CHM 102 SUMMARY BY GODSPEED

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

• Carbon is a chemical element with the symbol C and the atomic number 6. It is a
nonmetal and forms a variety of compounds with both organic and inorganic
substances.
• Carbon is present in all living organisms and is the second most abundant element in
the human body, after oxygen. It is a key element in organic compounds such as
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which are essential for life.
• Carbon has several allotropes, with diamond and graphite being the most well-known.
Diamond is a hard, transparent crystal form of carbon, while graphite is a soft, black,
and flaky material commonly used in pencils.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a gas consisting of one carbon atom bonded to two oxygen
atoms. It is a greenhouse gas and plays a crucial role in the Earth's carbon cycle and
climate regulation. Carbon dioxide is produced through various natural processes such
as respiration and volcanic eruptions, but human activities, particularly the burning of
fossil fuels, have significantly increased its concentration in the atmosphere,
contributing to global warming and climate change.
• Carbon also plays an important role in industries and technology. It is used in the
production of steel, carbon fibers, plastics, and many other materials. Carbon-based
materials are highly valued for their strength, conductivity, and versatility.
• Efforts are being made to mitigate the impact of carbon emissions on the environment
through measures like increasing renewable energy sources, enhancing energy
efficiency, and implementing carbon capture and storage technologies. These efforts
aim to reduce carbon dioxide levels and combat climate change.
 Tetravalency of Carbon

• The tetravalency of carbon refers to its ability to form four covalent bonds with other atoms.
This characteristic is unique to carbon and is a result of its atomic structure. Carbon has
four valence electrons in its outermost energy level, and it needs to gain, lose, or share four
electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration like that of the noble gases. By sharing
its valence electrons with other atoms, carbon can complete its outer electron shell and
become stable.
• This ability to form multiple bonds makes carbon the basis of organic chemistry. Carbon
atoms can form single, double, or triple covalent bonds with other carbon atoms or atoms
of other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and halogens. This versatility allows
carbon to form long chains or complex structures, giving rise to the vast array of organic
compounds found in living organisms and in many synthetic materials.
• The tetravalency of carbon is crucial for the formation of organic molecules such as
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which are essential for life. It also plays
a significant role in the diversity and complexity of carbon-based materials used in various
industries.

Properties of Carbon

Carbon is a versatile element with a wide range of properties, leading to its ability to perform
overlapping functions in various chemical compounds. Some of the notable properties of carbon
include:

• Tetra-valency: Carbon has four valence electrons, allowing it to form covalent bonds
with up to four other atoms. This tetra-valency enables carbon to form long chains,
branched structures, and complex three-dimensional networks, giving rise to a vast
diversity of organic compounds.

• Stability: Carbon-carbon bonds are generally strong and stable, providing stability to
organic molecules. This stability allows carbon compounds to withstand various
chemical reactions and environmental conditions.
 • Organic compound formation: Carbon is the cornerstone of organic chemistry, and
it forms the basis for life on Earth. Carbon atoms can form stable bonds with other
carbon atoms, as well as with atoms of other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and many others. This ability to form diverse bonding arrangements allows carbon to
create an immense range of organic compounds, including carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids.

• Isomerism: Carbon compounds can exist as isomers, which are compounds with the
same molecular formula but different structural arrangements. This property of carbon
enables the creation of compounds with distinct biological activities or properties, as
slight changes in the arrangement of atoms can lead to significant functional
differences.

• Conductivity: Carbon can exhibit both electrical and thermal conductivity depending
on its structure. For example, graphite, a form of carbon, is an excellent conductor of
electricity due to its delocalized pi electrons, whereas diamond, another form of carbon,
is an excellent thermal conductor due to its tightly bonded and rigid structure.

• Allotropes: Carbon has various allotropes, which are different forms of the same
element with different structures and properties. Diamond, graphite, and fullerenes
(such as buckyballs and carbon nanotubes) are examples of carbon allotropes. Each
allotrope has distinct properties and overlapping functions in various applications, such
as in industrial processes, electronics, and materials science.

Typical examples of valency exhibited by Carbon

Carbon typically exhibits a valency of four, meaning it can form covalent bonds with up to four
other atoms. This valency allows carbon to engage in diverse bonding arrangements, resulting in
the formation of various compounds and structures. Here are some typical examples of valency
exhibited by carbon:
 • Hydrocarbons: Carbon commonly forms covalent bonds with hydrogen to create
hydrocarbon compounds. For instance, in methane (CH4), carbon forms four single bonds
with four hydrogen atoms, utilizing all its valence electrons.

• Alkanes: Carbon can form straight or branched chains of carbon atoms bonded with single
covalent bonds. For example, in ethane (C2H6), two carbon atoms are bonded by a single
bond, and each carbon is bonded with three hydrogen atoms.

