; C. Hysterothecium; D. Cleistothecium (closed).
-- ~;:~P);~~~~- GLYCOGEN
'1'."::.'\,,-CELL WALL
...:.:.......
name from the fact that they reproduce asexually
by basidium. Each basidium is an enlarged, club
shaped, hyphal cell at the tip of which develop four
)..~·.~r..,a,~- CYTOPLASM
basidiospores. Basidiospores develop outside the
basidium. The basidiospores are released and develop
DARKLY
STAINING THREAD new mycelia. No motile cells are formed at any stage
VACUOLE of the life cycle of basidiomycetes. The somatic phase
consists of a well developed, septate, filamentous
LIPID GLOBULES mycelium. Primary mycelium is formed due to
germination of haploid spore. It is soon converted
into secondary or dikaryotic mycelium. The clamp
connections on the dikaryotic hyphae are of universal
occurrence. The sex organs are lacking. The sexual
process is represented by plasmogamy and karyogamy.
Basidiocarps of basidiomycetes are comparable to
ascocarps of ascomycetes but they are not homologous.
Fig. 29. Saccharomuces cerevisiae. A cell showing structure.
Economic importance of basidiomycetes
1. Some of basidiomycetes are causative agents of
most destructive diseases of our crops. To this category
belong rusts (Puccinia) and smuts (Ustilago).
2. Few higher members of basidiomycetes such as
pore fungi are wood rotters.
A
B
3.They are among best decomposers of wood. They
Fig. 30. Yeast: A. Budding; B. Fission. decompose cellulose and lignin (mechanically strong)
and may be resistant to other fungi including bacteria.
BASIDIOMYCETES-THE CLUB FUNGI
4. Mushrooms are of great economic value as food.
Mushrooms, puff balls, toad stools, bracket fungi, S. The toad stools are poisonous. Some as Amantia
rusts and smuts are included in basidiomycetes which are fatally poisonous.
comprises more than 25,000species. They derive their
BASIDIOSPORE
BASIDIUM
HYMENIUM
Fig. 31. Section of a gill from the underside of a mushroom cap to show the basidia and their basidiospores.
BIOLOGICAL
1. Class
CLASSIFICATION
Characters
Table 8. Differences between Ascocarp and Basidiocarp.
Ascocarp
Found in ascomycetes
Basidiocarp
Found in basidiomycetes
--
2. Construction Simple Elaborate
3. Spore bearing structures Asci Basidia
4. Septa Ascus usually aseptate Basidium may be septate or aseptate
5. Location of spores Endogenous Exogenous
6. Number of spores Eight Four
::,.
I
'-.
Table 9. Differences between Ascus and Basidium.
Characters Ascus Basidium
1. Class Meiospores forming structure in Meiospores forming structure in
ascomycetes. basidiomycetes.
2. Number of spores Eight Four
3. Location of spores Endogenous in ascus Exogenous on basidium
4. Dispersal Rarely thrown out. Thrown out by droplet method.
6. Few basidiomycetes produce hallucinogenic 3. Principal mode of nutrition is photosynthesis but

chemicals. number of plants have become absorptive.
7. Many members form ectotrophic mycorrhizal 4. Primarily non-motile, living anchored to a
associations with roots of forest trees. These associations substrate.
are mutually beneficial. S. Structural differentiation leading towards organs
8. The young fleshy sporophores of many species of photosynthesis, anchorage and support and in higher
of puff balls are edible. forms towards specialised photosynthetic, vascular and
9. Clauatia, a basidiomycete is said to be containing covering tissues.
an anticancer substance clavicin. 6. Reproduction is primarily sexual.
10. Some mushrooms are poisonous like Amanita. 7. Haploid generation is progressively reduced in
DEUTEROMYCETES-THE FUNGI IMPERFECTII higher members of kingdom.
Examples are complex red, brown and green algae,
1. Sexual
reproduction is absent. mosses, ferns and seed plants with or without flowers.
2.Theyhave membersbelonging toboth ascomycetes
and basidiomycetes. KINGDOM ANIMALIA
3.They reproduce onlyby asexual spores i.e.conidia
formation. (Multicellular consumers)
4. Hyphae are branched and septate. Organisms included in Kingdom Animalia show
5. Mode of nutrition is parasitic or saprophytic. the following diagnostic characters :
Many act as decomposers of litter, thus helping in 1. They are multicellular organisms.
mineral cycling. 2.They bear eukaryotic cells and lack stiffcellwalls.
Examples : Alternaria, Colleioirichum, Trichoderma 3. They are devoid of plastids and photosynthetic
Arthrobotrys is an example of predatory fungus. This pigments.
feeds on living worms (nematodes) and also called as 4. Nutrition is primarily ingestive with digestion
nematophagus fungus. in an internal cavity, but some forms are absorptive
KINGDOM PLANTAE
and number of groups lack an internal digestive cavity.
S. Levelof organization and tissue differentiation in
(Multicellular producers) higher forms far exceeding that of other kingdoms, with
Kingdom plantae includes plants with following evolution of sensory neuromotor systems or motility
characteristics : of organisms (or in sessile forms of its parts) based on
1. Multicellular organisms with walled and contractile fibrils.
frequently vacuolate eukaryotic cells. 6. They have developed the cells with an ability to
2.They contain photosynthetic pigments in plastids. contract (musclecells)or transmit impulses (nerve cells).
7. Reproduction is mainly sexual.
-- 8. Haploid stage other than gametes almost lacking
above lowest phyla.
These holozoic eukaryotes are also called Metazoa.
MODERN'S abc
DISADVANTAGE OF FIVE-KINGDOM
CLASSIFICAnON
+ OF BIOLOGY-XI
1. The distinction of the unicellular virus, the

Kingdom Plantae and Animalia are both believed to
have evolved from ancientprotists, independently and at multicellular and multinucleate conditions becomes the
differenttimes. Bothgroups are exclusivelymulticellular line of division and difficulty.
and their structural complexity reaches the level of 2.The slime moulds crossthe distinction ofkingdoms
complicatedorgans and organ systems.Kingdomplantae in both nutrition and organization and offer free choice
is photosynthetic and without locomotion. Metazoa are as fungi, protists or very peculiar animals.
exclusively non-photosynthetic and largely capable of 3. The three higher kingdoms are polyphyletic.
locomotion hence unmistakably animals. 4.Evenwith the multicellular algae and higher fungi
Lot of diversity has been reported in this kingdom. excluded, the protista is a group of diverse organisms
More than million species have been identified and of divergent directions of evolution.
named belonging to this kingdom. Animals are VIRUSES, VIRIODS AND BACTERIOPHAGES
consumers, while green plants are producers. They
constitute links in various food chains and complex The name 'virus' means venoum or poisonous fluid.
food webs through which a part of matter and energy Study ofvirusesis called virology. Virusescause diseases
like mumps, small pox, herpes, influenza and AIDSetc.
flows from the producer to decomposer.
in humans. Plant diseases like mosaic, leaf rolling and
ADVANTAGES OF FIVE-KINGDOM curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing, stunted
growth etc. may also be viral.
CLASSIFICATION
Viruses and bacteriophages are much smaller
1. Better relationship. It represents the better than bacteria and indeed hardly larger than very large
relationships in regard to both levels of organization molecules of proteins and nucleic acids. They are too
and nutritive modes affecting kinds of organizaiton small to be seen with light microscope. They are much
than the two-kingdom and Copeland systems of smaller than bacteria. They resist classificationas plants
classification. or animals. In one sense the viruses are not living
2. Better placement. The red and brown algae organisms but large nucleoprotein particles which enter
and the fungi may seem better placed, the former as specifickind of plant or animal or bacteria and multiply
the higher plants of the sea and the latter as the third to form new virus particles. Bacteriophages are also
major evolutionary direction among higher organisms. viruses which parasitize bacteria (phage- eater). When
3. Coherent system. This system is better in viruses are outside the host cell, they are metabolically
coherence and definable characters of kingdoms as inert; in fact some viruses have been crystallized. They
units of classification. reproduce using the metabolic machinery of the host
4. Placement of Euglena. Unicellular eukaryotes cell, and infect chemically.They are made up of one of
like Euglena had earlier was included both in plants the nucleic acids DNA or RNA (never both) and protein
only.Genetic material DNA or RNA is enclosed within a
and animals. By grouping all unicellular eukaryotes
in kingdom Protista, this anomaly has been removed. protective coat of protein. So, the viruses show many of
the properties of living organisms. Among these is the
5. Justification. By including prokaryotes like property ofreplication.Virusesarenot as complexascells,
Bacteria and Cyanobacteria in kingdom Monera, if for no other reason then the fact that they have none
justification has been made, because both differ from all of the enzymes found in cells. Becauseof this, we place
other organismsin theirmorphological and physiological the virus just below the level of cellular organisation.
organisation.
About viruses many questions come to our mind.
6. Evolutionary trend. Five kingdom system of 1. Do they represent the starting point of life in the
classificationsucceedsin indicating the gradual evolution evolution of living beings?
of early organisms into plants and animals to a good
2. Are they highly evolved super parasites?
extent.
3. Have they been derived from some more complex
7.Separation of kingdom Fungi. Fungi bear its own
organisms, such as bacteria, which have become greatly
biochemical, physiological and structural organisation.
reduced in structure?
This separation of kingdom fungi from plants was long
overdue. No matter what our hypothesis may be, we can see
viruses stand at the very threshold of life.
--
A
B
o E
c
•
G
Fig. 32. Relative sizes and shapes of some viruses and

bacteriophage. A. Vaccinia virus; B. Mumps virus; C. T2
Bacteriophage; D. Influenza virus; E. Adenovirus; F. Tobacco Fig. 33. Diagrammatic L.S. of bacteriophage.
mosaic virus; G. Polio virus.
II PRACTICE PROBLEMS-KINGDOM SYSTEMS ~!!!!!!!'!!!~=~
1. Name the criteria used by RH. Whittaker for five-kingdoms of life.

