Applied Telecommunication Note

Applied Telecommunication Note
(Diploma in Computer Engineering)
3rd year / 1st part
Compile By Arjun
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Table of Contents
UNIT-1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
DEFINITION TELECOMMUNICATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

ROLE OF TELECOMMUNICATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION.................................................................................................................................................... 5
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TELECOMMUNICATION............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
TRANSMISSION MEDIA........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Guided Media ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
UnGuided Media................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
TYPES OF RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Telephony ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Broadcasting of audio and visual information ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
Radio navigation .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Satellite communication ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
SWITCHING SYSTEM................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Types of Switching System ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
CROSSBAR SWITCH CONFIGURATION ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
CROSSBAR EXCHANGE ORGANIZATION ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
Line Unit............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Group Unit ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14
PULSE DIALING .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
ROTARY DIAL TELEPHONE ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
SIGNALING TONES .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15
Dial Tone........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Busy Tone ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Ringing Tone ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Special information tone ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 15
UNIT-2: PRINCIPLE OF LONG DISTANCE COMMUNICATION ........................................................................................................... 16
INTRODUCTION TO THE INDIVIDUAL TELEPHONE CHANNEL ...........................................................................................................................................................................16

SIGNAL SWITCHING ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................16
Stored program control .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 16
Centralized SPC .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Distributed Computing................................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
TWO STAGE SWITCHES.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................19
THREE-STAGE SWITCHES ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................19
TIME DIVISION SPACE SWITCHING...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................19
TIME DIVISION TIME SWITCHING .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................19
TIME MULTIPLEXED SPACE SWITCHING ........................................................................................................................................................... 20
TIME MULTIPLEXED TIME SWITCHING ............................................................................................................................................................. 20
COMBINATION SWITCHING .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
LINE OF SIGHT..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................20
RADIO RELAY LINKS.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
EARTH’S ATMOSHPHERE ....................................................................................................................................................... 21
FIBER OPTIC .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................22
UNIT-3: TELEPHONE TRAFFIC SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................................. 23
NETWORK TRAFFIC LOAD AND PARAMETERS..........................................................................................................................................................................................................23

Busy Hour ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Peak Busy Hour .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Time Consistent Busy Hour ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Call completion rate (CCR) ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Busy hour call attempts (BHCA).............................................................................................................................................................................. 25
GRADE OF SERVICE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................28
THREE MODELS OF LOSS SYSTEM.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................28
Lost calls cleared (LCC)............................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Lost calls returned (LCR) ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Lost calls held (LCH) .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
DELAY SYSTEM........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................29
TRAFFIC MODELS ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
HOLDING TIMES .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
SUBSCRIBER LOOP SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
Switching Hierarchy and Routing .......................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Transmission Plan......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
IN-CHANNEL SIGNALING....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................32
COMMON CHANNEL SIGNALING .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................32
UNIT-4: CELLULAR MOBILE TELEPHONE AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATION .......................................................................... 33
BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................33

MOBILE RADIO ENVIRONMENT......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................34
Trunking ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Efficiency .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Performance criteria ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Voice Quality ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Service Quality ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 35
Special Features ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 36
OPERATION OF CELLULAR SYSTEMS .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................36
Mobile Unit initialization ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Mobile-originated call ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 36
Call Accepted ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Ongoing Call .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Handoff .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
Call blocking .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Call termination ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
Call drop............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 37
Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber........................................................................................................................................... 37
GSM, UMTS & LTE ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
GSM ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
CDMA.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 38
UMTS .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 38
LTE ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
WIFI VS WI-MAX..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................39
RADIO LOW POWER DEVICES .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................39
UNIT-5: ACCESS NETWORK & TRANSMISSION NETWORK .............................................................................................................. 40
ACCESS NETWORK ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................40

TRANSMISSION NETWORK................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................40
MAINTENANCE ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................40
FTTH NETWORK ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................40
OLT ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
ONT........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
CPE............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 41
FIBER OPTIC SPLICING .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................42
Fiber Optic Splicing: Fusion Splicing Method ..................................................................................................................................................... 42
CIVIL WORKS FOR ACCESS NETWORK: ................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Manhole ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 43
Handhole .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Trenching ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
DUCT .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 44
MAIN DISTRIBUTION FRAME (MDF) .................................................................................................................................................................................. 45
SDH VS PDH ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................46
ANTENNA ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................47
ADSS ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Standard ADSS Fiber Optic Cable Features ........................................................................................................................................................ 48
OPGW....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
VSAT ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
EARTHLING AND SHIELDING.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................49
UNIT-6: MEASURING INSTRUMENTS & TOOLS .................................................................................................................................... 50
PLIERS .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................50
WRENCHES ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................50
CABLE CUTTERS....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
WINCH MACHINE ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................51

MULTIMETER ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................52
VOLTMETER AND AMMETER ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
WATTMETER ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................53
VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO (VSWR) ..................................................................................................................................................................... 54
TONG TESTER (CLAMP METER) ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
FREQUENCY METER ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................55
OTDR (OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER) ........................................................................................................................................................ 55
SEQUENCE TESTER ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................56
Unit-1: Introduction
Definition Telecommunication
Telecommunications refers to the exchange of information by electronic and electrical means over a
significant distance. A complete telecommunication arrangement is made up of two or more stations
equipped with transmitter and receiver devices. A single co-arrangement of transmitters and receivers, called
a transceiver, may also be used in many telecommunication stations.
Telecommunications devices include telephones, telegraph, radio, microwave communication arrangements,

fiber optics, satellites, and the Internet.
Role of telecommunication in the development of the nation

1. To establish the communication between the many peoples which helps to know the condition
happens in the world.
2. To maintain the rules and regulations of the nation by viewing the needs of the people.
3. Give the current condition details which lead to applying safety measures.
4. Find the proper way to handle the disaster that happens in the country.
5. To use the latest way, like an online class, remote working, etc
6. Research the way to make the nation further develop nicely.
Block Diagram of telecommunication
Transmission Media
The transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel
through which data is sent from one place to another.
Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
1. Guided Media
2. UnGuided Media
Guided Media
t is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed and
confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
● High Speed
● Secure
● Used for comparatively shorter distances
Types of Guided Media
Twisted Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several such pairs
are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this
purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Shielded Twisted Pair
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate
Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Coaxial Cable
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection
cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth)
and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television
networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Optical Fibre Cable
It uses the concept of the reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called cladding. It is used for the transmission of large
volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two
modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
UnGuided Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.No physical medium is required for the
transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
1. The signal is broadcasted through air