• Alkenes and Alkynes: Carbon can also form double (alkenes) or triple (alkynes) bonds
with other carbon or non-carbon atoms. In ethene (C2H4), carbon forms a double bond with
another carbon atom and single bonds with two hydrogen atoms.

• Aromatic compounds: Carbon can participate in aromatic systems, such as in benzene

(C6H6). The carbon atoms in benzene form a hexagonal ring structure, with alternating
single and double bonds, resulting in a stabilizing resonance structure.

• Functional groups: Carbon can be part of various functional groups, which are specific
arrangements of atoms within a molecule that confer particular chemical properties.
Examples include alcohols (e.g., ethanol, C2H5OH), aldehydes (e.g., formaldehyde,
CH2O), ketones (e.g., acetone, CH3COCH3), carboxylic acids (e.g., acetic acid,
CH3COOH), and many others.

Allotropes of Carbon

Carbon has several allotropes, which are different forms of the element that have different atomic
arrangements and physical properties. Some common allotropes of carbon include:

• Diamond: Diamond is one of the hardest naturally occurring substances and has a three-
dimensional network structure. Each carbon atom is bonded to four neighboring carbon
 atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. This arrangement results in a strong covalent bond
network, giving diamond its hardness and unique optical properties.

• Graphite: Graphite is a layered allotrope of carbon. Each carbon atom is bonded to three
neighboring carbon atoms in a planar arrangement, forming hexagonal rings. The layers
are held together by weak van der Waals forces, allowing them to slide past each other
easily. This results in the characteristic slippery feel of graphite and its ability to act as a
lubricant. Graphite is also a good conductor of electricity due to the presence of delocalized
electrons between the layers.

• Graphene: Graphene is a single layer of graphite, consisting of a hexagonal lattice of

carbon atoms. It is an incredibly thin and lightweight material, yet it is exceptionally strong
and has excellent electrical and thermal conductivity. Graphene has many potential
applications in areas such as electronics, energy storage, and water purification.

• Fullerenes: Fullerenes are carbon molecules that form hollow, cage-like structures. The
most well-known fullerene is buckminsterfullerene, also called C60 or buckyballs, which
has a spherical shape with 60 carbon atoms arranged in a pattern of hexagons and
pentagons.

• Carbon nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical structures made up of rolled-up

sheets of graphene. They have high tensile strength, exceptional thermal and electrical
conductivity, and unique optical properties. Carbon nanotubes have numerous potential
applications in fields like electronics, materials science, and nanotechnology.

Applications of Allotropes of Carbon

• Diamond is used as gemstones, cutting tools, abrasives etc
• Graphite is used as a lubricant. It is exploited commercially for its inertness, high thermal
stability, electrical and thermal conductivities. A single layer of graphite is called graphene
 and has extraordinary electrical, thermal, and physical properties. Graphene is used
Supercapacitor, Fuel cell Membrane, Batteries, Smart Fabrics etc
• Fullerenes are applied as nanotubes in materials science. Owing to their extraordinary
thermal conductivity and mechanical and electrical properties, carbon nanotubes find
applications as additives to various structural materials, also for medical uses. Has
potentials for great uses in Batteries, Smart Materials, Sensors etc

Structure of Diamond and Graphite

Diamond and graphite are both forms of carbon, but they have different structural arrangements,
resulting in different physical properties.

Diamond

▪ Diamond is a crystalline form of carbon.

▪ It consists of a three-dimensional network of carbon atoms arranged in a tetrahedral lattice
structure.
▪ Each carbon atom is bonded to four neighboring carbon atoms through strong covalent
bonds.
▪ The carbon atoms in diamond form a rigid and tightly-packed structure, creating a very
hard and dense material.
▪ The bond lengths between carbon atoms in diamond are equal, resulting in a symmetrical
structure.
▪ The rigid structure of diamond makes it transparent and gives it a high refractive index,
making it sparkle and exhibit strong optical properties.
▪ Due to its strong covalent bonds, diamond has a high melting point and is resistant to most
chemical reactions, making it chemically inert.
▪ Diamond is the hardest known naturally occurring substance.
 Graphite

▪ Graphite is also a form of carbon, but it has a layered structure.

▪ It consists of a two-dimensional network of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice
structure.
▪ Each carbon atom is bonded to three neighboring carbon atoms through strong covalent
bonds within the layers.
▪ The layers in graphite are held together by weaker van der Waals forces, allowing them to
slide over each other easily.
▪ The bond lengths within the layers are equal, resulting in a flat, sheet-like structure.
▪ The individual layers of graphite are comprised of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms,
creating a honeycomb-like structure.
▪ Graphite is soft and slippery because of the weak forces between the layers, allowing it to
be used as a lubricant.
▪ The layers in graphite can conduct electricity due to the presence of delocalized electrons
between the carbon atoms, making it a good conductor of electricity.
▪ Graphite has a lower melting point compared to diamond and is more chemically reactive,
undergoing combustion at high temperatures.