2. Write about the contributions of John Ray, J.D. Hooker and J.K. Maheshwari.
3. Name the books written by Carl P. Linnaeus.
4. Write one example each of five kingdoms proposed by RH. Whittaker.
5. Write the basis of modern classification.
6. What type of organisms does kingdom Monera include?
7. What kind of organisms does kingdom Protista include?
8. Name some viral diseases.
9. Name some symptoms of viral diseases.
II ANSWERS TO PRACTICE PROBLEMS ~~~~-~-"-"

1. (a) Complexity of cell structure. (b) Complexity of body structure.
(c) Mode of nutrition. (d) Ecological role.
2. John Ray introduced the term species. He wrote the book Historia Generalis Plantarum.
J.D. Hooker wrote 'Flora of British India'.
J.K. Maheshwari described the plants of India in 'Flora of Delhi'.
3. 'Systema Naturae' 'Genera Plantarum' Species Plantarum and 'Philosophia Botanica'.
4. (a) Kingdom Monera. (Bacteria and Cyanobacteria)
(b) Kingdom Protista. (Euglena, Amoeba)
(c) Kingdom Fungi. (Penicillium, Rhizopus, Mushroom)
(d) Kingdom Plantae. (Spirogljra,Marchaniia, Pinus, Mustard)
(e) Kingdom Animalia. (Animal)
5. Modern Taxonomy is now based on :
(i) evolutionary relationship,
(ii) the similarities in the genetic codes of species,
(iii) ecological character.
The structural similarities are still valid.
6. Monera includes all prokaryotic organism like bacteria.
7. The kingdom Protista includes diverse kinds of unicellular and primarily aquatic, eukaryotic organisms.
8. Mumps, small pox, herpes, influenza and AIDS in humans.
9. Mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.
_.STRUCTURE OF SOME IMPORTANT VIRUSES BACTERIOPHAGE
MODERN'S abc
r,
+ OF BIOLOGY-XI
Its scientific name is Phago uirus secundus. It is a

TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS (TMV)
coliphage as it infects colon bacillus bacterium E.coli.
The scientific name of this virus is Proto-virus It has a bianal symmetry and looks like a tadpole. It
tabacci. It was first discovered by Iwanowski in 1892, is differentiated into head and a tail. Bacteriophages
but isolated in crystallized form by Stanley in 1935. The were first discovered by Twort (1915) and studied by
virus particle is a long, cylindrical, rod shaped, helical de Herelle (1917).
ribovirus. It is having a length of 300 nm (3000A) and
The length of T, virus particle (Fig.35) is about 210
17.5 nm (175 A) diameter. It has a molecular weight of nm. The head is hexagonal in outline having icosahedral
40 millions approx. (Fig. 34). pyramidal ends. It is 95 nm in length and 65 nm is
Chemical, X-ray crystallographic and electron diameter. The head consists of an outer protein coat
microscopicinvestigations (Bernalet.a1.Watson,Franklin (capsid) composed of about 2000 subunits of proteins
et. al. and Casper) show that these particles consist (capsomeres).The protein coatsurrounds a compact core
of two parts, the protein coat and the nucleic acid. of nucleoid. The nucleoid consists of a single, 50,000 run
The nucleic acid (nucleoid) is a single stranded RNA, long, double stranded DNAmolecule. Ithas a molecular
helically coiled forming a central core of 8 nm diameter. weight of about 2.5 million and is packed tightly in the
It consists of about 6300 nucleotides and a molecular head. The cytosine in phage DNAis hydroxymethylated.
weight of about 2.2 million. It constitutes 5.6% of the The tail is cylindrical having a length of 115nm, but
total virus composition. is much narrower as compared to head. It has a diameter
The protein coat (capsid) consists of helically of 17 nm. The tail consists of an outer protein sheath of
arranged subunits (capsomeres) around the nucleic about 200 subunit enclosing a hollow core (tube) of 10
acid core enclosing a central lumen of 4 nm diameter. It nm diameter. The tail sheath has the capacity to contract
has been suggested that there are 49 subunits per three longitudinally. The lower end of the tail consists of a
turns of the helix (approx 16.5 per turn) having a total hexagonal tail plate (basal plate or end plate) approx.
of 2130 protein subunits in a complete particle. It means 20 nm in thickness. It has six tail pins at each corner
there are about 129 helical turns per particle rod. Each to which are attached six, 150 nm long protein fibres
subunit has a molecular weight of 17500 and consists known as tail fibres. The tail fibres normally remain
of a single polypeptide chain of 158 amino acids. folded inside the tail core. When extended they help
Elementary composition of the particles is, carbon in the attachment of the virus to the bacterium. Tip
50%, hydrogen 7%, nitrogen 16.7%, sulphur 0.2% and of the tail also bears some molecules of hydrolyzing
phosphorus 0.54%. The protein coat can be separated enzyme-lysozyme.
from RNA. The naked RNA is still capable of infection
and produce protein for its capsomeres. This shows
that genetic information for complete virus particle is
stored in its RNA.
Fig. 34. TMv. A. Surface view; B. Structure in detail;

C. Cross section. Fig. 35. L.S. through a bacteriophage (Diagrammatic).
The head and the tail arejoined to eachother through

a short neck bearing a circular proteinaceous, their disc
known as collor. In general, the phase particles are
--
It takes three to ten years of incubation during
which no symptoms of AIDS are produced. At the end
of incubation period, the infected people develop AIDS
made up of 50% protein and 50% nucleic acid (DNA). related complex(ARC).It causesthe depletion ofT-helper
The nucleic acid may have upto 2,00,000nucleotides cells and continuously swollen lymph glands. ARC is
consisting roughly 600 genes. then followed by the appearance of the disease AIDS.
The AIDS virus could be transmitted by sexual
AIDS VIRUS
contact, contaminated blood or blood products, sharing
It is a type of retroviruses linked with acquired of drug needles contaminated with the virus and by an
immune deficiency syndrome or AIDS. The virus infected mother to her child before, during or shortly
responsible for the disease in human beings is known after birth. It cannot be transmitted by casual contract
as human immunodeficiency virus or HIV. like shaking hands, hugging, or through food or water.
The virus particle (Fig. 36) is covered over by The virus is easily killed by common disinfectants
two lipid layers which are derived from the host cell. including household bleach. Antiviral vaccines and
Two glycoproteins (proteins associated with sugars) drugs are being developed but have not been tested yet.
are also associated with these lipid layers. One type MULTIPLICATION (REPLICATION)OF
of glycoprotein known as gp 41 lie within the lipid BACTERIOPHAGES
membrane and the other called gp 120 extends beyond
the lipid layers and thus forms the second layer. This MultiplicationofbacteriophageshasbeenstudiedinT-even
double layer envelope covers a double layered protein phages of E.coli by prominent workers like Delbruck,
core which is made up of two types of proteins. Outer Luria and Lwoff. Lwoff suggested three stages of
layer of this protein core is of p 18 and the inner layer bacteriophages-Extracellulm' Virion, Vegetative Phage and
is of p 24 proteins. Prophage. The complete virus particles prior of infection
are extracellular virions. The other two stages are
The protein core encloses a central core of viral
intracellular and are only in the form of nucleic adds. If
RNA. There are two molecules of RNA associated with
the molecules of enzyme reverse transcriptase. it is free having autonomous replication, it is vegetative
phage. It may become inserted with the bacterial DNA
AIDS were first reported in 1981.That it is caused and is replicated alongwith it, then it is a prophage.
by HIV was shown three years later. The virus attacks
T4 cells of the host. T4cells have their central role in Those phages having the capacity to become
regulating many processesofimmune system. The virus, prophages are called "Temperate phages" and those
in addition, also affectsbrain and spinal chord. HIV can which lack this property are called "Virulent phages".
also cause three types of cancers in infected persons : The multiplication in both of these types can be studied
(i) Kaposi's sarcoma-skin tumors that spread to separately in lytic cycle (for virulent phages) and
internal organs and cause internal bleeding and death; lysogenic cycle (for temperate phages).
(ii) Cancerous growth of skin and mucous Lytic cycle
membranes, and The multiplication process of a virulent phage is
(iii) Tumors in B-Iymphocytes. called lytic cyclebecause the host bacterial cell is lysed
at the end. This process is divided into following stages:
1. Adsorption (Fig.37). It is the attachment of virus
particle to the specifichost bacterial cell.The attachment
is at the specific receptor sites present on the wall of
host cell.T-evenphages (T2, T4etc.) attach with the help
of their tail fibres at the host receptor sites.
ABC
Fig. 36. AIDS virus. Fig. 37. Mechanism of attachment and penetration of
bacteriophage.
-- 2. Penetration (Fig. 37). The next phase is the
injection of nucleic acid of the virion into the host cell.
The nucleopeptidal host cell wall is hydrolyzed by
lysozyme present at the tip of the tail making a hole,