2. Less Secure
3. Used for larger distances
Types Of UnGuided Media
Radio waves
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving antennas need
not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves
for transmission.
Microwaves
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with each
other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency
Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television
distribution.
Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short-distance communication. They cannot penetrate through obstacles.
This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes,
wireless mouse, keyboards, printers, etc.
Types of radio communication systems
Telephony
Telephony describes the technology that allows people to interact and communicate across long distances
through the electronic transmission of voice, fax, or other information. In telephony's early forms, voice and
data communication were carried over a public switched telephone network (PSTN).
Broadcasting of audio and visual information

Audiovisual applications are widely used by election management bodies (EMBs) to reach voters.
Common audiovisual applications include radio and television programs, publications using audiotapes,
videotapes, compact disks (CDs) and digital video disks (DVDs), cinema, lasers/holograms, and multimedia
activities.
Preparing audio-video material for public distribution is a difficult task. Skilled, professional advertising
companies, audio-visual companies, and/or broadcasters are often the best choice for preparing audiovisual
material for broadcasting or distribution. While these services may be expensive, the difference in quality
between professional and amateur audio-visual material can make a big difference in the effectiveness of the
material.
Radio navigation
Radio navigation is the process of conducting an airplane or ship from one point to another by means of
radio aids (as beacons, direction finders, or radioed bearings).
Satellite communication
Satellite communication is the use of artificial satellites to provide communication links between various
points on Earth. Satellite communications play a vital role in the global telecommunications system.
Approximately 2,000 artificial satellites orbiting Earth relay analog and digital signals carrying voice, video,
and data to and from one or many locations worldwide.
Switching system
A Switching system can be understood as a collection of switching elements arranged and controlled in such
a way as to set up a common path between any two distant points. The introduction of switching systems
reduced the complexity of wiring and made the telephony hassle-free.
Types of Switching System
Manual Switching
In a Manual switching system, the operator has full control of a connection.
He/She enables the signaling systems, performs switching, and releases a connection after a conversation.
Automatic Switching
It is a switching system in which all the operations required to execute
the three phases of Information transfer transactions are automatically executed in response to signals from a
user end-instrument.
Electromechanical Switching
Electromechanical switching systems are a combination
of mechanical and electrical switching types. The electrical circuits and the mechanical relays are deployed
in them.
Strowger/Step by Step Switching
The Step-by-step switching system is also called the Strowger switching system after its inventor A B
Strowger. The control functions in a Strowger system are performed by circuits associated with the
switching elements in the system.
Types:
● Uni-Selector
● Two motion Selector
Uni-Selector
This is called uniselector because the rotary motion of this switch is in one direction, i.e. the wiper assembly
moves only in one direction. The uniselector consists of moving contacts called wipers. These are used to
make electrical connections with any one of several contacts, called bank contacts, in an arc around it. The
arc in most cases consists of ten steps. The wiper assembly is divided into three sets of wipers so that the
switch has to turn through only one-third of a full circle when operated. These wipers are operated by an
electromagnet, called a driving magnet, with the help of a ratchet and pawl mechanism. When current flows
through the windings of the driving magnet, it is energized and attracts the armature; the pawl slips over one
tooth of the ratchet wheel. The ratchet is prevented from moving in the reverse direction by a detent. When
the current stops through the windings of the driving magnet, it is de-energized, and the armature comes
back to its rest position. During the reverse movement of the armature and hence that of the pawl, the ratchet
wheel stops ahead in the clockwise direction by one tooth and the wipers move to the next contact. The
uniselector rotates as many steps as the electromagnet is energized and de-energized.
Two-motion Selector
The two-motion selector is a type of rotary switch, in which the motion of the wiper
assembly is in two directions, vertical as well as horizontal. In the vertical direction, the wipers move
upward to the desired level and make no connections with the bank contacts. While in the horizontal
direction the wipers make connections with the bank contacts. The two-motion selector has 10 levels; each
having 10 contacts, thus a total of 100 contacts are accessible.
Crossbar Switching
The Crossbar exchanges were developed during the 1940s. They achieve full access and non-blocking
capabilities with the Crossbar switches and common control equipment, used in the Crossbar exchanges.
The active elements called Crosspoints are placed between the input and the output lines. In the common
control switching systems, the separation between switching and control operations allows the usage of
switching networks by a group of common control switches to establish many calls at the same time on a
shared basis.
The Crossbar switching system uses the common control networks which enable the switching network to
perform event monitoring, call processing, charging, operation and maintenance as discussed previously.
The common control also provides uniform numbering of subscribers in a multi-exchange area like big cities
and routing of calls from one exchange to another using the same intermediate exchanges. This method
helps to avoid the disadvantages associated with the step-by-step switching method through its unique
process of receiving and storing the complete number to establish a call connection.
Electronic Switching:
The Electronic Switching systems are operated with the help of a processor or a computer that controls the
switching timings. The instructions are programmed and stored on a processor or computer that controls the
operations. This method of storing the programs on a processor or computer is called the Stored Program
Control (SPC) technology.
Space Division Switching
In space division switching, a dedicated path is established between the calling and the called subscribers
for the entire duration of the call.
Time division switching
In time division switching, sampled values of speech signals are transferred at fixed intervals. The time
division switching may be analog or digital.
Crossbar switch configuration
The Crossbar switch configurations are Non-blocking configurations, which have N2 switching elements for
N subscribers and can make N/2 simultaneous conversations. The usage of Crosspoint depends upon the
calling subscriber.
This is a modified Non-blocking scheme with a Diagonal Crosspoint matrix as discussed above having N(N-
1)/2 elements. The number of elements is the same as that of a fully connected network. The connection in
this method is established by first energizing the horizontal bar and then the vertical bar. However, this Non-
blocking scheme has few disadvantages such as
1. A large number of switching elements are required.