Diamond and graphite have contrasting structures, with diamond having a three-dimensional
network of closely-bonded carbon atoms, while graphite has layered sheets of carbon atoms held
together by weak forces. These structural differences lead to the distinct properties of these two
allotropes of carbon.

Fullerenes

• Fullerenes are another form of carbon that differ from both diamond and graphite in their
structure.
• They are composed of carbon atoms arranged in a unique cage-like structure, often
resembling a soccer ball, tube, or other geometrical shapes.
• The most common and well-known fullerene is called Buckminsterfullerene or C60, which
has 60 carbon atoms arranged in a spherical structure with pentagonal and hexagonal rings.
 Key points about fullerenes

• Structure: Fullerenes consist of carbon atoms bonded together in a hollow, cage-like

structure. They can range in size from as few as 20 atoms up to several hundred, with C60
being the most well-known form.
• Bonding: Carbon atoms in fullerenes are connected through covalent bonds, forming a
three-dimensional network.
• Types: Fullerenes come in various forms, including spherical (Buckminsterfullerene),
cylindrical (carbon nanotubes), and other irregular shapes (e.g., nano-onions).
• Properties: Fullerenes exhibit unique and interesting properties due to their structure.
▪ Stability: Fullerenes are highly stable, resistant to heat, and chemically unreactive.
▪ Electrical conductivity: Some fullerenes, like carbon nanotubes, have exceptional
electrical conductivity, making them useful in nanoelectronics and as conductive materials.
▪ Photovoltaic and Optoelectronic Applications: Fullerenes have been utilized in solar
cells and other optoelectronic devices due to their ability to absorb and convert light energy.
▪ Biological Applications: Fullerenes have shown potential in various biomedical
applications such as drug delivery, imaging, and antioxidant properties due to their unique
structure and reactivity.
▪ Magnetic properties: Endohedral fullerenes, which contain trapped atoms or molecules
inside their cage-like structure, exhibit interesting magnetic properties.
• Synthesis: Fullerenes are typically synthesized using methods like arc discharge, laser
ablation, or chemical vapor deposition.

Structure of Carbon Atom

• The carbon atom has a structure that consists of a nucleus at the center and electrons in
energy levels or shells around the nucleus.
• The nucleus of a carbon atom contains six protons and usually six neutrons, giving it an
atomic mass of 12.
• The protons carry a positive charge, while the neutrons are neutral. Together, the protons
and neutrons form the majority of the mass of the carbon atom. Surrounding the nucleus
are the electrons, which are negatively charged particles.
• Carbon has six electrons and they are arranged in different energy levels or shells. The first
shell can hold a maximum of two electrons, while the second shell can hold up to eight
electrons.
• The electron configuration of carbon is 2s^2 2p^2, meaning that the first shell contains two
electrons in the s orbital, and the second shell contains two electrons in the s orbital and
two electrons in the p orbital.
• The carbon atom has the ability to form covalent bonds with other atoms due to its electron
configuration. It can share four electrons, which allows it to form stable compounds with
a wide variety of elements, including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and many others.

Valency in Methane molecule

• In the methane (CH4) molecule, carbon exhibits a valency of four. This means that carbon
forms four covalent bonds with other atoms to complete its octet (eight electrons in its
outermost energy level).
• In methane, carbon bonds with four hydrogen atoms, with each hydrogen atom forming a
single covalent bond with the carbon atom.
• The carbon atom shares one electron with each of the four hydrogen atoms, resulting in a
stable molecule. The bonding in methane can be represented as follows:

H - C -H

H
Here, the lines represent covalent bonds, and the "H" represents hydrogen atoms, while the "C"
represents the carbon atom. Each line between the carbon and hydrogen atoms represents one
shared pair of electrons, fulfilling the valency requirement for each atom.

Valency in Carbon dioxide molecule

• In the carbon dioxide (CO2) molecule, carbon exhibits a valency of four. This means that
carbon can form up to four covalent bonds with other atoms to complete its octet.
• In carbon dioxide, carbon forms double bonds with two oxygen atoms.
• Each oxygen atom shares two electrons with the carbon atom, resulting in a stable
molecule.
• The carbon atom shares two pairs of electrons, one with each oxygen atom, through double
bonds. The bonding in carbon dioxide can be represented as follows:

//

O=C=O

\\

Here, the double lines represent double bonds, and the "O" represents oxygen atoms, while the "C"
represents the carbon atom. Each double bond between the carbon and oxygen atoms represents
two shared pairs of electrons, fulfilling the valency requirement for each atom.

