ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• Two body systems are responsible for sending and
receiving sensory information and coordinating body
responses. These are the nervous system and the
endocrine system. Together, they are sometimes
referred to as the neuro-endocrine system.

• The endocrine system regulates body activities by

releasing hormones (chemical messengers) into the
bloodstream, where they are carried throughout the
entire body.

• Hormonal responses may be almost instantaneous

(Sudden), or may occur days later. There is a wide
variety of hormonal effects.
 HORMONE FUNCTIONS
• Regulate the chemical composition and volume
of the internal environment (extracellular fluid).

• Help regulate metabolism and energy balance.

• Help regulate contraction of smooth and cardiac

muscle fibers and secretion by glands.

• Help maintain homeostasis, despite disruptions,

such as infection, trauma, emotional stress,
dehydration, starvation, hemorrhage, and
temperature extremes.
• Regulate certain activities of the immune system.

• Play a role in the smooth, sequential integration of

growth and development.

• Contribute to the basic processes of reproduction,

including gamete production, fertilization, nourishment of
the embryo and fetus, delivery, and nourishment of the
newborn.
 EXOCRINE & ENDOCRINE
GLANDS
• The body contains two kinds of glands:
– Exocrine glands secrete their products into body
ducts, which carry the products into body cavities, the
lumen of an organ, or the outer surface of the body.
• Sudoriferous glands, sebaceous glands, mucous
glands, and digestive glands.

– Endocrine glands secrete their products

(hormones) into the extracellular space around the
secretory cells. The secretions diffuse into capillaries
and are carried throughout the body by the circulatory
system.
• The endocrine system is composed of the
body‟s endocrine glands. These include:
– The pituitary,
– thyroid,
– parathyroid,
– adrenal
– pineal glands
– Pancreatic islets.

• There are also many organs that have cells which secrete
hormones, but are not exclusively endocrine organs.
• These include:
– The hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes, kidneys,
stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart, and placenta.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 HORMONES

• Hormones are a chemical substances that are

carried by a cell tissue and initiate specific
action.
 HORMONES
• Hormones can have very powerful effects, even when
present in very low concentrations.
• There are approximately 50 different hormones
produced in the human body.
• The specific cells which are affected by a hormone are
called target cells.
• Hormones influence their target cells by binding to
proteins or glycoproteins in the cell membrane called
receptors.
 THE PITUITARY GLAND &
hypothalamus
• The pituitary gland or hypophysis is attached to the
hypothalamus at the base of the brain.
• The hypothalamus is the major integrating link between
the nervous and endocrine systems.

• Although the pituitary gland is sometimes called the

“master” endocrine gland.
• Together, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland regulate
virtually all aspects of growth, development, metabolism,
and homeostasis.

• The pituitary gland can be divided into the posterior

pituitary and anterior pituitary.
• It is the size of a pea, weighs about 500 mg and consists
of two main parts that originate from different types of
cells.
• The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) is an upgrowth
of glandular epithelium from the pharynx and the
posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) a downgrowth of
nervous tissue from the brain.

• There is a network of nerve fibres between the

hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary.
 Blood supply
• Arterial blood. This is from branches of the internal
carotid artery. The anterior lobe is supplied indirectlyby
blood that has already passed through a capillary bed in
the hypothalamus but the posterior lobe is supplied
directly.
 The influence of the hypothalamus
on the pituitary gland

• The hypothalamus controls release of

hormones from both the anterior and
posterior pituitary but in different ways
• Hormones of the pituitary gland:
❑ Anterior pituitary = GH
TSH
ACTH
PRL
LH
FSH

❑ Posterior pituitary = Vassopressin or ADH

oxytocin
 THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY
• The posterior pituitary works as a unit with the
hypothalamus.

• Although the posterior pituitary does not synthesize its

own hormones, it does store and release oxytocin (OT)
and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) produced in the
hypothalamus.

– OT controls uterine contractions during delivery and

milk ejection during breastfeeeding.

– ADH causes retention of body water, controlling the

body‟s water-balancing mechanism
 THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY
• The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that control a
wide range of bodily activities.

• The hypothalamus regulates the anterior pituitary by

producing releasing hormones
• that stimulate release of anterior pituitary gland
hormones and inhibiting hormones that suppress
release of anterior pituitary gland hormones.

• The Anterior pituitary has five princple types of cells

which secrete seven major hormones.
 ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES
• GH : which stimulates general body growth and
regulates certain aspects of metabolism.

• thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which controls

secretions and other activities of the thyroid gland.

• follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing

hormone (LH). Together FSH and LH stimulate the
secretion of estrogen and progesterone and the
maturation of oocytes in the ovaries and the secretion of
testosterone and sperm production in the testes.
• prolactin (PRL), which initiates milk production in the
mammary glands.

• adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and

melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH). ACTH
stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids.
MSH affects skin pigmentation.
 GH: Growth hormone:
• This is the most abundant hormone synthesised by the
anterior pituitary.

• It stimulates growth and division of most body cells but

especially those in the bones and skeletal muscles.

• Body growth in response to the secretion of GH is

evident during childhood and adolescence, and
thereafter secretion of GH maintains the mass of bones
and skeletal muscles.
• It also regulates aspects of metabolism in many organs,
e.g. liver, intestines and pancreas.

• Its release is stimulated by growth hormone releasing

hormone (GHRH) and suppressed by growth hormone
release inhibiting hormone (GHRIH), also known as
somatostatin, both of which are secreted by the
hypothalamus.

• Secretion of GH is greater at night during sleep and is

also stimulated by hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar),
exercise and anxiety. Secretion peaks in adolescence
and then declines with age.
 Thyroid stimulating hormone
(TSH)
• The release of this hormone is stimulated by thyrotrophin
releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus.

• It stimulates growth and activity of the thyroid gland,

which secretes the hormones thyroxine (T4) and tri-
iodothyronine (T3).

• Release is lowest in the early evening and highest during

the night.
 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone
(ACTH, corticotrophin)
• Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) from the
hypothalamus promotes the synthesis and release of
ACTH by the anterior pituitary.

• This increases the concentration of cholesterol and

steroids within the adrenal cortex

• ACTH levels are highest at about 8 a.m. and fall to their

lowest about midnight,
 Prolactin
• This hormone is secreted during pregnancy to prepare
the breasts for lactation (milk production) after childbirth.

• The blood level of prolactin is stimulated by prolactin

releasing hormone (PRH) released from the
hypothalamus and it is lowered by prolactin inhibiting
hormone (PIH, dopamine) and by an increased blood
level of prolactin.
 Gonadotrophins
• Just before puberty two gonadotrophins (sex hormones)
are secreted in gradually increasing amounts by the
anterior pituitary in response to luteinising hormone
releasing hormone (LHRH), also known as
gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH).

• Rising levels of these hormones at puberty promotes

mature functioning of the reproductive organs. In both
males and females the hormones responsible
• are:
• follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
• luteinising hormone (LH).
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• In female : regulates the development of sex organs in
female, development of immature ovarian follicle from
the ovary.
• Secretes oestrogen & progesterone during menstrual
cycle.
• In male: initiation of spermatogenesis.
• LH:
• In females: ovulation, maintaining of corpus luteum and
secretion of progesterone.
• In males: testosterone secretion.
 THE THYROID GLAND
• The thyroid gland is situated in the neck in front of the
larynx and trachea at the level of the 5th, 6th and 7th
cervical and 1st thoracic vertebrae.

• It is a highly vascular gland that weighs about 25 g and

is surrounded by a fibrous capsule.

• It resembles a butterfly in shape, consisting of two lobes,

one on either side of the thyroid cartilage and upper
cartilaginous rings of the trachea.
• The lobes are joined by a narrow isthmus, lying in front
of the trachea.

• The lobes are roughly cone shaped, about 5 cm long

and 3 cm wide.

• The arterial blood supply to the gland is through the

superior and inferior thyroid arteries. The superior thyroid
artery is a branch of the external carotid artery and the
inferior thyroid artery is a branch of the subclavian artery.
• The venous return is by the thyroid veins, which drain
into the internal jugular veins.

• The gland is composed of largely spherical follicles

formed from cuboidal epithelium.
• These secrete and store colloid, a thick sticky protein
material. Between the follicles are other cells found
singly or in small groups: parafollicular cells, also called
C-cells, which secrete then hormone calcitonin.
 Thyroid hormones
• Thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine
• Iodine is essential for the formation of the thyroid
hormones, thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3),

• The thyroid gland selectively takes up iodine from the

blood, a process called iodine trapping.