2. This is difficult to implement in practice.
3. This is neither a cost-effective process.
Crossbar exchange organization

The organization of a Crossbar exchange consists of three basic building blocks such as link frames, control
markers and registers. Link frames contain primary and secondary stages having Crossbars, connected with
links between them. This two-stage arrangement with links has the effect of increasing the number of outlets
for a given number of inlets. If the number of outlets is high, the selectivity is higher too.
The two main sections of the Crossbar Exchange organization are
Line Unit
The line link frames along with associated markers and registers can be termed as Line Unit. The line units
are two-way units that help in the origination and termination of calls. Because of its two-way capability, the
secondary section in the line link frame is called the terminal section. The subscriber lines are terminated on
the outlets of the terminal section frames.
Group Unit
The trunk link frame along with its associated circuitry can be termed as the Group Unit. The trunk link
frame may be subdivided into two or three link frames like local office link frame and incoming link frame,
etc. Group unit is a unidirectional device that receives the calls from the line unit or from distant exchanges.
It is capable of handling local, outgoing, incoming, terminating and transit calls.
Pulse Dialing
Pulse dialing is a signaling technology in telecommunications in which a direct current local loop circuit is
interrupted according to a defined coding system for each signal transmitted, usually a digit. Each of the ten
digits is encoded in sequences of up to ten pulses each. For this reason, the method is also called decadic
dialing, primarily in the United Kingdom.
Historically the most common device to produce such pulse trains is the rotary dial of the telephone, lending
the technology another name, rotary dialing. The term loop disconnect dialing arises from its nature of
interrupting the local loop circuit. The pulse repetition rate has historically been standardized based on the
response time needed for electromechanical switching systems, and most telephone systems used the
nominal pulse repetition of 10 pulses per second.
Rotary Dial Telephone

A rotary dial is a component of a telephone or a telephone switchboard that implements a signaling
technology in telecommunications known as pulse dialing. It is used when initiating a telephone call to
transmit the destination telephone number to a telephone exchange.
On the rotary phone dial, the digits are arranged in a circular layout so that a finger wheel may be rotated
against spring tension with one finger. Starting from the position of each digit and rotating to the fixed
finger stop position, the angle through which the dial is rotated corresponds to the desired digit. Compact
telephones with the dial in the handset had all holes equally spaced in the dial, and a spring-loaded finger
stops with limited travel.
When released at the finger stop, the wheel returns to its home position driven by the spring at a speed
regulated by a centrifugal governor device. During this return rotation, the dial interrupts the direct electrical
current of the telephone line (local loop) the specific number of times associated with each digit and thereby
generates electrical pulses which the telephone exchange decodes into each dialed digit. Each of the ten
digits is encoded in sequences to correspond to the number of pulses, so the method is sometimes called
decadic dialing.
Dial pulsing contacts are normally closed, in series with the rest of the circuit components. Pulses briefly
open the contacts for roughly 50 milliseconds. The earphone is disconnected by the dial mechanism when
dialing to prevent very loud clicking from being heard in the earphone. Slow-release relays in the central
office keep the phone from being disconnected by dial pulses.
Signaling Tones
Dial Tone
A dial tone is a telephony signal sent by a telephone exchange or private branch
exchange (PBX) to a terminating device, such as a telephone, when an off-hook condition is detected. It
indicates that the exchange is working and is ready to initiate a telephone call. The tone stops when the first
dialed digit is recognized. If no digits are forthcoming, the partial dial procedure is invoked, often eliciting a
special information tone and an intercept message, followed by the off-hook tone, requiring the caller to
hang up and redial.
Busy Tone
A busy signal (or busy tone or engaged tone) in telephony is an audible call-progress tone or audible signal
to the calling party that indicates a failure to complete the requested connection of that particular telephone
call.
The busy signal has become less common in the past few decades due to the prevalence of call waiting and
voicemail.
Ringing Tone
A ringing tone (audible ringing, also ringback tone) is a signaling tone in telecommunication that is heard by
the originator of a telephone call while the destination terminal is alerting the receiving party. Audible
ringing is typically a repeated tone that is not necessarily synchronous with the cadence of the power ringing
signal that is sent to the called party.
Special information tone

In telephony, a special information tone (SIT) is an in-band international standard Call-Progress Tone
consisting of three rising tones indicating a call has failed. It usually precedes a recorded announcement
describing the problem. Because the SIT is well known in many countries, callers can understand that their
call has failed, even though they do not understand the language of the recorded announcement (e.g., when
calling internationally) instead of assuming the recording is voicemail or some other intended function.
Unit-2: Principle of long Distance communication
Introduction to the individual telephone channel
Signal Switching
Logic signal switches are electronic devices that activate or deactivate a signal once an event has occurred.
They are sometimes called digital signal switches and are for the switching of digital logic signals which
typically consist of high-speed on/off signals.
Stored program control

Stored Program Control (SPC) is the concept of electronics that ringed in a change in telecommunication. It
permits features like abbreviated dialing, call forwarding, calls waiting, etc. The Stored Program Control
concept is where a program or a set of instructions to the computer is stored in its memory and the
instructions are executed automatically one by one by the processor. As the exchange control functions are
carried out through programs stored in the memory
of a computer, it is called the Stored Program Control (SPC).
The processors used by SPC are designed based on the requirements of the exchange. The processors are
duplicated; and, using more than one processor makes the process reliable. A separate processor is used for
the maintenance of the switching system.
Centralized SPC
All the control equipment is replaced with a single processor that must be
Fairly powerful. The dual-processor replaced the single main processor at a later stage of advancement. This
made the process more reliable.
Modes Of Centralized SPC
● Standby Mode
● Synchronous Duplex Mode
● Load Sharing Mode
Standby Mode
One processor is active and another is on standby, both software, and hardware-wise. This standby processor
is brought online while the active processor fails. A significant requirement of this configuration is the
capability of the standby processor to reconstitute the state of the exchange system, while this takes over the
control.
Synchronous Duplex Mode
In the Synchronous Duplex mode, two processors are connected and operated in
synchronism. Two processors P1 and P2 are connected and separate memories like M1 and M2 are used.
These processors are coupled to exchange the stored data. A
A comparator is used in between these two processors. The Comparator helps in
comparing the results. During the normal operation, both of the processors function individually receiving
all the information from the exchange and also related data from their memories. However, only one
processor controls the exchange; the other one remains in synchronism with the previous one. The
comparator, which compares the results of both the processors, identifies if any fault occurs and then the
faulty processor among them is identified by operating them individually. The faulty processor is brought
into service only after the rectification of fault and the other processor serves meanwhile.
Load Sharing Mode
Load sharing mode is where a task is shared between two processors. The Exclusion Device (ED) is used
instead of the comparator in this mode. The processors call for ED to share the resources so that both the
processors do not seek the same resource at the same time.
In this mode, both the processors are simultaneously active. These processors share the resources of the
exchange and load. In case one of the processors fails, the other one takes over the entire load of the
exchange with the help of ED. Under normal operation, each processor handles one-half of the calls on a
statistical basis. The exchange operator can however vary the processor load for maintenance purposes.
Distributed Computing
Distributed SPC has enabled it to provide a wide range of services. This SPC has separate small processors
called the Regional Processors that deal with different works, rather than just one or two processors working
on the whole thing like in the centralized system. However, when these regional processors are required to
perform complex tasks, the centralized SPC helps by directing them.
The Distributed SPC has more availability and reliability than Centralized SPC, because entire exchange
control functions may be decomposed either horizontally or vertically for distributed processing. Such
distributed control where switching equipment is divided into parts, each of which has its own processor.
The exchange environment in vertical decomposition is divided into several blocks and each block is
assigned to a processor that performs all the control functions that are related to a specific block of
equipment, whereas each processor in horizontal decomposition performs one or some of the exchange
control functions.
Two Stage Switches