through which the viral nucleic acid is injected into the
host cell via tail tube. This happens when tail fibres,
after attachment, bent, bringing the base plate in contact
with the bacterial cell wall. The tail sheath contracts
and the central tube (needle) is pushed through the
hole in the wall. All this process is an active process
and takes place on the expense of ATP. The protein
coats remaining outside, attached to the host cell wall,
are called "Ghosts".
3. The eclipse stage. This stage shows the following
viral DNA activity inside the host cell. (i) immunity
against further infection by phages of the same type by
the production of specific enzyme called "repressors"
(ii) suppression of all cellular activity of the host (iii)
synthesis of new enzymes by phage DNA utilizing
amino acid pool of the host cell. These are called Early
Proteins (iv) These enzymes are utilized to seal the hole
in the cell wall, to destruct the DNA of the host (v)
the fresh DNA molecules then synthesize a new type
of proteins called Late Proteins identified as viral coat
Fig. 38. The stages of lytic cycle of bacteriophages.
proteins and viral lysozymes. The coat proteins form
monomers which are then assembled into capsomeres Lysogenic cycle
and other viral components. It is associated with the replication of temperate
4. Maturation. It is the assembly of various phages (prophages). Sometimes, a virus may cause the
components into mature or complete virions. Head and immediate lysis of the host cell but become associated
tails are first assembled separately and then the two are with the host genome. This phenomenon is known
attached to form hundreds of new phage particles. The as Lysogeny. The phages are temperate in prophage
time period between the injection of viral nucleic acid states. The cycle of temperate phage is called lysogenic
and the first appearance of new phage progeny is the cycle and the bacterium which harbours the phage is
eclipse period, which is about 12minutes in T, phages. called lysogenic bacterium. The lysogenic cycle of ')..,
The total time taken from the introduction of nucleic bacteriophage is shown in Fig. 39.
acid to the rupture of host cell wall is called Latent In prophage condition, the phage DNA is replicated
period. It is about 18 minutes for T, phages. alongwith bacterialgenome. UVirradiation and presence
5. Lysis and release of new virions-The cell wall ofhydrogen peroxide may causeexcisionofthe prophage
bursts at the end of latent period and the virions are from the bacterial genome to convert it into virulent
liberated. This phenomenon is called lysis. The number state. Then, it goes vegetative lytic cycle as described
of virions produced per host cell is specific and is earlier. This conversion of prophage into virulent state
termed as the burst size. Generally is it 200 - 300.The is called "induction".
main stages of lytic cycle have been shown in Fig. 38.
Table 10. Differences between Lytic and Lysogenic phases of viruses.
Characters Lytic phase Lysogenic phase
1. Integration of Viral genome does not integrate with host DNA Viral genome gets integrated with host DNA
DNA to form prophage or provirus.
2. Hydrolysis of Occurs Does not occur.
host DNA
3. Replication Prophage replicates once along with replication Viralgenome replicatesmany times to form many
of host genome to transfer a single particle to copies in same host cell.
daughter cell.
:.:.:.:
......... '"
':-':0'
BACTERIOPHAGE (LAMBDA),)
_-L_,..-,:::"...--":/ BACTERIUM (LYSOGENIC STRAIN)
.~...... EMPTY PROTEIN COAT

--
)'PHAGES~ ....... o·
.....
.........
: . 0"
~ .~
"fP.. .
ADSORPTION
..
LYSIS OF BACTERIAL
CELL
LYTIC CYCLE
VIRAL GENOME
RELEASED
·
··
INDUCTION
Fig. 39. Lysogenic cycle of A bacteriophage.
MYCOPLASMA S. Rice yellow dwarf

6. Cotton stenosis
Mycoplasma i.e. PPLO (Pleuropneumonia like
organism) is the causative agent of pleuroneumonia, SHAPE
a contagious disease of cattle. Louis Pasteur observed Mycoplasma varies in shape. Spherical forms has
this organism with the smallest cell is not a bacterium the size of 80-150 mil.
and can be observed only under electron microscope. Pleomorphic forms measure about 210-245 mil.
PPLO also called as MLO (Mycoplasma like organism). In this type, filamentous and branched forms have
It shows the following characteristics : also been reported. Mycoplasma occurs in soil, sewage,
1. Being smallest organism (0-1 micron in diameter) human and plants.
can pass through fine pored filter. SOLUBLE PROTEIN
2. Can be seen only under electron microscope.

3. It is able to grow on non-living medium.
4. Internal organisation mostly resembles typical
bacterium.
5. It bears plasma membrane, ribosomes with
complete protein synthetic machinery.
6. Nucleus is not well developed and shows the
absence of nuclear envelope.
7. As many as 40 enzymes have been reported from
cell of Mycoplasma.
8. It is non-motile, gram negative and contains
DNA and RNA.
Diseases caused by Mycoplasma
1. Little leaf of brinjal
2. Sandal spike
3. Citrus greening
4. Grassy shoot of sugarcane Fig. 40. Mycoplasma. Electron micrograph of Mycoplasma cell.
LICHENS C. Fruiticose Lichen (Fig. 41)

1. Frui ricose lichen is cylindrical, well branched and
Morphology pendent with hair like outgrowths.
1. Lichens are formed due to intimate combination 2. Thallus is usually found attached with tree trunks
of an alga and fungus and provide classic example of (terricolous).
symbiosis. 3. At the tip of branch, large apothecial type of
2. The fungal component is called mycobiont and fruiting bodies are present.
the algal component is known as phycobiont. According 4. Thallus looks like a mini shurblet.
to their growth forms, lichens may be divided into three 5. Conspicuous hairy growth is present at the
principle types: periphery of apothecia.
A. Crustose Lichen (Fig. 41)
1. Crustose lichens show crust like growth. MYCORRHIZA
2. Thallus is very small in size, flat irregularly lobed Mycorrhiza is the root fungus association. The
and inconspicuous in growth. mycorrhizal roots are usually covered with fungal woolly
3. It appears as if the thallus is embedded in the outgrowth. The association may be of two types:
substratum.
(a) Ectotrophic (ectomycorrhizae) : When the
4. Small fruiting bodies may be visible, which may
hyphae do not penetrate deep into root and remain
be of apothecial type.
superficia I.
5. The apothecia contain asci and ascospores.
(b) Endotrophic (endomycorrhizae) : When hyphae
B. Foliose Lichen (Fig. 41)
grow within root surface.
1. The thallus is like a dry forked leaf.
In Pinus mycorrhizal roots are found in the upper
2. Foliose lichen is flat, irregularly lobed with a
distinct upper and lower side. zone of soil. They are irregular and swoller structures.
Root cap is absent. Even root hairs are absent on such
3. The thallus is attached with substratum by means
roots. These roots help in absorption of organic substance
of rhizines.
from soil. The fungal partners are usually those which
4. Rhizines are developed on the lower surface of
are capable of breaking down the plant cell ina limited
thallus. way. However, these hyphae survive well on sugars
5. The upper side shows the presence of number supplied by plant. Fungus growth does not cause any
of fruiting bodies. harm to the plant. Fungi are confined to fixed area
6. The reproductive bodies are quite prominent and in plant. Along with wate~, phosphorus, nitr~gen are
cup like i.e. apothecial in nature. absorbed. Fungi also provide growth promoting and
7. The apothecia bear asci and ascospores and are antimicrobial substances. InPinus (Fig. 42) mycorrhizae
dark coloured. arc of three types i.e. coralloid, tuberous and nodulated.
8. Foliose lichens are usually terricolous (found The dichotomously divided roots are called coralloid.
growing on trees) in the hilly regions. Tuberous and nodulated mycorrhizal roots remain
stumpy. Orchids which are found as epiphytes often
bear mycorrhizal roots. Mycorrhizal roots are said to
be essential for the survival of certain orchids.
YOUNG
. :: MYCORRHiZAl·
ROOT
NORMAL
ROOT
Fig. 42. Pinus A. Young normal root bearing mycorrhizae:

Fig. 41. Forms of lichens, A. Crustose (Graphis sp.): B. Coralloid type of mycorrhizal root; C. Part of normal
B. Foliose (Parmelia); C. Fruiticose (Usnea). root bearing tuberous mycorrhizae.
ADDITIONAL USEFUL INFORMATIONS ABOUT KINGDOM SYSTEMSFOR

COMPETITNE EXAMINATIONS
--
• According to Binomial nomenclature, every organism must have a scientific name in latin or laiinised.
• In case of two or more names are given, the oldest i.e. the name given first is recognised as valid name and all other names are
called synonyms.
• Linnaeus thought species to be static, constant, fixed and immutable. But Lamarck and Dartoin rejected the static concept and
gave the view that species is dynamic.
• Higher the category, higher the number of organisms in it. Higher the category,fewer will be number of common characters.
• Term antibiotic was used by Waksmatl-the discovererof streptomycin.
• Biologicalclassification is not rigid and is subject to modification as more and more is learnt about organisms.
• Phylogenetic classification reflects the eooluiionanj relationshipsof organisms. The organisms related eoolutionanj are usually
similar morphologicallyalso.
• Euglena is considered to be connecting link between prokarfotes and eukarfoies.
• The terms prokaruoiesand eukaryotes were coined In; Fott.
• S. Prusnier was awarded nobel prize in 1997 for his contribution to infectious agents called Priona which are made up of
proteins without any nucleic acids.
• Numerical taxonomy is sameas phenetic taxonomy. A family tree basedon numerical ojpheneiic taxonomy is called dendrogram.
• Phylogeny was introduced by Homock but concept was established In; Haeckel.
ANGIOSPERMS AND CLASSIFICATION UPTO CLASS:

They are flowering plants. They dominate vegetation of earth because of the following characters.
(a) Seeds are always enclosed inside the fruit.
(b) Very well developed vascular tissue is present where xylem vessels and phloem with companion cells
are present.
(c) Flowers are the organs of sexual reproduction. These flowers show essential and non-essential parts.
Calyx and corolla are non-essential whorls whereas androecium and gynoecium are essential whorls.
(d) Androecium is made up of stamens. Anthers of stamens produce pollen grains ( microspores) which
further develop into male gametophyte and male gametes.
(e) Gynoecium is made up of carpels. Inside the ovary female gametophyte- 7 celled, 8 nucleated structure-
embryo sac develops. Here egg apparatus is present which contains female gamete i.e. egg. Archegonia are absent.
(f) Pollination occurs by wind, water, insects or animals.
(g) Male gametes are nonmotile in angiosperms and they are carried to the egg female gamete - by pollen tube.
(h) Double fertilization is the characteristic feature of angiosperms. In this process, both the male gametes
take part in fertilization. One male gamete fuses with egg to form zygote. The other fuses with secondary
nucleus forming primary endosperm nucleus. This primary endosperm nucleus further divides and redivides
to form triploid endosperm. Thus endosperm formation is post fertilization event. This endosperm nourishes
the developing embryo.
(i) After fertilization, ovary changes into fruit and ovules change into seeds. Zygote develops into an embryo.
The embryo gets nourishments either from endosperm or from cotyledons.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS
Angiosperms are further divided into two classes :
(i) Dicotyledonae (ii) Monocotyledonae
(i) Dicotyledons: (Dicots) are characterized by
(a) Presence of 2 cotyledons in embryo.
(b) Tap root system
(c) Branched stern with vascular bundles arranged in a ring.
(d) Leaves with reticulate venation.
(e) Flowers show tetra or pentamerous symmetry e.g. Sunflower, Hibiscus, Cotton, Carrot etc.
(ii) Monocotyledons : It is characterized by presence of
(a) Single cotyledon in an embryo.
(b) Adventitious or fibrous root system.
(c) Unbranched stern with scattered vascular bundles.
(d) Leaves with parallel venation
(e) Flowers show trimerous symmetry. e.g. Maize, [owar, Onion, Garlic, Sugarcane etc.
-- ANGIOSPERMIC PLANT "
,OW\
CARPIEL STii:E~THER
(WITH 4 MICROSPORANGIA)
OVULE l
EMBRYO (MEGASPORANGIUM) ...
MICROSPOROGENOUS
SPOROPHYTE
",)
1
NU1LLUS
lTISSUE
MEGASPORE MICROSPORE
j. .
ZYGOTE MOTHER CELL MOTHER CELL
(~~~t~~)
-
SYNGAMY
- REDUCJION DIVISION
(MEIOSIS)
(FERTILIZATION) GAMETOPHYTE )
(n) MEGASPORE
9 GAMETE
OOSPHERE)
.
9 GAMETOPHYTE
I MICROSPORE
(P9
LLEN)
..... (E~BRYO SAC) ~
.Jf GAMETE .Jf GAMETOPHYTE

O(SPER~
Fig. 43. Graphical life cycle of an angiospermic plant.

Table 11. Some distinguishing characters of Dicots and Monocots.
Plant organ Dieots Monoeots

Root Tap, Adventitious or both Only adventitious
Stem Vascular bundles arranged in ring with central pith Vascular bundles scattered (atactostele)
(dictyostele)
Leaves Mostly with reticulum (network) Usually parallel veined
Cotyledons Two One
Floral parts Five or multiple of 5, rarely 4 Three or multiple of 3, rarely 4, never5
PARALLELVEINED
ATACOSTELE
IN THREES
FLOWERPARTSAND
SEED CHAMBERS
IN FRUIT
Fig. 44. Some of the differences between dicots and monocots.

BIOLOGICAL
II
1.
2.
CLASSIFICATION
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Write any three drawbacks of kingdom protista.
How lytic cycle deffers from lysogenic cycle?
--
3. What are viroids ?
4. Name the kingdom of multicellular consumers.
5. Name the kingdom of prokaryotes,
6. Name the (i) Smallest animal virus; (ii) Largest animal virus; (iii) Smallest plant virus; (iv) Largest plant virus.
II ANSWERS TO PRACTICE PROBLEMS !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!~-
1. (i) Dinoflagellates bear a different type of nuclear matter which lacks histone. In this case, spindle apparatus is not
formed during cell division.
(ii) It is difficult to find differences between protistan algae and algae of kingdom plantae.
(iii) Protistans appear to be polyphyletic.
2. Lytic cycle is virulent form of life cycle. Lysogenic cycle is non-virulent or temperate form of life cycle. In lytic cycle,
viral genome does not produce a repressor. A repressor is formed to check the destruction of host DNA in lysogenic
cycle. DNA of host cell is hydrolysed in lytic cycle. DNA of host cell is not harmed in lysogenic cycle.
3. Viroids are smaller than viruses. They lack protein coat. They are RNA particles with low molecular weight and para-
sitize only plants.
4. Animalia.
5. Monera
6. (i) Smallest animal virus: Foot and mouth virus;
(ii) Largest animal virus: Pox virus;
(iii) Smallest plant virus : Tobacco mosaic satellite virus, Alfalfa mosaic virus
(iv) Largest plant virus: Citrus tristeza virus.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
• R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed five kingdom classification.
• Bacteria are sole members of Kingdom Monera.
• Archaebacteria are found in most harsh habitats.
• Cyanobacteria (blue green algae) are photosynthetic autotrophs. Some of these can fix atmospheric nitrogen in
heterocysts.
• Mycoplasma completely lack cell wall and can survive without oxygen.
• All single celled eukaryotes are placed in Kingdom Protista.
• Chrysophytes include diatoms and golden algae (desmids).
• Dinoflagellates are mostly marine and photosynthetic.
• Majority of Euglenoids are fresh water organisms found in stagnant water.
• Slime moulds are saprophytic protists.
• All Protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.
• With the exception of yeast which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous.
• Mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic in members of phycomycetes.
• Members of ascomycetes are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous.
• Common forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.
• Deuteromycetes are also known as imperfect fungi because only vegetative or asexual phase occur in them.
• Kingdom plantae has two distinct phases-The diploid saprophytic and haploid gametophyte.
• Kingdom animalia is characterized by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and their cells
lack cell walls.
• Viroids were discovered by Diener (1971) which are smaller than viruses.
• Lichens show symbiotic association.
-- Adaptive radiation
KEY TERMS
The process of evolution from a single ancestral species of a variety of forms

which occupy somewhat different habitats.
Ancestor One from which an organism has descended.
Bacteriophage Viruses which parasitize bacteria.
Decomposer An organism that feeds upon dead organisms breaking them down into simpler
substances.
Eukaryote An organism whose genetic material (DNA) is enclosed by membranes (the
nuclear membrane) to form a nucleus.
Fermentation It is a form of anaerobic respiration and is seen in certain bacteria and in yeasts.
The incompletely oxidized products of alcoholic iermentation-ethanol and
carbon dioxide are important in brewing and baking industry.
Fungi A diverse group of mainly terrestrial organisms separated from other plants by
their lack of chlorophyll. They are generally saprophytic or parasites.
Lichens A group of composite plants and lichens which are symbiotic associations between
a green or blue-green alga and a fungus.
Metazoa A kingdom of multicellular animals whose bodies are composed of specialised
cells grouped together to form tissues and that possess a coordinating nervous
system.
Micrometer Symbol J..LIll, a unit of length equal to 10-6metre (one millionth of a metre).
Nucleoid The region of a bacterium or blue-green alga containing DNA and not enclosed
by membranes.
Palaeontology It deals with the finding, cataloguing and interpreting the abundant and direct
evidence of life in ancient times.
Phylogeny The evolutionary history of any group of organisms is termed its phylogeny.
Producers The first trophic level in a food chain. Producers are those organisms that can
build up foods from inorganic materials i.e. green plants.
Protista A kingdom of unicellular eukaryotes.
Species One population of organisms, all the members of which are able to breed amongst
themselves.
Taxonomy It deals with identification, nomenclature and classification of different types of
organisms.
NCERT FILE
Exercise Questions It
1. Discuss how classification systems have undergone (iv) Copeland gave Four Kingdom System of
several changes over a period of time? classification called Monera, Protista, Metaphyta
Ans, Since dawn of civilisation, there have been many and Metazoa.
attempts to classify the living organisms. (v) Five Kingdom System of classification was given
(i) Aristotle was the earliest to attempt to give a by K. H. Whittaker (1969).The five kingdoms are:
classification with scientific basis. Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia
(For details consult chapter-2).
(ii) Linnaeus classified all living organisms into
two large kingdoms : (a) Kingdom Plantae; Whittaker has not described viruses and lichens.
(b) Kingdom Animalia. This system did Stanley discussed virus, viroids etc.
not distinguish between the eukaryotes and 2. State two economically important uses of :
prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular (a) Heterotrophic bacteria
organisms and photosynthetic (green algae) and
(b) Archaebacteria
non-photosynthetic (fungi) organisms.
Ans, (a) Heterotrophic bacteria: (i) They are helpful in
(iii) Haeckel (1866) identified a Kingdom Protista.
making curd from milk; (ii) They are also useful
in production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in