• The release of T3 and T4 into the blood is stimulated by

thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior
pituitary.
• Secretion of TSH is stimulated by thyrotrophin releasing
hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus and secretion of
TRH is stimulated by exercise, stress, malnutrition, low
plasma glucose levels and sleep.
• Function of T3 & T4:
• T3 and T4 are essential for normal growth and
development, especially of the skeleton and nervous
system.
• Most other organs and systems are also influenced by
thyroid hormones. Physiological effects of T3 and T4 on
the heart, skeletal muscles, skin, digestive and
reproductive systems are more evident when there is
underactivity or overactivity of the thyroid gland and can
be profound in childhood
 Calcitonin
• This hormone is secreted by the parafollicular or C-cells
in the thyroid gland.
• Calcitonin lowers raised blood calcium (Ca2+) levels.
• It does this by acting on:
• bone cells promoting their storage of calcium
• kidney tubules inhibiting the reabsorption of calcium.

• Release of calcitonin is stimulated by increased blood

calcium levels.
THE PARATHYROID GLANDS

• There are four small parathyroid glands, each weighing

around 50 g, two embedded in the posterior surface of
each lobe of the thyroid gland.

• They are surrounded by fine connective tissue capsules

that contain spherical cells arranged in columns with
sinusoids containing blood in between them.
 Function
• These glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH,
parathormone). Secretion is regulated by blood calcium
levels.

• The main function of PTH is to increase blood calcium

levels. This is achieved by increasing the calcium
absorption from the small intestine and reabsorption
from the renal tubules.
 THE ADRENAL GLANDS
• The paired adrenal (suprarenal) glands lie superior to
the kidneys enclosed within the renal fascia.
• They are about 4 cm long and 3 cm thick.
• The adrenal glands are composed of the outer adrenal
cortex and the inner adrenal medulla.
• The adrenal cortex produces a total of about 40 different
hormones which are collectively known as
corticosteroids.
• The complete loss of adrenocorticol hormones leads to
death within a few days to a week, due to dehydration
and electrolyte imballances.
• The glands are composed of two parts which have
different structures and functions.
• The outer part is the cortex and the inner part the
medulla.
• The adrenal cortex is essential to life but the medulla is
not.
• Hormones of the adrenal gland:
• Adrenal cortex: cortisol
• corticosterone
• cortisone
• aldosterone
• androgens

• Adrenal medulla: epinephrine

• Nor- epinephrine
 Adrenal cortex
• The adrenal cortex produces three groups of steroid
hormones from cholesterol. They are collectively called
• adrenocorticocoids (corticosteroids).
• The groups are:
• glucocorticoids
• mineralocorticoids
• sex hormones (androgens).

• The hormones in each group have different

characteristic actions but as they are structurally similar
their actions may overlap.
 Glucocorticoids
• Cortisol (hydrocortisone) is the main
glucocorticoid but small amounts of
corticosterone and cortisone are also produced.
Commonly these are collectively known as
„steroids‟; they are essential for life, regulating
metabolism and responses to stress.
• It is stimulated by ACTH from the anterior
pituitary and by stress
• Glucocorticosteroids having a anti-inflammatory
actions.
 Mineralocorticoids
(aldosterone)
• Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid. It is involved
in maintaining water and electrolyte balance. Through a
negative feedback system it stimulates the reabsorption
of sodium (Na+) by the renal tubules and excretion of
potassium (K+) in the urine.

• Sodium reabsorption is also accompanied by retention of

water and therefore aldosterone is involved in the
regulation of blood volume and blood pressure too.
• Blood potassium levels regulate aldosterone
secretion by the adrenal cortex. When blood
potassium levels rise, more aldosterone is
secreted.
• Low blood potassium has the opposite effect.
Angiotensin (see below) also stimulates the
release of aldosterone.
 Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system.

• When renal blood flow is reduced or blood sodium levels

fall, the enzyme renin is secreted by kidney cells.

• Renin converts the plasma protein angiotensinogen,

produced by the liver, to angiotensin 1.
• Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), formed in small
quantities in the lungs, proximal kidney tubules and other
tissues, converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2, which
stimulates secretion of aldosterone.

• Angiotensin 2 causes vasoconstriction and increases

blood pressure closing the negative feedback loop
 Sex hormones
• Sex hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are mainly
androgens (male sex hormones) although the amounts
produced are insignificant compared with those secreted
by the testes and ovaries in late puberty and adulthood
 Adrenal medulla
• The medulla is completely surrounded by the adrenal
cortex. It develops from nervous tissue in the embryo
and is part of the sympathetic nervous system.