A two-stage switch offers no distinct advantage over a single stage switch except that it offers
alternative paths for establishing a connection. We, however, study two-stage switches to gain
insight into multistage switches. AN × N single stage switch with a switching capacity of K
connections can be realized by a two-stage switch of N × K and K × N switching matrices
connected in tandem.
Three-stage Switches
The blocking probability and the number of switching elements can be reduced significantly by
adopting a three-stage structure in place of two-stage structure
Time Division Space Switching

Time Division Space Switching switches may also employ space division switching techniques, whereas an
appropriate mixture of both time and space division switching is advantageous in various circumstances. A
Time division space switch takes outputs of several time-division switches (say, TSI switches) switches)
which are then given as inputs to space division switches. This means that one of the two similar outputs
produced by a TDM switch, switch, can be selected by space switch to deliver to another output path which
reduces the number of Cross points.
Time Division Time Switching

The main advantage of time division time multiplexing technique is that, unlike time division space
switching, it allows time slot interchange (TSI) of sample values. values. In TSI, a speech sample input
during a time slot may be sent to the output during a different time slot, which implies a delay between
reception and transmission of a sample. The rate at which the time slot clock runs is 125 micro sec. The time
slot counter increments by one, at the end of each clock pulse, the contents of which provide location
addresses for data memory and control memory. The input sample is read at the beginning of the time slot
and it is clocked at the end of the clock pulse. Because of the storage action, action, the sample is delayed at
least by a single time slot in passing from the input to the output, output, even if there is no time slot
interchange.
TIME MULTIPLEXED SPACE SWITCHING:

In this switching, the inlets and outlets are trunks which carry time division multiplexed data streams. We
call such switches time multiplexed switches.
TIME MULTIPLEXED TIME SWITCHING:

Unlike time multiplexed space switches, time multiplexed time switches permit time slot interchange (TSI)
of sample values. In TSI, a speech sample input during one-time slot may be sent to the output during a
different time slot. Such an operation necessarily implies a delay between the reception and the transmission
of a sample.
COMBINATION SWITCHING
We have seen that time multiplexed time division space switches do not provide full availability as they are
not capable of performing time slot interchange. Time slot interchange switches are not capable of switching
sample values across the trunks without the help of some space switching matrices. Therefore, a
combination of the time and space switches leads to configurations that achieve both time slot interchange
and sample switching across trunks. A two-stage combination switch may be organized with time switch as
the first stage and the space switch as the second stage or vice versa. Accordingly, the two switch
configurations are known by the nomenclature time-space (TS) or space-time (ST) switches respectively.
Line of sight
Line of sight (LoS) is a type of propagation that can transmit and receive data only where transmit and
receive stations are in view of each other without any sort of an obstacle between them. FM radio,
microwave and satellite transmission are examples of line-of-sight communication. Long-distance data
communication is more effective through wireless networks but geographical obstacles and the curvature of
the earth bring limitations to line-of-sight transmission. However, these issues can generally be mitigated
through planning, calculations and the use of additional technologies. For example, mobile phones use a
modified line-of-sight transmission, which is made possible through a combination of effects like
diffraction, multipath reflection, local repeaters and rapid handoff.
Radio Relay Links
A radio relay receives weak signals and retransmits them, often in a different direction, as a stronger signal.
Radio-relay links are used to link two locations instead of using a telephone cable or optical fiber. The 59-63
GHz band is also available for the installation of radio-relay links without an authorization.
Satellite communication
Satellite communication refers to any communication link that involves the use of an artificial satellite in its
propagation path. Satellite communications play a vital role in modern life. There are over 2000 artificial
satellites in use. They can be found in geostationary, elliptical, and low Earth orbits and are used for
traditional point-to-point communications, mobile applications, and the distribution of TV and radio
programs. Satellite communications tend to use high frequency signals: Ultra High Frequency (UHF), 300
MHz - 3 GHz and Super High Frequency (SHF), 3 – 30 GHz.
EARTH’S ATMOSHPHERE
Shortwave radio is radio transmission using shortwave (SW) radio frequencies. Thus shortwave radio can be
used for very long distance communication, in contrast to radio waves of higher frequency which travel in
straight lines (line-of-sight propagation) and are limited by the visual horizon, about 64 km (40 miles).Range
is 3 MHz to 30 MHz.
In radio communication, skywave or skip refers to the propagation of radio waves reflected or refracted back
toward Earth from the ionosphere, an electrically charged layer of the upper atmosphere ..... line-of-sight
propagation, in which radio waves travel in a straight line, the dominant mode at higher frequencies. The
range lies between 5 MHz to 25 MHz.
Space waves are used for very high-frequency bands ranging from 30 MHz to 300 MHz, ultra-high
frequency (UHF) bands, and microwaves. It is because, at such high frequencies, both the skywave
propagation and ground wave propagation fail. Tropospheric scatter, also known as troposcatter, is a method
of communicating with microwave radio signals over considerable distances – often up to 300 kilometres
(190 mi), and further depending on terrain and climate factors. This method of propagation uses the
tropospheric scatter phenomenon, where radio waves at UHF and SHF frequencies are randomly scattered as
they pass through the upper layers of the troposphere. Radio signals are transmitted in a narrow beam aimed
just above the horizon in the direction of the receiver station. As the signals pass through the troposphere,
some of the energy is scattered back toward the Earth, allowing the receiver station to pick up the signal.
Ionosphere is the region of the upper atmosphere with the sufficient amount of charged particles also
referred to as plasma. The ionosphere is the ionized part of Earth's upper atmosphere, from about 48 km (30
mi) to 965 km (600 mi) altitudea region that includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and
exosphere. The ionosphere is ionized by solar radiation. It plays an important role in atmospheric electricity
and forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because, among other functions,
it influences radio propagation to distant places on the Earth.
Fiber Optic
Fibre optic transmission medium is an alternative and strong competitor to coaxial cables in
elecommunication networks. Optical fibres have several advantages over the electrical cables, but are not
without problems. The merits of the optical fibres stem from the fact that the basic material used in their
construction is nonmetallic and electrically non-conductive.
Unit-3: Telephone Traffic System
Network traffic load and parameters
Busy Hour:
Continuous 1-hour period lying wholly in the time interval concerned, for which the traffic volume or the
number of call attempts is greatest.
Peak Busy Hour