legume roots.
(b) Archaebacteria: (i) Methanogens are present
in the guts of several ruminant animals like
absorption of digested material. --
According to mode of nutrition, fungi are of two
types:
(a) Parasites. Such fungi are found in intimate
cows and buffaloes and they are responsible association with another living organism from
for the production of methane (biogas) from which they derive food for their survival.
dung of such animals; (ii) Due to different cell (b) Saprophytes. Such fungi obtain their food from
wall structure than bacteria, they are able to non-living decaying organic matter.
tolerate extreme conditions.
(ii) Mode of reproduction:
3. What is the nature of cell walls in diatoms?
S.No. Zygomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes
Ans. The walls are embedded with silica and are
indestructible. Diatoms have left behind large 1. Asexual reprodu- Asexual repr od- Asexual reprodu-
amount of cell wall deposits in their habitat and ction by sporan- uction by conidia. ction by fragme-
this accumulation over billions of years is called gia. ntation.
diatomaceous earth. 2. Sexual reproduc- Sexual reproduction Sexual reprodu-
tion by zygosp- by asci. ction by basidia.
4. Find out what do the terms algal bloom and red ores.
tide signify?
10. What are the characteristic features of Euglenoids ?
Ans. Algal bloom. High quantity ofnitrates and phosphates
in water bodies due to surface run off leads to Ans. Refer chapter-2.
blooming of agae. 11. Give a brief account of viruses with respect to their
Red tide. Some dinoflagellates like Gonyaulax when structure and nature of genetic material. Also name
present in high quantity in sea imparts red colour four common viral diseases.
to water and are called red tide. However due to Ans. For account of viruses, refer chapter-2.
algal blooms and red tide animal life declines due Conunon viral diseases. (i) Influenza; (ii) Chicken
to toxins and deficiency of oxygen inside water. pox; (iii) Rabies; (iv) AIDS.
5. How are viroids different from viruses? 12. Organise a discussion in your class on the topic
Ans. Viroids Viruses "Are viruses living or non-living?"
~--~----~~~~------~~~~
Viroids are smallest Viruses are smaller, host Ans. Arrange the discussion with the help of your teacher
(smaller than viruses) specific particles made and keep in mind following characters :
self replicating RNA up of nucleoid (RNA Viruses are enigmatic biological entities. They possess
particles and do not bear of DNA) and capsid characters of non-living but show some properties
protein coat. (protein coat). of living.
Inanimate (non-living) characters
6. Describe briefly four major groups of Protozoa.
1. Viruses show property of crystallization. TMV
Ans. Refer table 4 of Chapter-2. and many other plant, animal and bacterial
7. Plants are autotrophic. Can you think of some viruses have been crystallized.
plants that are partially heterotrophic? 2. Viruses show sedimentation properties.
Ans. Plants include chlorophyll containing autotrophic 3. They can be separated into their components
organisms. Some insectivorous and parasitic plants by treating with detergents.
are partially heterotrophic.
4. They do not show their own activity but are
Partially heterotrophic insectivorous plants : dependent upon livingcellsfortheirown existence.
Bladderwort and Venus Fly Trap.
5. They lack energy producing enzyme systems
Parasitic heterotrophic plant: Cuscuta. like respiration.
8. What do the terms phycobiont and mycobiont 6. Viruses lack cellular organization.
signify? 7. They have only one type of nucleic acid (DNA
Ans. Phycobiont. The algal component of a lichen is called or RNA), while living organisms possess both.
phycobiont. 8. Viruses lack growth and cell division for their
Mycobiont. The fungal component of a lichen is multiplication.
called mycobiont. Animate (living) properties
Algae and fungi live in association with one another
1. They show the capacity to multiply in number
and show symbiosis.
within the living cells of the organisms.
9. Give a comparative account of classes of kingdom
2. Viruses show host specific intracellular
fungi under the following:
parasitism, the property associated with living
(i) Mode of nutrition (ii) Mode of reproduction organisms only.
Ans. (i) Mode of nutrition. Fungi lack chlorophyll and 3. They can undergo mutations to give rise to new
thus do not show the process of photosynthesis. variants.
They exhibit heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
4. They are infectious and can be transmitted from
They obtain their nutrition from external
source by process of extracellular digestion and one host to another.
-- 5.
6.
They are sensitive to temperature, chemicals and
radiations.
They possess antigenic properties.
So, on the basis of their inanimate characters, the
viruses cannot be considered as organisms. They are
acellular or non-cellular, but again it is difficult to
ignore their living properties and cannot be considered
7. Viruses have the capacity to bring about as inert chemicals. For this reason, Lwoff, a French
enzymatic changes in vitro. scientist, said, "A virus is a virus". It is neither an
organism nor a non-living inert chemical.
NCERT Exemplar Problems I~

A. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. All eukaryotic unicellular organisms belong to : (c) Lichens (d) BGA
(a) Monera (b) Protista 9. Difference between Virus and Viroid is :
(c) Fungi (d) Bacteria (a) Absence of protein coat in viroid but present in
2. The five kingdom classification was proposed by : virus
(a) R.H. Whittaker (b) C. Linnaeus (b) Presence of low molecular weight RNA in virus
(c) A. Roxberg (d) Virchow but absent in viroid
3. Organisms living in salty areas are called as : (c) Both a and b
(a) Methanogens (b) Halophiles (d) None of the above
(c) Heliophytes (d) Thermoacidophiles 10. With respect to fungal sexual cycle, choose the correct
4. Naked cytoplasm, multinucleated and saprophytic are sequence of events:
the characteristics of : (a) Karyogamy, Plasmogamy and Meiosis
(a) Monera (b) Protista (b) Meiosis, Plasmogamy and Karyogamy
(c) Fungi (d) Slime molds (c) Plasmogamy, Karyogamy and Meiosis
5. An association between roots of higher plants and (d) Meiosis, Karyogamy and Plasmogamy
fungi is called : 11. Viruses are non-cellular organisms but replicate
(a) Lichen (b) Fern themselves once they infect the host cell. To which of
the following kingdom do viruses belong to?
(c) Mycorrhiza (d) BGA
(A) Monera
6. A dikaryon is formed when:
(b) Protista
(a) Meiosis is arrested
(c) Fungi
(b) The two haploid cells do not fuse immediately
(d) None of the above
(c) Cytoplasm does not fuse
12. Members of phycomycetes are found in :
(d) None of the above
(i) Aquatic habitats
7. Contagium vivum fluidum was proposed by :
(ii) On decaying wood
(a) D.J. Ivanowsky
(iii) Moist and damp places
(b) M.W. Beijerinek
(iv) As obligate parasites on plants
(c) Stanley
Choose from the following options
(d) Robert Hook
(a) None of the above (b) (i) and (iv)
8. Mycobiont and Phycobiont are found in :
(c) (ii) and (iii) (d) All of the above
(a) Mycorrhiza (b) Root
ANSWERS
1. (b); 2. (a); 3. (b); 4. (d); 5. (c); 6. (b); 7. (b); 8. (c); 9. (a); 10. (c);
11. (d); 12. (d)
B. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What is the principal underlying the use of 2. Suppose you accidentally find an old preserved
Cyanobacteria in agricultural fields for crop permanent slide without a label. In your effort to
improvement? identify it, you place the slide microscope and observe
Ans. Some cyanobacteria like Nostoc, Anabaena can fix the the following features:
nitrogen due to presence of heterocysts. (a) Unicellular
(b) Well defined nucleus

(c) Biflagellate-one flagellum lying longitudinally
and other transversely
be called as autotrophs.
6. The common name of pea is simpler than its botanical
(scientific) name Pisum satiuum. Why then is simple
--
able to utilise energy. Thus chemosynthetic bacteria can
What would you identify it as? Can you name the

kingdom it belongs to? common name not used instead of the complex
scientific/ botanical name in biology?
Ans. (i) Dinoflagellate (ii) Kingdom Protista.
Ans. Refer 'Disadvantages of common name (vernacular
3. How is five-kingdom classification advantageous
name) from Birnomial nomenclature of this chapter.
over the two kingdom classification?
7. A viruses is considered as a living organism and an
Ans. Five kingdom system is more advantageous due to
obligate parasite when inside a host cell. But virus is
following reasons:
not classified alongwith bacteria or fungi. What are the
(i) Based on complexity of cell structure (prokaryote characters of virus that are similar to non-living objects?
or eukaryote)
Ans. Non-living characters of virus:
(ii) Body structure (unicellular or multicellular)
(i) Outside the host viruses are inert and cannot
(iii) Life style reproduce at their own.
4. Polluted water bodies have usually very high (ii) Viruses can be crystallised.lack cellular organisation.
abundance of plants like Nostoc and Oscillatoria.
Give reasons. (iii) They are incapable of growth and division.
7. In the five kingdom system of Whittaker, how many
Ans. It is to due to nutrient enrichment in polluted water
kingdoms are eukaryotes?
bodies (deposition of phosphate containing detergents).
It increases the growth of some algae. Ans. Out of total five kingdoms, following four kingdoms
are eukaryotes.
5. Are chemosynthetic bacteria autotrophic or
heterotrophic? (i) Protista (ii) Fungi
Ans. Chemosynthetic bacteria can oxidise inorganic (iii) Plantae and (iv) Anirnalia
substances like ammonia, nitrites and nitrates thereby Kingdom Monera is prokaryotic.
c. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Diatoms are also called 'pearls of ocean'. Why? What as per the "Five Kingdom Classification" even though
is diatomaceous earth? the two are vastly different from each other. Is this
Ans. Diatoms are also called pearls of ocean due to: grouping of the two types of taxa in the same kingdom
justified? If so, why?
(i) They are siliceous, thus deposit silica in ocean after
their death. Ans. Both have been clubbed together due to:
(ii) They are autotrophic and major producers in ocean. (i) Do not possess well defined nucleus as nucleus lacks
nucleolus and nuclear membrane.
(iii) Diatomaceous earth with deposits of silica is
chemically inert, porous, absorbent and fireproof. (ii) DNA lies freely in cytoplasm.
2. There is a myth that immediately after heavy rains in (iii) Both bear 70S type of chromosmoses.
forest mushrooms appear in large number and make a 5. At a stage of their cycle, ascomycetes fungi produce
very large ring or circle, which may be several metres the fruiting bodies like apothecium, perithecium or
in diameter. These are called as 'fairy rings' Can you cleistothecium. How are these three types of fruiting
explain this myth of fairy rings in biological terms. bodies different from each other?
Ans. Circles appear due to underground mycelium of Ans. Apothecium, perithecium and cleistothecium differ
mushroom which appear centrifugally. From this in shape i.e. cup shaped; flask shaped and closed. For
mycelium fruiting bodies (basidiocarps) appear in rings. details refer 'Fungi' of 'Plant Kingdom' of chapter 3.
Gradually this mycelium widens and central mycelium 6. What observable features in Trypanosomawould make
perishes. Due to this diameter of the ring also increases you classify it under kingdom Protista?
every year.
Ans. Unicellular and eukaryotic, It reproduces by binary
3. Neurospora an ascomycetes fungus has been used as a fission details refer 'Zooflagellata' of Kingdom Protista'
biological tool to understand the mechanism of plant Fig. 12 Chapter-2.
genetics much in the same way as Drosophila has
7. Fungi are cosmopolitan, write the role of fungi in your
been used to study animal genetics. What makes
daily life.
Neurospora so important as a genetic tool?
Ans. Neurospora can be grown easily under laboratory Ans. Fungi are heterotrophic due to absence of chlorophyll.
conditions. Mutations can be induced easily.Ascospores They become either parasites or saprophytes.
formed by meiotic division can be observed and (i) Fungi like Agaricus, Morchella are nutritious and are
separated easily from ascus. Each ascospore can be used as food.
grown further on suitable culture medium. (iii) Yeasts are used for fermentation.
4. Cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria have been (iv) Fungus Pythum (Root rot fungus) is killed by
clubbed together in Eubacteria of kingdom Monera Trichoderma (a soil inhabiting fungus).
-- D. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Algae are known to reproduce asexually by variety