Valency in Acetylene (Ethyne) molecule

• In the acetylene (ethyne) molecule, carbon exhibits a valency of two. This means that
carbon can form up to two covalent bonds with other atoms to complete its octet.
• In acetylene, each carbon atom forms a triple bond with another carbon atom. This triple
bond consists of three pairs of electrons shared between the carbon atoms.
 • Additionally, each carbon atom forms a single bond with hydrogen. The bonding in
acetylene can be represented as follows:

H H

\/

/\

C H

\/

Here, the "H" represents hydrogen atoms, and the "C" represents carbon atoms. The lines between
the carbon atoms indicate a triple bond, consisting of three pairs of shared electrons. The single
bonds between carbon and hydrogen are represented as a single line. Overall, acetylene showcases
carbon's di-valency, as the carbon atoms form triple bonds with each other and single bonds with
hydrogen to attain a stable molecular structure.

Chemical Kinetics

Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the branch of chemistry that studies the speed
at which chemical reactions occur and the factors that influence this rate. It aims to understand the
mechanisms by which reactions proceed, the rate laws that describe the relationship between
reactant concentrations and reaction rates, and the factors that affect reaction rates. The speed of a
chemical reaction is determined by the collision frequency and the energy of collisions between
reacting molecules. There are several factors that influence reaction rates:

• Concentration: The rate of a reaction generally increases with an increase in reactant

concentration. This is because higher concentrations result in more collisions between
reactant molecules, increasing the chances of successful collisions.
 • Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the kinetic energy of the reactant
molecules, leading to more frequent and energetic collisions. According to the
Arrhenius equation, for most reactions, a 10°C rise in temperature approximately
doubles the reaction rate.

• Catalysts: Catalysts are substances that increase the rate of a reaction by providing an
alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy. They do not undergo
permanent changes in their own chemical composition during the reaction.

• Surface area: In reactions involving solid reactants, a larger surface area increases the
contact between reactant molecules, allowing for more collisions and a faster reaction
rate.

• Pressure (for gases): Increasing the pressure of gaseous reactants increases the number
of collisions between molecules, enhancing the reaction rate.

The study of chemical kinetics involves measuring and interpreting how reactant concentrations
change over time. Techniques such as spectroscopy, calorimetry, and chromatography are used to
monitor the progress of reactions.

Reaction Rates

Reaction rate refers to the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place. It can be determined by
measuring the change in concentration of reactants or products over time. Here are some examples
of reaction rates:

• Hydrogen Peroxide Decomposition: The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

(H2O2) into water (H2O) and oxygen gas (O2) is a common example used to study
reaction rates. This reaction can be catalyzed by the enzyme catalase. By measuring the
volume of oxygen gas produced over time, the rate of the reaction can be determined.
 • Rusting of Iron: The rusting of iron is a slow oxidation reaction that occurs over time
when iron comes in contact with oxygen and water. The rate of this reaction can be
measured by monitoring the increase in mass of the rusted iron or by observing the
formation of rust through visual changes.

• Acid-Base Reactions: Acid-base reactions, such as the neutralization of hydrochloric

acid (HCl) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), can also be used to study reaction rates.
By measuring the change in pH over time using a pH probe, the rate of the reaction can
be determined.

• Combustion Reactions: Combustion reactions, such as the burning of methane (CH4)

in the presence of oxygen (O2), are also used to study reaction rates. The rate of
combustion can be determined by measuring the rate of heat release or by monitoring
the decrease in the concentration of reactants over time.

• Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions: Enzymes are biological catalysts that significantly

increase the rate of specific chemical reactions in living organisms. For example, the
digestion of food in the human body is facilitated by enzymes such as amylase, which
catalyzes the breakdown of complex carbohydrates. The rate of these enzymatic
reactions can be studied by measuring the formation of a product or the disappearance
of a substrate over time.

Rate Laws
• Rate laws describe the relationship between the rate of a chemical reaction and the
concentrations of the reactants. They are usually determined experimentally by measuring
the rate of the reaction under various conditions and analyzing the data to determine how
the rate depends on the concentrations of the reactants. A standard rate law can be
expressed as:
• Rate = k[A]^m[B]^n
 ▪ Where:
- Rate is the rate of the reaction.
- k is the rate constant, which is specific for a particular reaction at a given
temperature.
- [A] and [B] represent the concentrations of the reactants A and B, respectively.
- m and n are the reaction orders with respect to A and B, respectively.
• The reaction order determines how the rate changes with the concentrations of the
reactants. For example, if the reaction order for A is 0, the concentration of A does not
affect the rate of the reaction. If the reaction order for B is 2, the rate is directly proportional
to the square of the concentration of B.
• To determine the reaction orders and the rate constant, rate laws need to be experimentally
determined. This is typically done by conducting experiments where the initial
concentrations of the reactants are varied while holding other factors, such as temperature
and pressure, constant.
• The rate of the reaction is then measured, and the data is used to determine the values of
the reaction orders, m and n, and the rate constant, k.
• In some cases, the rate law can be determined directly from the balanced chemical equation.
For example, if a reaction is known to be elementary (meaning it occurs in a single step),
the reaction orders can be determined from the coefficients of the reactants in the balanced
equation.