The busy hour each day; it usually varies from day to day, or over a number of days.
Time Consistent Busy Hour
The 1-hour period starting at the same time each day for which the average traffic volume or the number of
call attempts is greatest over the days under consideration.
Call completion rate (CCR):

Defined as the ratio of the number of successful calls to the number of call attempts.
Busy hour call attempts (BHCA)
The number of call attempts in the busy hour is called busy hour call attempts.
Grade of service
The amount of traffic rejected by the network is an index of quality of the service offered by the network.
Defined as the ratio of lost traffic to offered traffic. Offered traffic is product of the average number of calls
generated by the users and the Average holding time per call. Actual traffic carried by the network is called
the carried traffic and the average occupancy of the servers in the network is given by:
Where,
A= Offered traffic
A0= Carried traffic
A-A0= Lost traffic
GOS is called call congestion or loss probability and the blocking probability is called time congestion.
Delay probability is the probability that a call experiences delay. If the offered load or the input rate of
traffic far exceeds the network capacity, then the queue lengths become very large and the calls experience
undesirably long delays.
Subscriber viewpoint:
GOS = Call congestion = loss probability
Network viewpoint:
Blocking probability = time congestion
Overflow traffic may be handled in three ways:
• The traffic rejected by one set of resources may be cleared by another set of resources in the
network.
• The traffic may return to the same resource after sometime.
• The traffic may be held by the resource as if being serviced but actually serviced only after the
resources become available.
Three Models of Loss System

• Lost calls cleared (LCC)
• Lost calls returned (LCR)
• Lost calls held (LCH)
Lost calls cleared (LCC)
In Lost Call Cleared systems, queueing is not provided for call requests. When a user requests service, there
is minimal call set-up time and the user is given immediate access to a channel if one is available. If all
channels are already in use and no new channels are available, the call is blocked without access to the
system. The user does not receive service, but is free to try the call again later. Calls are assumed to arrive
with a Poisson distribution, and it is further assumed that there are a nearly infinite number of users.
Lost calls returned (LCR)

LCR assumes that once a call is blocked, a percentage of the blocked callers retry and all other blocked
callers retry until they are serviced. LCR is a derivative of the LCC model and is used in the Extended
Erlang B model.
Lost calls held (LCH)

These blocked calls are lost, never to come back again. Originally LCH was based on the theory that all calls
introduced to a traffic system were held for a finite amount of time. All calls include any of the calls that
were blocked, which meant the calls were still held until time ran out for the call.
Delay System
A system can be built with an inherent delay. Delays are units that cause a time-shift in the input signal, but
that don't affect the signal characteristics. An ideal delay is a delay system that doesn't affect the signal
characteristics at all, and that delays the signal for an exact amount of time.
Traffic Models
Holding Times
Some traffic models take into account the holding times of the call. Most models do not take holding time
into account because call holding times are assumed to be exponential. Generally, calls have short rather
than long hold times, meaning that call holding times will have a negative exponential distribution.
Subscriber Loop Systems

In a general telephone network, every subscriber has two dedicated lines connecting to the nearest switching
exchange, which are called the Loop lines of that subscriber. The laying of lines to the subscriber premises
from the exchange office is called Cabling. As it is difficult to run cables from each subscriber’s premises to
the exchange, large cables are used through which the drop wires (subscriber lines) are taken to a
distribution point.
The drop wires are connected to wire pairs at the distribution point, in the cables. Such distribution cables
from nearby geographical area are connected at a same feeder point where they connected to branch feeder
cables which in turn, are connected to the main feeder cable. This whole process can be understood with the
help of the following figure:
The subscriber cable pairs from the exchange will also terminate at MDF through main feeder cables that
carry large number of wire pairs. These subscriber pairs and exchange pairs are interconnected at the MDF
using jumpers, which makes MDF to provide flexible mechanism for reallocating cable pairs and subscriber
numbers. This means a subscriber who shifts to a different location though in the same exchange area, can
be allowed to use the same number using appropriate jumper, while his old drop wires can be used by
another subscriber with a new number.
Switching Hierarchy and Routing

The interconnectivity of calls between different areas having different exchanges is done with the help
of trunk lines between the exchanges. The group of trunk lines that are used to interconnect different
exchanges are called the Trunk Groups.
In the process of interconnecting exchanges, there are three basic topologies, such as
• Mesh Topology
• Star Topology
• Hierarchical
Transmission Plan
The Transmission of signals through cables should be high in quality in order to ensure better
communication. The transmission links between national and international circuits should be better to
connect in tandem for establishing calls.
To have high quality standards, the following guidelines were put forward by the CCITT −
• The maximum number of circuits to be used in an international call is 12.
• No more than four international circuits be used in tandem between the originating and the
terminating international switching centers.
• In exceptional cases and for a low number of calls, the total number of circuits may be 14, but even
in this case, the international circuits are limited to a maximum of four.
Along with limiting the number of circuits required, the losses such as line loss or wire loss and switch loss
or contact loss should also be minimized. These aspects come under the transmission loss budget, which
provides for factors such as keeping echo levels within limits and control singing.
In-Channel Signaling
This type of signaling is used to carry voice or data and pass control signals related to a call or connection.
There are different types of In-channel Signaling, as seen in the above figure. The D.C. signaling is simple,
cheap and reliable even for unamplified audio circuits. However, for amplified audio circuits, low frequency
A.C. signaling may be adopted.
The Voice Frequency signaling is used when FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) transmission systems
are used, because low frequency signaling and D.C. signaling cannot be provided. This Voice Frequency
signaling may be In-band or Out-band.
Common Channel Signaling

Common Channel Signaling uses a separate common channel for passing control signals for a group of
trunks or information paths as it does not use the speech or the data path for signaling. The common channel
signaling consists of two types of nodes such as Signaling Transfer Points (STP) and Signaling
Points (SP).
A Signaling point is capable of handling control messages directly addressed to it but is incapable of routing
messages. Signaling transfer point is capable of routing messages and can perform the functions of SP.
This common channel signaling is implemented in two modes −
• Channel associated mode
• Channel non-associated mode
Unit-4: Cellular Mobile Telephone and Wireless
Communication
Basic Cellular System