3. Make a list of algae and fungi that have commercial

value as food, chemicals, medicine and fodder.
of spores under different environmental conditions.
Name these spores and the conditions under which Ans. Refer Ans, 7 of short Answer Type Questions and
they are produced. 'Economic importance of Algae' Chapter 3.
Ans. (i) Zoospores. Flagellated and produced under 4. Biological classification is a dynamic and ever
favourable conditions. evolving phenomenon which keeps changing
(ii) Aplanospores. Unicellular, non-motile and with our understanding of life forms. Justify the
thin walled spores and produced under less statement taking any two examples.
unfavourable conditions. Ans. Biological classification is undergoing changes. In
(iii) Hypnospores. Thick walled non-motile spores and the beginning, only few characters were picked
produced under high unfavourable conditions. up arbitrarily in artificial system of classification.
(iv) Akinetes. Thick walled vegetative cells produced in Gradually, more characters were used for classification.
filaments to tolerate the unfavourable conditions. Two kingdom system of classification was revised
Also refer' Algae' of 'Plant Kingdom' tables 3,4 and to three kingdom system of classification. In this
5 of Chapter 3. kingdom Protista was added. It was followed by
2. Apart from chlorophyll, algae have several other four kingdom system by Copeland (1955). Kingdom
pigments in their chloroplast. What pigments are monera was added in it. Five kingdom system of
found in blue-green, red and brown algae that are classification (Whittaker, 1963) came into force. Woese
responsible for their characteristic colours? has added another kingdom called Archaea. Also refer
Ans. Refer table 1 of chapter 3. 'text' of details.
Higher Order Thinking Skills &' . ..

HOTS__ Brain Twistinj;
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Very Short Answer Questions I One mark each I

1. In which Kingdom of five kingdom classification, nuclear membrane is not present?
Ans. Kingdom monera.
2. Name the kingdoms of three kingdom system classification.
Ans. Prostista, plantae and Animalia.
3. Who proposed the term Protista ?
Ans. Ernst Haeckel (1866).
4. Who gave the two kingdom system classification ?
Ans. Linnaeus (1758).
5. Which Methanogen is present in rumen of cattle?
Ans. Methanobacierium. ruminaiium.
6. Name the anticoagulant present in bacterial endospore.
Ans. Dipicolinic acid.
7. Which bacteria are responsible for diseases:
(i) Cholera (ii) Tetanus
Ans. (i) Cholera: Vib-riocholerae (ii) Tetanus : Clostridium ieiani.
8. What are auxospores ?
Ans. These are rejuvenile cells of diatoms which help in increasing their size to normal.
9. What is the alternative name of 'consumer decomposer protists' ?
Ans. Slime moulds.
10. Name tile grooves present in dinoflagellates.
Ans. Longitudinal sulcus and circular cingulum (girdle, annulus)
11. Define coenocytic mycelium.
Ans. Multinucleate and aseptate hyphae are coenocytic.
12. Write the name of an aquatic fungus.
Ans. Saprolegnia.
BIOLOGICAL
1.
CLASSIFICATION
Short Answer Questions

What is ascocarp?
ITwo marks each. I --
AIlS. Ascocarp is a fructification which form ascospores in asci in members of ascomycetes of fungi.
2. What is puffball?
AIlS. It is an edible fungus bearing ball like basidiocarp which on maturity emits puff of spores e.g. Lycoperdon.
3. What is soredium?
AIlS. Soredium is a propagule in lichens in which few algal cells are held together by a weft of fungal cells.
4. Name the fungus on rolling orange as green blue mould.
Ans. Penicillium digiiaium, P. iialicum.
5. What do you understand by terms lignocolous and corticolous?
Ans. Lignocolous: Growing on wood;
Corticolous: Growing on bark.
6. What is basidiocarp?
Ans. It is fructification of basidiomycetes, it bears basidiospores exogenously on basidia.
7. What is sclerotium?
Ans. Sclerotium is compact hyphal mass surrounded by thick covering which is meant for overcoming unfavourable
conditions.
8. Define myxamoeba.
Ans. Itis Amoeba like naked uninucleate cellof slime mould which can undergo independent feeding, growth and multiplication.
9. What is bioluminescence?
Ans. It is the emission of light by living beings e.g. Peridinium.
10. What do you understand by isochronic movement of cilia?
Ans. In this case, all cilia beat simultaneously.
Short Answer Questions IThree marks eachl
1. Who proposed the five kingdom system of classification. Write the name of five kingdoms.
2. Write the characteristics of archaebacteria? How do these obtain food? How they are able to tolerate conditions like
acidity and high temperature?
3. Why the members of class Deuteromycetes are considered the fungi imperfecti?
4. Discuss the living features of viruses.
5. Differentiate between ascocarp and basidiocarp.
Long Answer Questions I Five marks each. I

1. Give an outline of five kingdom system of classification.
2. Write the general characteristics of dinoflagellates.
3. Whicll of the organisms are called 'jewels of plant world'? Elaborate your answer.
4. Differentiate between monera and protista.
&~~O~
;etell¢"o.;.o
8' - ~... QUICK MEMORY TEST \\\\
\I
A. Say True or False

Write "True" or "False",
1. Charaka was the first to make a serious attempt to classify living things.
2. Prokaryotes are organisms without a nucleus.
3. Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe bacteria.
4. Actinomycetes belong to Monera.
-- 5. All autotrophs are Monerans.
6. In geological history complex organisms come after the simpler ones.
B. Complete the missing links

Fill the following sentences with suitable words:

1. ..........egg is the largest eukaryotic cell.
2. Whittaker's five kingdoms are Monera, r Fungi, Plantae and .
3. Prokaryotes are without definite .
4. Yeastsare celled.
5. Nepenthes is an plant.
6. The organisms which cannot manufacture their food due to absence of chlorophyll are called .
7. Chlamydomonas is an unicellular green .
8. Plants possess chlorophyll, hence are .
9. Plants and animals both avoid .
C. Choose the correct alternative

1. Cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan in monera/protista,
2. Heterocysts are present in bacteria/cyanobacteria.
3. Puccinia grarninis triiici causes black stem rust of wheatfloose smut of wheat.
4. Lichens growing on soil, are called as saxicolous/terricolous.
5. BasidiomycetesjDeuteromycetes grow only by asexual spores.
D. Suitable words
Note the relationship between first two words and suggest a suitable word for the fourth place:
1. Bacteria: Prokaryote :: Paramecium : .
2. Algae: Autotrophic :: Fungi: .
3. Multicellular producers: Plants :: Multicellular decomposers: .
4. Bacteria: Nucleoid :: Yeast: .
E. Analogy Type Questions
Give the technical terms used for the following:
1. Remains of an organism of a former geological age.
2. Scienceof classificationof organisms.
3. Evolutionary history of a group of organisms.
4. Organisms which synthesize their own food using chemical energy.
F. Reasoning Type Questions

Give reasons for the following statements:
1. Plants are large organisms.
2. Bacteriaand blue-green algae are prokaryotes.
3. Fungi are heterotrophic.
4. Lichens are symbiotic.
5. Plants are producers.
QUICK MEMORY TEST \\\\

A. Say True or False
1. False; 2. True; 3. True; 4. False; 5. True; 6. True.
B. Complete the missing links --

1. Ostrich's 2. Protista, Animalia 3. nucleus 4. one 5. insectivorous 6. heterotrophs 7. alga 8. autotrophic 9. predators.
C. Choose the correct alternative

1. Monera; 2. Cyanobacteria; 3. Black stem rust of wheat; 4. Terricolous; 5. Deuteromycetes
D. Suitable words
1. Eukaryote; 2. Heterotrophic; 3. Fungi; 4. Nucleus.
E. Analogy Type Questions

1. Fossil; 2. Taxonomy; 3. Phylogeny; 4. Autotrophs.
F. Reasoning Type Questions

1. Due to presence of meristems, growth is unlimited throughout the life.
2. Bacteria and blue green lack well organised nucleus.
3. Fungi lack chlorophyll thus they are either parasite or saprophyte.
4. Algal partner of lichen provides food to fungal partner and fungal partner protects the algal member.
5. Plants show the process of photosynthesis
Very Short Answer Questions lOne mark each I
1. Who introduced the term species?