• When stimulated by extensive sympathetic nerve

supply, the glands release the hormones adrenaline
(epinephrine, 80%) and noradrenaline
(norepinephrine, 20%).
 Adrenaline (epinephrine) and
noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
• Noradrenaline is the postganglionic neurotransmitter of
the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system
• Adrenaline and some noradrenalineare released into the
blood from the adrenal medulla during stimulation of the
sympathetic nervous system.
• The action of these hormones prolongs and augments
stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system.
 THE PANCREAS
• Since the pancreas is classified as both and endocrine
organ and an exocrine organ, it will also be discussed
again with the digestive system.

• There are three main types of cells in the pancreatic

islets:
• (alpha) cells, which secrete glucagon
• (beta) cells, which are the most numerous, secrete
insulin
• (delta) cells, which secrete somatostatin (GHRIH,
• The normal blood glucose level is between 3.5 and 8
mmol/litre (63 to 144 mg/100 mL).
• Blood glucose levels are controlled mainly by the
opposing actions of insulin and glucagon:

• glucagon increases blood glucose levels

• insulin reduces blood glucose levels.

 Insulin
• Its main function is to lower raised blood nutrient levels,
not only glucose but also amino acids and fatty acids.

• These effects are described as anabolic, i.e. they

promote storage of nutrients. When nutrients, especially
glucose, are in excess of immediate needs insulin
promotes their storage by:
• Mechanism by which insulin lowers the blood glucose level:
• acting on cell membranes and stimulating uptake and use of glucose
by muscle and connective tissue cells

• increasing conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis),

especially in the liver and skeletal muscles

• accelerating uptake of amino acids by cells, and the synthesis of

protein

• promoting synthesis of fatty acids and storage of fat in adipose

tissue (lipogenesis)

• decreasing glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose)

 Glucagon
Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by stimulating:
• conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver and
skeletal muscles (glycogenolysis)

• Secretion of glucagon is stimulated by low blood glucose

levels and exercise, and decreased by somatostatin and
insulin.
 Somatostatin (GHRIH)
• This hormone, also produced by the hypothalamus,
inhibits the secretion of both insulin and glucagon in
addition to inhibiting the secretion of GH from the
anterior pituitary
 Pineal gland
• The pineal gland is a small body attached to the roof of
the third ventricle and is connected to it by a short stalk
containing nerves, many of which terminate in the
hypothalamus. The pineal gland is about 10 mm long,
reddish brown in colour and surrounded by a capsule.
The gland tends to atrophy after puberty and may
become calcified in later life.
 Function
• The physiological role of the pineal gland
remains unclear.

• The pineal gland secretes melatonin, which is

thought to promote sleepiness and help regulate
the body‟s biological clock. In animals that
breed during specific seasons, melatonin
apparently alters their capacity for reproduction,
but it has not been shown to have a similar
effect on humans.
 THE OVARIES AND TESTES
• The ovaries and testes are paired oval organs referred
to as gonads.
• The ovaries are the female gonads, located in the pelvic
cavity. They secrete estrogens and progesterone,
which are responsible for the development and
maintenance of female sexual characteristics, as well
regulating the female reproductive system [in conjunction
with gonadotropic hormones from the pituitary gland]).
The ovaries also produce relaxin, which soften
connective tissues in preparation for childbirth.
• The testes are the male gonads, located in the scrotum.
They secrete testosterone, which is responsible for
male sexual characteristics, and inhibin, which controls
sperm production by inhibiting follicle stimulating
hormone.
 THE THYMUS
• The thymus gland was previously discussed in the
lymphatic system lesson.

• Hormones produced by the thymus gland are

thymosin= These hormones promote the proliferation
and maturation of T cells (white blood cells which
destroy microbes and foreign substances).

•
• Thymic hormones may also help to retard the aging
process.
 Local hormones
• Histamine
• This is synthesised and stored by mast cells in
the tissues and basophils in blood. It is released
as part of the inflammatory responses,
especially when caused by allergy
• Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT)
• This is present in platelets, in the brain and in the
intestinal wall. It causes intestinal secretion and
contraction of smooth muscle and its role in haemostasis
(blood clotting)
• It is a neurotransmitter in the CNS and is known to
influence mood.
• Prostaglandins (PGs)
• These are lipid substances found in most tissues. They
act on neighbouring cells but their actions are short-lived
as they are quickly metabolized. Prostaglandins have
potent and wide-ranging physiological effects in:
• • the inflammatory response
• • potentiating pain
• • fever
• • regulating blood pressure
• • blood clotting
• • uterine contractions during labour.