A basic cellular system consists of three parts: a mobile unit, a cell site and a mobile telephone switching
office (MTSO), as Fig shows with connections to link the three subsystems.
1. Mobile units: A mobile telephone unit contains a control unit, a transceiver and an antenna system.
2. Cell Site: The cell site provides an interface between the MTSO and the mobile units. It has a control
unit, radio cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and data terminals.
3. MTSO: The switching office, the central coordination element for all cell sites, contains the cellular
processor and cellular switch. It interfaces with telephone company zone offices, controls call
processing, and handles billing activities.
4. Connections: The radio and high-speed data links connect the three subsystems. Each mobile unit
can only use one channel at a time for its communication link. But the channel is not fixed; It can be
anyone in the entire band assigned by the serving area, with each site having multichannel
capabilities that can connect simultaneously to many mobile units.
The MTSO is the heart of the cellular mobile system. Its processor provides central coordination and cellular
administration.
The cellular switch, which can be either analog or digital, switches calls to connect subscribers to other
mobile subscribers and to the nationwide telephone network. It uses voice trunks similar to telephone
company interoffice voice trunks. It also contains data links providing supervision links between the
processor and the switch and between the cell sites and the processor. The radio link carries the voice and
signaling between the mobile unit and the cell site. The high speed data links cannot be transmitted over the
standard telephone trunks and therefore must use either microwave links or T-carriers (wire lines).
Microwave radio links or T-carriers carry both voice and data between the cell site and the MTSO.
Mobile Radio Environment

In a mobile radio environment, the multipath fading and the time delay spread generate major
problems for cellular communications. Diversity schemes provide the means to generate two or
more uncorrelated fading signals at the mobile reception point. The information carried by the two
different received signals is the same, but the multipath fading, at any given time, is different for
the two signals. The cross correlation coefficient ρ, where ρ ≤ 1, is used to measure their
correlation. If ρ = 1, then the two fading signals are totally correlated. If ρ = 0, then the two fading
signals are uncorrelated. The ideal reduction of signal fading at reception, after combining two
fading signals, occurs when ρ approaches zero.
Trunking
Trunking is a technique used in data communications transmission systems to provide many users with
access to a network by sharing multiple lines or frequencies. As the name implies, the system is like a tree
with one trunk and many branches. Trunking is commonly used in very-high-frequency (VHF) radio and
telecommunication systems.
Trunking can also be defined as a network that handles multiple signals simultaneously. The data
transmitted through trunking can be audio, video, controlling signals or images.
Telecommunication networks all across the globe are based on trunking. Trunking reduces the size of a
telecom network and increases bandwidth. VHF radio used by police and control centers is also based on
trunking.
Efficiency
Energy efficiency is increasingly vital for wireless cellular systems due to the limited battery resources of
mobile clients. Among previous work, many studies suggest different methods to reduce the transmission
power in case of a fixed condition. However, according to the mobility of users and continuous variation of
cellular network environment, the traffic load of base station (BS) and the channel state information (CSI)
are varying. In this paper, we proposed a dynamic power allocation schedule to assign transmit power to
mobile users in the downlink, resulting in optimal energy saving. The novel power allocation scheme was
based on the coordination of neighbouring cells. The results showed that the scheme dramatically reduced
the average bit error rate (BER) and total transmitted power of the system, with the improvement of network
capacity.
Performance criteria
1. Voice Quality
2. Service Quality
3. Special Features
Voice Quality
A set value x at which y percent of customers rate the system voice quality (from
transmitter to receiver) as good or excellent, the top two circuit merits (CM) of the five listed below.
Service Quality
Coverage
The system should serve an area as large as possible. The transmitted power would
have to be very high to illuminate weak spots with sufficient reception, a significant
added cost factor. The higher the transmitted power, the harder it becomes to control interference.
Required grade of service
The grade of service specified for a blocking probability of 0.02 for initiating calls at
the busy hour. This is an average value. However, the blocking probability at each cell site will be different.
To decrease the blocking probability requires a good system plan and a sufficient number of radio channels.
Number of dropped calls
A high drop rate could be caused by either coverage problems or handoff problems
related to inadequate channel availability.
Special Features
1. call forwarding
2. call waiting
3. voice stored (VSR) box
4. automatic roaming, or navigation services
Operation of cellular systems

The operation of a cellular mobile system can be described as five major functionalities and four additional
utilities. All the functions together make a computer mobile cellular system.
Mobile Unit initialization

1. When a mobile unit is turned on, it is turned on, it scans and selects the strongest setup control
channel used for the system.
2. Cells with different frequency bands repetitively broadcast on different setup channels.
3. The receiver selects the strongest setup channel and monitors that channel.
4. With this the mobile station has automatically selected the BS antenna of the cell within which it will
operate.
5. Then handshake takes place b/w the mobile unit and MTSO controlling this cell through the BS in
the cell.
6. Handshake is used to identify the user and register its location.
7. As long as the mobile station is on, scanning is repeated periodically to account for the motion of the
unit.
8. If the unit enters a new cell, then a new BS is selected.
Mobile-originated call
1. A mobile unit originates a call by sending the numer (Mobile Identification Number, MIN) of the
called unit on the preselected setup channel.
2. The receiver of the mobile unit checks if the forward channel (from BS) is idle.
3. If idle the mobile may transmit over the reverse channel (To base station_
4. BS sends requests to the MTSO.
5. MTSO attempts to complete the connection.
6. MTSO sends a paging message to certain BSs depending on the mobile number.
7. BS sends a paging signal on its own assigned setup channel.
Call Accepted
1. Called mobile unit recognizes its number on the setup channel being monitored and responds to that
BS, which sends the response to the MTSO.
2. MTSO sets up a circuit between calling and called BSs.
3. MTSO selects available traffic channels within each BS's cell and notifies each BS, which in turn
notifies its mobile unit ( a data msg called alert is transmitted over FVC to instruct the mobile to ring.
4. The two mobile units tune to their respective channels.
Ongoing Call
1. While connection is maintained, two mobile stations echange voice or data, through BSs and MTSO.
Handoff
1. If a mobile unit moves from a range of one cell to another the traffic channel has to change.
2. System makes this change without either interrupting the call or alerting the user.
Call blocking
If all traffic channels are busy even after multiple attempts a busy tone is returned.
Call termination
When one of the users hangs up, MTSO is informed and the traffic channels are dropped and MTSO is
informed.
Call drop
During a connection if because of interference or weak signal spots, the BS can't maintain the minimum
required signal strength for a certain period of time the traffic channel is dropped and MTSO is informed.
Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber

MTSO connects to the public switched telephone network. Thus it can set up calls b/w mobile users in its
area and fixed subscribers via telephone network , remote MTSO.
GSM, UMTS & LTE
GSM, UMTS and LTE are digital mobile communications technologies that enable mobile network
coverage. GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications. UMTS stands for Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System, and LTE stands for Long Term Evolution. GSM is a second-generation
technology (2G), UMTS is a third-generation technology (3G), and LTE is a fourth-generation technology
(4G).
GSM
GSM is a digital telecommunications standard that was developed by the European Telecommunications
Standard Institute (ETSI) to define the 2G cellular network. 2G GSM offered voice calls, SMS messaging,
and basic data services. Every network (2G, 3G, and 4G LTE) utilizes cellular frequency bands to send and
receive information, which varies by country. 2G GSM used the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz frequency bands
in North and South America, and the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz bands in Europe, Asia, Australia, Middle
East, and Africa. To transmit information, GSM uses FDMA and TDMA. FDMA breaks down the radio
frequency band into multiple channels and TDMA breaks the channel down into time slots to allow more
people to transmit information at the same time.
CDMA
CDMA stands for “Code Division Multiple Access. CDMA standards is used in 3G
connectivity.It can be used for both voice and data. it allows users to access the entire spectrum of bands
available, which increases the network’s capability to handle more connections at a time. The CDMA
network uses the frequency spectrum of CDMA 850 to CDMA 1900 to operate.
UMTS
UMTS stands for Universal Mobile Telecommunications System. It is the 3G standard for the GSM
network.UMTS uses Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W-CDMA) to increase voice capacity and
provide faster speeds.
LTE
LTE stands for Long Term Evolution and is sometimes referred to as 4G LTE. It's a standard for wireless
data transmission that allows us to download favorite music, websites, and video really fast—much faster
than the previous technology, 3G. LTE is the upgrade path for carriers with both GSM/UMTS networks and
CDMA2000 networks. The LTE wireless interface is incompatible with 2G and 3G networks, so that it must
be operated on a separate radio spectrum.
WiFi Vs Wi-Max
Radio Low Power Devices

The term short range device is intended to cover the radio transmitters which provide either unidirectional or
bidirectional communication and which have low capability of causing interference to other radio
equipment.
Unit-5: Access network & Transmission Network
Access Network
An access network is a user network that connects subscribers to a particular service provider
and, through the carrier network, to other networks such as the Internet. Ethernet, wireless LAN,
ADSL, cable modem and dialup are common access networks.
Transmission Network
Transmission networks are transmission systems enabling information to be transmitted in
analogue or digital form between various different sites by means of electromagnetic or optical
signals. The information may consist of audio or video data or some other type of data.
Maintenance
Maintenance is a process for which the objective is to keep the equipment in a working,
efficient and cost-effective condition. There are different techniques used in maintenance, such
as corrective, preventive and predictive maintenance.
FTTH network
Fiber to the home (FTTH), also called fiber to the premises (FTTP), is the installation and use of
optical fiber from a central point directly to individual buildings such as residences, apartment
buildings and businesses to provide high-speed internet access. FTTH dramatically increases
connection speeds available to computer users compared with technologies now used in most
places. FTTH promises connection speeds of up to 100 megabits per second (Mbps). These
speeds are 20 to 100 times as fast as a typical cable modem or DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
connections.
Some Devices
OLT
OLT stands for Optical Line Terminal. An OLT is the device that serves as your ISPs endpoint
of the passive optical network (PON). The OLT also provides the interface between a PON and
ISP’s core network. Simply put, an OLT is ISP equipment.
ONT
ONT stands for Optical Network Terminal. An ONT is the device that serves as the
telecommunication chain’s endpoint of the PON on user end. Another abbreviation to know is an
ONU, which stands for Optical Network Unit. ONU and ONT are often used interchangeably.
More or less, they are the same. Simply put, an ONT/ONU refer to the user side equipment.
In today's optical network topologies, the advent of fiber optic splitter contributes to helping
users maximize the performance of optical network circuits. Fiber optic splitter, also referred to
as optical splitter, or beam splitter, is an integrated waveguide optical power distribution device
that can split an incident light beam into two or more light beams, and vice versa, containing
multiple input and output ends. Optical splitter has played an important role in passive optical
networks (like EPON, GPON, BPON, FTTX, FTTH, etc.) by allowing a single PON( passive
optical network) interface to be shared among many subscribers.
CPE
In telecommunications, a customer-premises equipment or customer-provided equipment (CPE)
is any terminal and associated equipment located at a subscriber's premises and connected with a carrier's
telecommunication circuit. CPE generally refers to devices such as telephones, routers, network switches,
residential gateways (RG), set-top boxes, fixed mobile convergence products, home networking adapters
and Internet access gateways that enable consumers to access providers' communication services and
distribute them in a residence or enterprise with a local area network (LAN).
Fiber optic splicing

Fiber optic splicing is an important method of joining two fiber optic cables together. It is a
preferred solution when an available fiber cable is not sufficiently long for the required run.
Besides, fiber optic splicing is designed to restore fiber optic cables.
Fiber Optic Splicing: Fusion Splicing Method