2. Who observed bacteria for the first time?
3. Name the rain forest in India, which was recently saved from destruction.
4. In a traditional system followed so far, in how many kingdoms the living world was grouped?
5. Who made the earliest attempt to classify living beings?
6. Who wrote the books 'Species Plantarum' and 'Systema Naturae'?
7. What is progenote?
8. Who coined the term bacteria?
9. What is monera?
10. What are halophiles?
11. Which bacterium yields tetracycline?
12. What is denitrification?
13. Name a bacterium which yields insecticide.
14. What is transduction?
15. Expand PSP.
16. Name a colourless dinoflagellate.
17. Name the three groups of protistan algae.
18. Which type of organisms are included in Kingdom Protista.
19. Why the cyst is formed?
20. Which vector spreads kala-azar?
21. Name the vector of trypanosomiasis.
22. What is backpackers disease?
23. What is diatomite?
24. Which fungus was used to kill Roman Emperor Caesar?
25. Name the symbiotic associations in which fungi are participants.
26. Name a fungus which is found both in unicellular and mycelial states.
27. Define dolipore septum.
--
28. Which fungus causes early blight of potato?
29. Name the causal organism of black stem rust of wheat.
30. What is morel?
ANSWERS _
1. John Ray 2. Leeuwenhoek 3. Rain forests in Silent Valley of Kerala 4. Two-plants and animals 5. Aristotle
6. Carolus Linnaeus; 7. It is the early form of living beings from which all primitive and ancient organisms evolved;
8. Ehrenberg (1828);9. Monera is the kingdom of all prokaryotes; 10. Halophiles are archaebacteria that are found in habitats of
high salinity and strong light intensity; 11. Streptomyces aureofaciens12. Denitrification converts soil nitrate into gaseous nitrogen;
13. Bacillus thuringiensis, 14. Transduction is the transfer of genes from one bacterium to another through agency of virus;
15. Paralytic Shell Fish Poisoning; 16. Nociiluca; 17. Dinoflagellates, diatoms and euglenoids; 18. Unicellular and colonial
eukaryotes; 19. To tide over the unfavourable conditions; 20. Blood sucking sand fly (Phlebotomus); 21. Tsetse fly (Glossina
palpalis) 22. Giardiasis 23. Diatomite represents the deposits of silica skeletons of diatoms; 24. Amanita caesaria;25.Mycorrhiza,
lichens; 26. Candida albicans; 27. In dolipore septum is one inwhich septum becomes barrel shaped around the central
pore, it is the fusion of two sexual cells without the fusion of their nuclei; 28. Alternaria solani; 29. Puccinia graminis tritici;
30. Morel is a fungus having a edible ascocarp of genus Morchella.
Short Answer Questions I Two marks each I

1. Give names of 5 kingdoms proposed by Whittaker.
2. What are producers?
3. Into how many kingdoms, systematics has been divided from time to time?
4. What are lichens and mycorrhiza?
5. What are bacteriophages?
6. Write the names of kingdoms that include unicellular organisms and which comprise multicellular heterotrophic organisms.
7. What is progenote?
8. Highlight the criteria used for five kingdom system of classification.
9. What are chemoautotrophs?
10. What is transformation of bacteria?
11. What is lamellosome?
12. Which types of flagella are found in dinoflagellates?
13. What are the symptoms of amoeboid dysentery?
14. What are trichocysts?
15. What are sarcodines?
16. Define capillitium?
17. What is rhizomorph?
18. Define heterothallism?
19. Why some fungi are placed in fungi imperfecti?
20. What do you understand by holocarpic and eucarpic fungi?
1. Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

2. Organisms which form food are called producers.
3. In two 2, 3, 4 and 4 kingdoms.
4. Lichen is the dual composite organism made up of one algal and another fungal partner.
Association of fungi and roots of higher plants is called mycorrhiza.
5. Virus which attack bacteria are called bacteriophages.
6. Unicellular organisms have been kept in Monera and Protista. Multicellular heterotroph organisms are kept under Fungi
and Animalia.
7. It includes most primitive forms of life which appeared from an early stock known as progenote.
8. (i) Complexity of cell structure; (ii) Complexity of organism's body; (iii) Mode of obtaining nutrition.
9. Chemoautotrophs are bacteria which form organic matter from inorganic raw materials with the help of energy got from
exergonic reactions.
--
10. Transformation isthe change in genetic constitution due to picking up of genes of dead and integrating the same in their nudeoids,
11. It is the membranous in growth of plasma membrane observed in cyanobacteria.
12. One narrow flagellum bearing mastigonemes and second flattened ribbon like but smooth in girdle or cingulum showing
heterokont type of flagellation.
13. Acidic stools with blood mucus, membrane pieces and white charcot Leyden crystals. Abdominal pain.
14. Trichocysts are ejective in nature which are discharged on stimulation to form long thread for the tasks of offence, defence
and adhesion.
15. Sarcodines are amoeboid protozoans which show pseudopodia for locomotion and feeding.
16. Capillitium represents the branching system of thread like structure formed inside the sporangium of acellular slime mould
at the time of spore formation.
17. Rhizomorph is a compact structure, which is subterranean and cord like. It is a hyphal mass bearing a growing point for
perennation.
18. It is the phenomenon of sexual reproduction in which fusing gametes are genetically different.
19. Due to absence of sexual reproduction.
20. Holocarpic fungi: Inthis vegetative structure is transformed into reproductive structure.
Eucarpic fungi: In this case, reproductive phase is distinct from vegetative phase.
Short Answer Questions I Three marks each I

1. What are the inadequacies of two kingdoms?
2. Write the identifying traits of Monera.
3. What are the distinguishing characters of kingdom fungi?
4. Discuss the drawbacks of two-kingdom system of classification.
5. Write briefly on (a) mode of life in Protista (b) nutrition in fungi,
6. Explain the distinguishing features of Animalia.
7. Describe the important characters of kingdom Plantae.
8. Compare the salient features of Monera with Protista.
9. Write salient features of viruses.
10. Draw well labelled diagrams of (a) Bacterial cell; (b) Euglena.
11. How ascomycetes are different from basidiomycetes?
12. Draw well labelled diagrams of : (a) Bacteriophage; (b) Nosioc; (c) TMV.
13. Discuss the locomotion of protists by different structures.
14. List the characteristics features of euglenoids.
15. Write the characteristics of archaebacteria.
16. What is mycorrhiza? How this association affects the organism.
17. Write any three differences between phycomycetes and ascomycetes.
18. What are the criteria used to classify fungi?
Long Answer Questions I Five marks each I

1. Make an outline of the five-kingdom classification. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this classification?
2. What kinds of organisms are grouped under Protista? Would you consider this kingdom a natural one?
3. Give an account of early work in taxonomy.
4. Discuss different systems of classification.
5. Compare salient features of Monera and Protista.
6. Compare different types of fruiting bodies in fungi.
-- 7. Discuss reproduction in fungi.
8. Differentiate briefly characteristics of kingdom Plantae and Animalia.
9. Discuss the major group of protozoa.
10. Discuss the structure of a typical bacteria cell.

11. Differentiate between ascocarp and basidiocarp.
12. Write a brief account of reproduction in fungi.
13. What are heterocysts? Where these structures are present? Which characteristics make it possible for nitrogen fixation?
14. Differentiate between monera and protista.
COMPETITION FILE OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONSg~~~
A. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs):
(From AIPMT & Other Competitive Examinations)

1. The prokaryotic cells are characterized by :
(a) The presence of distinct nuclear membrane (b) Absence of chromatic materials
(c) The presence of distinct chromosome (d) Absence of nuclear membrane (UP-CPMT 2009)
2. Cell wall of bacteria and blue green algae is composed of :
(a) Muramic acid (b) Chitin (c) Lipoprotein (d) Phospholipid
(UP-CPMT 2009)
3. Which one of the following is a symbiotic nitrogen fixer?
(a) Glomus (b) Azotobacter (c) Frankia (d) AzolZa (CBSE 2009)
4. These organisms are fungus like in one phase of their life cycle and Amoeba like in another phase of their life cycle:
(a) Diatoms (b) Slime molds (c) Dinoflagellates (d) Water molds
(AIIMS 2009)
5. In which of the following patterns of viral replication, viruses enter a cell, replicate and then cause the cell to burst,
releasing new viruses?
(a) Lytic (b) Lysogenic (c) Reprogenic (d) Both (a) and (b)
(AIIMS 2009)
6. Carolus Linnaeus is associated with :
(a) Inheritance of acquired characters (b) Binomial nomenclature
(c) Law of independent assortment (d) Law of limiting factors (AMU 2011)
7. Which of the following is not a correct hierarchial order?
(a) Class, family, genus (b) Phylum, order, family
(c) Class, order, family (d) Family, order, class (AMU 2011)
8. Inthe 5-Kingdom classification, the kingdom that includes the blue green algae, nitrogen fixing bacteria and methanogenic
archaebacteria is :
(a) Protista (b) Monera (c) Plantae (d) Fungi (AMU 2011)
9. The basic unit of classification is :
(a) Species (b) Genus (c) Family (d) Phylum (]&K 2011)
10. The term taxonomy is introduced by :
(a) De Candolle (b) Bentham and Hooker (c) Linnaeus (d) Huxley (]&K 2011)
11. The framework system of classification in which various taxonomic categories are arranged in order of logical sequence
is called:
(a) Systematics (b) Classification (c) Hierarchy (d) Taxon (]&K 2011)
12. Scientific study of diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships is called:
(a) Morphology (b) Anatomy (c) Taxonomy (d) Systematics (]&K 2011)
13. According to five kingdom classification bacteria belong to :

(a) Protista (b) Monera
14. A virus differs from bacterium, as it contains:
(c) Plantae (d) Archaea
--
(]&K 2011)
(a) A cell wall (b) Cytosol