Stoichiometry
• Stoichiometry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the quantitative relationships
between reactants and products in chemical reactions.
• It is based on the law of conservation of mass, which states that matter is neither created
nor destroyed during a chemical reaction.
• Stoichiometry involves using balanced chemical equations to determine the ratios of
substances involved in a reaction.
• These ratios can be used to calculate the amount of a reactant needed to produce a certain
amount of product, or the amount of product formed from a given amount of reactant.
 • To perform stoichiometric calculations, one must first write a balanced chemical equation
that accurately represents the reaction.
• This equation shows the relative numbers of moles or molecules of each substance
involved.
• Using the coefficients from the balanced equation, one can establish conversion factors to
convert between different substances.
• These conversion factors are based on the molar ratios between the reactants and the
products.
• Stoichiometry can be used to calculate various quantities in a reaction, such as the amount
of reactant needed, the amount of product formed, the percent yield of a reaction, and the
concentration of a solution. One important concept in stoichiometry is the limiting reagent.
In a chemical reaction, the reactants are often present in different amounts.
• The limiting reagent is the reactant that is completely consumed and determines the
maximum amount of product that can be formed. The excess reagent is the reactant that is
left over after the limiting reagent is consumed.
• Stoichiometry is widely used in many areas of chemistry, including laboratory research,
industrial manufacturing, and environmental analysis. It is essential for determining the
optimal conditions for a reaction, predicting the outcome of a reaction, and ensuring the
efficient use of resources.
• In stoichiometry, a reaction refers to the transformation of reactants into products as
indicated by a balanced chemical equation. The reaction can involve one or more reactants
and one or more products.
• In order to perform stoichiometric calculations, the reaction must first be balanced,
meaning that the number of atoms of each element is equal on both sides of the equation.
Here is an example of a stoichiometry reaction:

2H2(g) + O2(g) -> 2H2O(g)

In this reaction, hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2) react to form water vapor (H2O). The
balanced equation shows that two moles of hydrogen gas react with one mole of oxygen gas to
produce two moles of water vapor. Using this balanced equation, stoichiometry allows us to
determine the quantities of substances involved in the reaction. For example, if we have 3 moles
of hydrogen gas, we can use stoichiometry to determine how many moles of oxygen gas would be
required and how many moles of water vapor would be produced.

Stoichiometry calculations can involve determining the amount of limiting reagent, the amount of
excess reagent, the amount of product formed, the percent yield of a reaction, and the concentration
of solutions. These calculations are based on the molar ratios established from the balanced
chemical equation.

Carboxylic Acids

• Carboxylic acids are organic compounds that contain a carboxyl group (-COOH) attached
to a hydrocarbon chain.
• The carboxyl group consists of a carbonyl group (C=O) and a hydroxyl group (-OH)
bonded to the same carbon atom.
• Carboxylic acids are versatile compounds with various applications and play crucial roles
in biological processes.

Chemical Properties

• Acidity: Carboxylic acids are weak acids and can donate a proton (H+) from the
hydroxyl group. This proton donation is facilitated by resonance stabilization of the
resulting carboxylate ion. The acidity of carboxylic acids increases with the presence
of electron-withdrawing groups nearby.

• Reactivity with Water: Carboxylic acids can undergo hydrolysis reactions with water,
leading to the formation of a carboxylate ion and a hydronium ion. This reaction is
reversible and can be influenced by factors such as temperature and concentration.
 • Esterification: Carboxylic acids react with alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst
to form esters. This reaction is called esterification and involves the replacement of the
hydroxyl group with an alkyl group.

• Reduction: Carboxylic acids can be reduced to primary alcohols using reducing agents
such as lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4) or sodium borohydride (NaBH4). The
carbonyl group of the carboxylic acid is reduced to an alcohol functional group.

Amines

• Amines are organic compounds that contain a nitrogen atom bonded to one or more alkyl
or aryl groups.
• They are classified based on the number of alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the nitrogen:
primary amines have one, secondary amines have two, and tertiary amines have three.
• Amines with fewer than five carbon atoms are generally water-soluble.
• Primary and secondary amines form hydrogen bonds and are highly associated.
• Another characteristic of amines is their odour. Low-molecular-weight amines such as
triethylamine have a distinctive fishlike aroma.
• Amines are considerably more basic than alcohols, ethers, or water.
• In addition to their behaviour as bases, primary and secondary amines can also act as very
weak acids because an N-H proton can be removed by a sufficiently strong base.

Chemical Properties

• Basicity: Amines are known for their basic character due to the lone pair of electrons
on the nitrogen atom. They can accept a proton (H+) to form an ammonium ion. The
basicity of amines depends on the availability and accessibility of the lone pair
electrons.
 • Alkylation and Acylation: Amines can undergo alkylation and acylation reactions
with alkyl halides and acyl halides, respectively. In alkylation, the alkyl group from the
alkyl halide replaces one of the hydrogen atoms on the nitrogen. In acylation, the acyl
group from the acyl halide replaces the hydrogen atom on the nitrogen.

• Reductive Amination: Amines can be prepared by the reductive amination reaction,

which involves the condensation of a carbonyl compound (such as an aldehyde or
ketone) with an amine followed by reduction. This reaction is commonly used in
organic synthesis to introduce an amine group.

Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids

Carboxylic acids are organic compounds that contain a carboxyl group (COOH) bonded to a
carbon atom. The nomenclature of carboxylic acids follows the guidelines set by the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The general rules for naming carboxylic acids
are as follows:

• Identify the longest continuous carbon chain that contains the carboxyl group. This chain
serves as the parent chain.
• Number the parent chain to give the carboxyl carbon atom the lowest possible number. The
carboxyl carbon atom is always assigned the number 1.
• If there are multiple carboxyl groups, indicate the position of each by using a number and
a hyphen immediately before the parent’s name. For example, if there are two carboxyl
groups, they would be named as di (carboxylic acid).
• Name the substituents attached to the parent chain. Substituents are named using the
appropriate prefixes (methyl, ethyl, etc.) and are listed before the parent’s name.
• Indicate the presence of a carboxylic acid by using the suffix "-oic acid." This suffix is
added to the name of the parent chain.
• If there are other functional groups present in the molecule, they should be named and
numbered accordingly.
 Examples of Carboxylic Acids

• Methanoic acid (formic acid): The simplest carboxylic acid is named based on the
number of carbon atoms in the parent chain. The prefix "meth-" indicates one carbon atom,
and the suffix "-oic acid" indicates the presence of a carboxylic acid.
• Ethanoic acid (acetic acid): The parent chain contains two carbon atoms. The prefix "eth-
" indicates two carbon atoms, and the suffix "-oic acid" indicates the presence of a
carboxylic acid.
• 3-Methylbutanoic acid: The parent chain contains four carbon atoms. The prefix "but-"
indicates four carbon atoms, and the suffix "-oic acid" indicates the presence of a
carboxylic acid. The substituent "methyl" is indicated by the number 3.
• Benzoic acid: This carboxylic acid is derived from a benzene ring. The parent’s name is
"benzene," and the suffix "-oic acid" indicates the presence of a carboxylic acid.

There are some key things you need to know before naming Carboxylic Acids.

• Naming the Parent Chain: To determine the parent chain, identify the longest
continuous carbon chain that contains the carboxyl group. This chain is often selected
based on the highest priority functional group present. The parent chain is named
according to the number of carbon atoms. For example, a two-carbon chain is named
ethane, a three-carbon chain is named propane, and a four-carbon chain is named
butane.

• Numbering the Parent Chain: The carbon atom of the carboxyl group is always
assigned the number 1. Number the remaining carbon atoms in the parent chain
consecutively in a way that gives the carboxyl carbon the lowest possible number.

• Naming Substituents: If there are any substituents attached to the parent chain, they
are named using appropriate prefixes (methyl, ethyl, etc.) before the parent’s name.
The substituents are assigned numbers indicating their position on the carbon chain.
 • Indicating Multiple Carboxyl Groups: If there are multiple carboxyl groups in the
molecule, you use the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, etc., immediately before the parent’s
name to indicate the number of carboxyl groups. The position of each carboxyl group
is indicated by a number and a hyphen before the parent’s name.

• Using the “-oic acid” Suffix: The presence of a carboxylic acid is indicated by adding
the suffix “-oic acid” to the name of the parent chain.

• Accounting for Other Functional Groups: If there are other functional groups
present in the molecule, they need to be named and numbered accordingly. The
carboxylic acid group is given the highest priority, and other functional groups, if
present, are indicated using appropriate prefixes.