(c) DNA as genetic material (d) DNA or RNA as genetic material with no ribosome
(]&K 2011)
15. Select the incorrect statements:
(A) Lower the taxon, more are the characteristics that the members within the taxon share.
(B) Order is the assemblage of genera which exhibit a few similar characters.
(C) Cat and dog are included in the same family Felidae.
(D) Binomial nomenclature was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus
(a) A, Band C (b) B, C and D (c) A and D
(d) C and D (e) B and C (Kerala 2011)
16. Black rot of crucifers is caused by a:
(a) Fungus (b) Bacterium (c) Virus (d) None of these (AMU 2012)
17. Pusa Komal variety of cow pea is resistant to disease:
(a) Hill bunt (b) White rust (c) Leaf curl (d) Bacterial blight (AMU 2012)
18. Due to which of the following organisms, yield of rice is increased?
(a) Sesbania (b) Bacillus popilliae (c) Anabaena (d) Bacillus subtilis (BHU 2012)
19. Which of the following kingdoms includes unicellular eukaryotes?
(a) Monera (b) Fungi (c) Protista (d) Plantae (BHU 2012)
20. How many organisms in the list given below are autotrophs?
Lactobacillus, Nostoc, Chara, Nitrosomonas, Niirobacter, Streptomyces, Saccharomuces,Trypanosoma, Porphura, Wolffia.
(a) Four (b) Five (c) Six (d) Three (AIPMT 2012)
21. Trichoderma is an example of which of the following?
(a) Phycomycetes (b) Zygomycetes (c) Deuteromycetes (d) Basidiomycetes (]&K 2012)
22. Lichen is an association between:
(a) Fungi and bryophyte (b) Fungi and algae
(c) Algae and pteridophyte (d) Algae and bacteria (]&K 2012)
23. Which class of fungi is called 'Fungi Imperfecti'?
(a) Ascomycetes (b) Deuteromycetes (c) Basidiomycetes (d) Zygomycetes (AFMC 2012)
24. Which of the following is a pioneer in xerarch succession?
(a) Phytoplanktons (b) Lichens (c) Bryophytes
(d) Rooted hydrophytes (e) Sedges (Kerala 2012)
25. Choose the wrong statements regarding bacterial cell:
(A) Glycocalyx is the outer most envelope in bacteria
(B) The glycocalyx could be a loose sheath called capsule
(C) The glycocalyx may be thick and tough called slime layer
(D) A special structure formed by the plasma membrane is called mesosome
(E) Small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell are called fimbriae
(a) A and C are wrong (b) A and B are wrong (c) B and C are wrong
(d) A and 0 are wrong (e) C and 0 are wrong tKerala 2012)
26. Match the following and choose the correct combination from the options given:
Column-I (Group) Column-Il (Example)
(A) Eubacteria 1. Trichoderma
(B) Dinoflagellates 2. Albugo
(C) Phycomycetes 3. Gonyaulax
(D) Deuteromycetes 4. Anabaena
(a) A-I; B-2; C-3; D-4 (b) A-2; B-3; C-4; D-l (c) A-4; B-3; C-2; D-l
(d) A-3; B-4; Col; D-2 (e) A-4; B-3; Col; D-2 (Kerala 2012)
27. Which of the following represent maximum number of species among global biodiversity?
(a) Lichens, (b) Fungi
(c) Mosses and ferns (d) Algae (NEET2013)
--
28. Which group of animals belong to the same phylum?
(a) Earthworm, Pinworm, Tapeworm
(c) Sponge, Sea anemone, Starfish
(b) Prawn, Scorpion, Locusta
MODERN'S abc
(d) Malarial parasite, Amoeba, Mosquito

+ OF BIOLOGY-XI
(NEET2013)
29. The motile asexual reproductive unit is called:
(a) Zoospore (b) Aplanospore (c) Zygospore (d) Microspore
(CHSE Cuttack 2013)
30. Select the wrong statement:
(a) Isogametes are similar in structure, function and behaviour
(b) Anisogametes differ either in structure, function or behaviour
(c) In Oomycetes female gamete is smaller and motile, while male gamete is larger and non-motile
(d) Chlamydomonas exhibits both isogamy and anisogamy and Fucus shows oogamy (CHSE Cuttack 2013)
31. Five kingdom system of classification suggested by R.H. Whittaker is not based on :
(a) Presence or absence of a well defined nucleus (b) Mode of reproduction
(c) Mode of nutrition (d) Complexity of body organisation (AIPMT 2014)
32. Archaebacteria differ from eubacteria in :
(a) Cell membrane structure (b) Mode of nutrition
(c) Cell shape (d) Mode of reproduction (AIPMT 2014)
33. The motile bacteria are able to move by :
(a) Fimbriae (b) Flagella (c) Cilia (d) Pili. (AIPMT 2014)
34. Viruses have:
(a) DNA enclosed in a protein coat (b) Prokaryotic nucleus
(c) Single chromosome (d) Both DNA and RNA. (AIPMT 2014)
35. Virus was first crystallised by:
(a) Beijerink (b) Stanley
(c) Ivanowsky (d) Leeuvenhoek (HPPMT 2012)
36. Correct the sequence of events in viral replication:
(i) Eclipse (ii) Maturation (iii) Adsorption (iv) Assembly
(v) Penetration (vi) Lysis
(a) i-e-ii+Iii+iv+v+vi
37. Which originated first:
(a) Prokaryotic cell (b) Eukaryotic cell
(c) Green algae (d) None of these (MPPMT 2013)
38. A virus can be considered living as it:
(a) Respires (b) Responds to touch
(c) Reproduces inside host (d) Can cause disease UKCET2013)
39. Which one has coiled RNA strand and capsomeres:
(a) Polio virus (b) Retro virus (c) Tabacco mosaic virus (d) Measles virus (CBSE 2014)
40. Choose the wrong statement:
(a) Morels and truffles are poisonous mushrooms.
(b) Yeast is unicellular and useful in fermentation.
(c) Penicillium is multicellular and produces antibiotics.
(d) Neurospora is used in the study of biochemical genetics. (AIPMT 2015)
41. Chitin is a/an:
(a) Amino acid (b) Polysaccharide
(c) Protein (d) Oligosaccharide (Bihar CECE 2014)
42. It employs both intracellular and extracellular digestion:
(a) Hydra (b) Aurelia (c) Amoeba (d) Planaria (Bihar CECE 2015)
43. Which part of the cell contains N-acetyl glucosamine?
(a) Cell envelope (b) Cell wall (c) Nucleus (d) Ribosomes (BiharCECE2015)
44. Which one is a holophytic protazoa?
(a) Euglena (b) Amoeba
(c) Monocystis (d) Giardi.a (Bihar CECE 2015)

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THE LIVING WORLD

E. ADDITIONAL MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:

What characteristics of living organisms does this demonstrate?

(b) Phylum, division, family, class

(a) Species (b) Taxa (c) Order (d) Family

Time Allowed: 1:30Hours Maximum Marks: 35

CHAPTER PRACTICE TEST 51 Fig. 1. Branching evolution.

Live in hot sulphur springs, ocean waters

Table 1. Characteristics of three domains of life.

Afive-kingdom system isproposed here,based both

on the following three criteria :

on levels of organization and on types of organization 3. Mode of obtaining nutrition.

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1676) discovered the

. ." '... CELL MEMBRANE

KINGDOM PROTISTA IMPORTANT GROUPS OF PROTISTA

(Unicellular Eukaryotes) 1. Chrysophytes (diatoms and golden algae­

S.No Characters Bacteria Blue green algae

Hydrogen donor During photosynthesis, hydrogen donor

GLENODINIUM PERIDINIUM GYMNODINIUM

8. Some euglenoids are green and holophytic

(photoautotrophic) like other plants. Few are non-green

Fig. 17. Entamoeba histolytica (causes amoebic dysentery).

Fig. 15. Trichomonas vaginalis (cause of leucorrhoea).

2. Locomotion. The organelles of locomotion are

Table 4. Differences between four groups of Protistan Protozoans.

Table 6. Comparison between Plasmodium and Pseudoplasmodium.

Table 7. Differences between Flagella and Cilia.

ADDITIONAL USEFUL INFORMATIONS ABOUT PROTISTAN PROTOZOA

<ii"" Amoeba proteus:

Exiernallu coueredIn) plasma-membrane and rLO pellicle.

KINGDOM FUNGI (g) Gradual and progressive reduction of sexuality

(Lower fungi) (Higher fungi)

FUNGUS CLASSIFICATION 3. Asexual reproduction takes place by motile

SPORANGIUM HYPHAL WALL

Fig. 26.Penicillium showing mycelium with conidiophores,

MEfSI:. •••• ~O,\ (RA~~COGONIUM ANTHERIDIUM

6. Few basidiomycetes produce hallucinogenic 3. Principal mode of nutrition is photosynthesis but

1. The distinction of the unicellular virus, the

Fig. 32. Relative sizes and shapes of some viruses and

II PRACTICE PROBLEMS-KINGDOM SYSTEMS ~!!!!!!!'!!!~=~

1. Name the criteria used by RH. Whittaker for five-kingdoms of life.

II ANSWERS TO PRACTICE PROBLEMS ~~~~-~-"-"

Its scientific name is Phago uirus secundus. It is a

Fig. 34. TMv. A. Surface view; B. Structure in detail;

The head and the tail arejoined to eachother through

lysozyme present at the tip of the tail making a hole,

.~...... EMPTY PROTEIN COAT

Fig. 39. Lysogenic cycle of A bacteriophage.

MYCOPLASMA S. Rice yellow dwarf

2. Can be seen only under electron microscope.

LICHENS C. Fruiticose Lichen (Fig. 41)

Fig. 42. Pinus A. Young normal root bearing mycorrhizae:

ADDITIONAL USEFUL INFORMATIONS ABOUT KINGDOM SYSTEMSFOR

ANGIOSPERMS AND CLASSIFICATION UPTO CLASS:

.Jf GAMETE .Jf GAMETOPHYTE

Fig. 43. Graphical life cycle of an angiospermic plant.

Plant organ Dieots Monoeots

Fig. 44. Some of the differences between dicots and monocots.

II ANSWERS TO PRACTICE PROBLEMS !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!~-

The process of evolution from a single ancestral species of a variety of forms

in production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in

NCERT Exemplar Problems I~

B. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

(b) Well defined nucleus

(Unicellular Eukaryotes) 1. Chrysophytes (diatoms and golden algae