When a carboxylic acid is attached to a ring structure, the suffix “-oic acid” is added to the name
of the parent ring. For example, cyclopentane carboxylic acid. If the parent chain contains a double
bond or triple bond, the corresponding suffix (-ene, -yne) is used, and the carboxyl group is named
as an aldehyde (-al) or ketone (-one) group, respectively. For example, 2-butenoic acid and 2-
butyne-1,4-dioic acid.

Preparation of Carboxylic acids

Carboxylic acids can be prepared through several different methods, depending on the starting
materials and desired product. Here are some common methods of preparation:

• Oxidation of Primary Alcohols or Aldehydes: One common method to prepare

carboxylic acids is by oxidizing primary alcohols or aldehydes. This oxidation can be
achieved by using a strong oxidizing agent such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) or
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in acidic conditions. The alcohol or aldehyde is converted
into the corresponding carboxylic acid. For example:

Primary alcohol to carboxylic acid: R-CH2-OH + [O] → R-COOH

• Oxidation of Alkyl Benzenes: Alkyl benzenes can be oxidized to form benzoic acids. This
reaction is often done using potassium permanganate (KMnO4) or chromium trioxide
(CrO3) in acidic conditions. For example:

Alkylbenzene to carboxylic acid: R-C6H5 + [O] → R-COOH

• Hydrolysis of Nitriles: Nitriles can be hydrolyzed to form carboxylic acids in the presence
of water and an acid or base catalyst. This reaction is called hydrolysis. For example:

Nitrile to carboxylic acid: R-CN + H2O → R-COOH

• Oxidative Cleavage of Alkenes: Alkenes can be oxidatively cleaved to form two

carboxylic acid molecules. This reaction is often done using ozone (O3) followed by
treatment with a reducing agent such as zinc (Zn) or dimethyl sulfide (Me2S). For example:

Alkene to two carboxylic acids: R1-CH=CH-R2 + O3 → R1-COOH + R2-COOH

• Friedel-Crafts Acylation: Aromatic compounds can be transformed into carboxylic acids

through a Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction. This involves the reaction of an aromatic
compound with an acyl chloride (or an acid anhydride) in the presence of a Lewis acid
catalyst such as aluminum chloride (AlCl3) or iron (III) chloride (FeCl3). For example:

Aromatic compound to carboxylic acid: Ar-H + R-COCl → Ar-COOH + HCl

Integrated Rate Laws

• Integrated rate laws are equations that relate the concentrations of reactants and products
to the reaction time.
• They are derived by integrating the rate laws, which describe how the rate of a reaction
depends on the concentrations of the reactants.
 • Integrated rate laws are useful for determining the concentration of a reactant or product at
a given time or for determining the reaction order.
• Here are some common types of integrated rate laws:

Zero-Order Reactions:

Rate law: Rate = k

Integrated rate law: [A]t = [A]0 – kt

First-Order Reactions:

Rate law: Rate = k[A]

Integrated rate law (with respect to time): ln[A]t = -kt + ln[A]0

Integrated rate law (with respect to concentration): [A]t = [A]0 * e^(-kt)

Second-Order Reactions:

Rate law: Rate = k[A]^2

Integrated rate law (with respect to time): 1/[A]t = kt + 1/[A]0

Integrated rate law (with respect to concentration): 1/[A]t = kt + 1/[A]0

Note: These integrated rate laws assume constant reaction conditions (such as temperature) and
the absence of other reactions that may affect the concentration of the reactants or products.

Using integrated rate laws, you can determine reaction kinetics, reaction order, and predict the
concentration of reactants or products at different time points during a reaction. These equations
are derived from the rate laws and provide a time-dependent perspective on the reaction progress.
 Order of Reaction

The order of a reaction refers to the exponent or power to which the concentration of a reactant is
raised in the rate equation or rate law. It represents the dependence of the reaction rate on the
concentration of a particular reactant. There are three possible orders of reaction:

• Zero-order reaction: In a zero-order reaction, the rate of the reaction is independent of

the concentration of the reactant. The rate equation takes the form:

Rate = k

Here, k is the rate constant, and the reaction rate does not depend on the concentration of any
specific reactant.

• First-order reaction: In a first-order reaction, the rate of the reaction is directly

proportional to the concentration of a single reactant. The rate equation takes the form:

Rate = k[A]

Here, k is the rate constant, and the reaction rate is directly proportional to the concentration of
reactant A.

• Second-order reaction: In a second-order reaction, the rate of the reaction is proportional

to either the square of the concentration of a single reactant or the product of the
concentrations of two reactants. The rate equation can take different forms:

Rate = k[A]^2 (second-order with respect to A only)

Rate = k[B]^2 (second-order with respect to B only)

Rate = k[A][B] (second-order with respect to both A and B)

In these equations, k is the rate constant, and the reaction rate is determined by the concentration(s)
of the reactant(s) in the appropriate manner.

Determining the order of a reaction is usually done experimentally by measuring the reaction rate
under different initial concentrations of the reactant(s). By analyzing the experimental data and
observing how the reaction rate changes, it is possible to determine whether the reaction is zero-
order, first-order, second-order, or a combination of these orders.
 Hydrocarbons
• Organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are known as hydrocarbons.
• There are several major groups of hydrocarbons; Aliphatic hydrocarbons are primarily
straight and branched chains of hydrocarbons consisting of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes.
• When only single C––C bonds exist in a hydrocarbon, it is called a saturated hydrocarbon.
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain at least one double or triple bond.
• Alkenes have a C=C (double bond) as a functional group. General formula: CnH2n e.g.
Ethene, CH2=CH2
• Alkynes have a triple bond as a functional group. General formula: CnH2n‐2 e.g. Ethyne
HC=CH
• Alkyl groups are a type of hydrocarbon formed by removing a hydrogen atom from an
alkane. Their names are formed by using the alkane prefix and attaching “yl.” Alkyl are
sometimes represented with the symbol R.
• The alkyl groups attach themselves to other groups.

Isomers
• Isomers are compounds that have the same formula but different structures.
• Isomers that differ in their connections among atoms are called constitutional isomers.
• When atoms other than carbon and hydrogen are present the ability to have functional
group isomers arise.
• Isomers are molecules that, due to the differences in their connections, have not only
different structures, but belong to different families of organic molecules.

Sources of alkanes
• Alkanes are obtained from crude oil and natural gas.
• Natural gas contains 60–90% methane.
• Crude oil is a mixture of many carbon compounds with different chain lengths.
• The oil is therefore separated into groups of compounds with roughly the same chain length
in an oil refinery.
 • The technique that is used to refine the oil is called fractional distillation.
• The oil is heated and passed into a tall fractionating column.
• Compounds with large molecules and high boiling points are collected at the bottom of the
tower, whereas the more volatile components, with smaller molecules, are collected near
the top.
• Each group of compounds collected is called a fraction.
• Each fraction is still a complicated mixture, since it contains alkanes of a range of carbon
numbers and isomers of each carbon number.
• In addition to alkanes, crude oil contains some cycloalkanes and aromatic compounds –
the proportion of each present depends upon the source of the oil or ozonation is the
cleavage of an alkene by ozone (O3).

Carbohydrate
• A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and
oxygen (O) atoms with the empirical formula Cm (H2O) n (where m could be different
from n).
• Carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate
starch (such as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar.

Functions of Carbohydrates
• The major source of fuel for metabolism
• It is also useful in biosynthesis.
• It functions as the major constituents of plants Cell wall

Types of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
▪ Monosaccharides are simple sugars with multiple OH groups. They are classified
according to three different characteristics.
▪ The placement of its carbonyl group, the number of carbon atoms it contains, and its chiral
handedness.
▪ If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the monosaccharide is an aldose
 ▪ If the carbonyl group is a ketone, the monosaccharide is a ketose.
▪ Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called trioses, those with four are called
tetroses, five are called pentoses, six are hexoses, and so on.

Disaccharides
▪ Two covalently linked monosaccharides are called a disaccharide and these are the simplest
polysaccharides.
▪ They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent bond known
as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a
hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other.
▪ There are three types of Disaccharides:
▪ Maltose
▪ Lactose
▪ Sucrose

Oligosaccharides
▪ An oligosaccharide a few monosaccharides covalently linked. It is also a saccharide
polymer containing a small number (typically three to nine) of simple sugars
(monosaccharides).
▪ Oligosaccharides can have many functions; for example, they are commonly found on the
plasma membrane of animal cells where they can play a role in cell-to-cell recognition.
▪ In general, they are found either O- or 'N-linked to compatible amino acid side-chains in
proteins or to lipid moieties.

Polysaccharides
▪ Are polymers consisting of chains of monosaccharide or disaccharide units.
▪ Plants store glucose as amylose or amylopectin, glucose polymers collectively called
starch. Glucose storage in polymeric form minimizes osmotic effects.
▪ Amylose is a glucose polymer with a (1-4) linkages.
▪ The end of the polysaccharide with an anomeric C1 not involved in a glycosidic bond is
called the reducing end.
 Proteins

• Proteins are the most abundant organic molecules in animals, playing important roles in all
aspects of cell structure and function.
• Proteins are biopolymers of acids, so named because the amino group is bonded to the
carbon atom, next to the carbonyl group.
• The physical and chemical properties of a protein are determined by its constituent amino
acids. The individual amino acid subunits are joined by amide linkages called peptide
bonds.

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