Fusion splicing is a permanent connection of two or more optical fibers. The two fibers are
welded together with an electronic arc. This is the most widely used method of fiber optic
splicing. Because it provides the lowest loss, less reflectance, strongest and most reliable joint
between two fibers. When we adopt this method, fusion splicing machines are often used.
There is another method like Mechanical Splicing Method.
CIVIL WORKS FOR ACCESS NETWORK:
Manhole
A manhole (alternatively utility hole, maintenance hole or sewer hole) is an opening to a
confined space such as a shaft, utility vault, or large vessel. Manholes are often used as an access
point for an underground public utility, allowing inspection, maintenance, and system upgrades.
The majority of underground services have manholes, including water, sewers, telephone,
electricity, storm drains, district heating, and gas. Manholes are generally found in urban areas,
in streets and occasionally under sidewalks. manholes are designed for underground conduit
systems – they enable access to pipes during pulling, connecting and maintaining
telecommunication cables, fibre-optic cables and tele-technical ones. They can also function as
junction manholes, main manholes in conduit systems, and also as straight-through manholes, corner
manholes or branched ones.
Handhole
A Handhole is a shallow metal electrical utility or pull box (also called an access or splice box)
installed within a run of conduit or ducts that allows for easy access to pull in, splice and terminate wires or
cables or optical fibres.
Handholes serve as space to assist the cable to pass through ducts smoothly, almost like an underground
vault. The size of the handholds for telecom cables is smaller than that of manholes. They also have a
detachable cover, allowing for easy access to the conduit system.
Trenching
Trenching is a construction method that involves digging a narrow trench in the ground for the
installation, maintenance, or inspection of pipelines, conduits, or cables. Trenching may be used
to create new ditches for installing drainage, retaining walls, electrical or fiber conduit, sprinkler
systems and gas, sewer and water lines. It can also be used to create replacement trenches to
replace old sewer, water and drain lines with new materials.
DUCT
It is any tube, canal, pipe, or conduit by which a fluid, air,wire, or other substance is
conducted or conveyed.
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) ducts are used for the construction of underground duct
system for fiber optic and copper cables in the telecommunication’s outside plant network.
HDPE duct intended to be installed by direct buried in a normal trench or mini trench at standard
depths. Today HDPE duct widely used in FTTH network all over the world.
Mainly three types of HDPE duct used in optical network construction-
1. Main HDPE Duct :- available in two sizes,
.2. Mini HDPE Duct :- available in five sizes, with
3.Micro HDPE Duct :.
Main Distribution Frame (MDF)

A Main Distribution Frame (MDF) is a signal distribution frame or cable rack used
in telephony to interconnect and manage telecommunication wiring between itself and any
number of intermediate distribution frames and cabling from the telephony network it supports.
The MDF connects equipment inside a telecommunications facility to cables and subscriber
carrier equipment. Every cable that supplies services to user telephones lines ends up at an
MDF and is distributed through MDF to equipment within local exchanges.
SDH Vs PDH
Microwave communication
Microwave communication is the transmission of signals via radio waves using a series of radio
wavelengths measured in small numbers of centimeters. A Microwave Radio System is a system of
equipment used in broadcasting and telecommunications transmissions. The microwave system includes
radios located high atop microwave towers, which are used for the transmission of microwave
communications using line of sight microwave radio technology. Microwaves are widely used for point-to-
point communications because their small wavelength allows conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in
narrow beams, which can be pointed directly at the
receiving antenna. This allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without interfering
with each other, as lower frequency radio waves do. Line of sight between point-to-point communications is
very important to prevent any interference due to tall buildings and blockages, thus specialist experts are
usually needed to engage for preliminary site surveys.
Microwave products that provide solutions for data, video and audio transmission with frequencies ranging
from 3.5GHz, 5.8GHz, 6GHz, 7-8GHz, 13GHz, 15GHz, 18GHz, 23 GHz, 26 GHz and up to 60GHz.
Antenna
An antenna is a metallic structure that captures and/or transmits radio electromagnetic waves. Antennas
come in all shapes and sizes from little ones that can be found on your roof to watch TV to really big ones
that capture signals from satellites millions of miles away. In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an
electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as
electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna
intercepts some of the power of a radio wave in order to produce an electric current at its terminals, that is
applied to a receiver to be amplified. Antennas are essential components of all radio equipment.
ADSS
ADSS: All-Dielectric Self-Supporting) cable is ideal for installation in distribution
as well as transmission environments, even when live-line installations are
required. As its name indicates, there is no support or messenger wire required, so
installation is achieved in a single pass, making ADSS an economical and simple
means of achieving a fiber optic network.
Standard ADSS Fiber Optic Cable Features:

1) Suitable for use on distribution and high voltage transmission lines
2) Requires no messenger wire -- fully self-supporting
3) Single pass installation -- no messenger, no lashing wire -- faster and lower cost
4) Cable is water-blocked using dry core technology, therefore no messy flooding compounds
OPGW
OPGW is primarily used by the electric utility industry, placed in the secure topmost position of the
transmission line where it “shields” the all-important conductors from lightning while providing a
telecommunications path for internal as well as third party communications. Optical Ground Wire is a dual
functioning cable, meaning it serves two purposes. It is designed to replace traditional static / shield / earth
wires on overhead transmission lines with the added benefit of containing optical fibers which can be used
for telecommunications purposes. OPGW must be capable of withstanding the mechanical stresses applied
to overhead cables by environmental factors such as wind and ice.
VSAT
VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) is a satellite communications system that serves home and
business users. A VSAT end user needs a box that interfaces between the user's computer and an outside
antenna with a transceiver. The tranceiver receives or sends a signal to a satellite transponder in the sky. The
satellite sends and receives signals from an earth station computer that acts as a hub for the system. Each
end user is interconnected with the hub station via the satellite in a star topology. For one end user to
communicate with another, each transmission has to first go to the hub station which retransmits it via the
satellite to the other end user's VSAT.
VSAT handles data, voice, and video signals. VSAT is used both by home users who sign up with a large
service such as DirecPC and by private companies that operate or lease their own VSAT systems. VSAT
offers a number of advantages over terrestrial alternatives. For private applications, companies can have
total control of their own communication system without dependence on other companies. Business and
home users also get higher speed reception than if using ordinary telephone service or ISDN.
Earthling and shielding

In telecommunication systems with peripheral equipment powered directly from mains, the system is
earthed via all protective conductors (PE) and via the functional earth conductor (FE). This arrangement
fulfils the requirements against electrical shock. But for functional purposes a special earth system has to be
provided in such a way that between earth reference conductors no voltage difference occurs which disturbs
the prober system function.
Following requirements have to provide.
1. Connection of a telecommunication system to the supply system (mains) with separated protective
conductor (PE) and neutral conductor (N).
2. Application of a local supplementary equipotential bonding
3. Installation of a reference earth network
Unit-6: Measuring Instruments & Tools
Pliers
Pliers are a tool with two handles at one end and two hard, flat, metal parts at the other. Pliers are used for
holding or pulling out things such as nails, or for bending or cutting wire. Pliers consist of a pair of pivoted
jaws that are used for holding, bending, cutting, or turning objects. They also allow one to manipulate
objects that are too small or too unwieldy to be manipulated with fingers.
Wrenches
Wrenches are used to turn objects, most commonly nuts and bolts. Unlike pliers, wrenches generally do not
have pivoting jaws (an exception is the sink wrench). Wrenches are almost always a better tool than pliers
for loosening and tightening nuts and bolts because they provide greater torque than pliers and are less likely
to round or damage fasteners.
cable cutters
Cable cutters are tools that have been designed to properly cut either wire or cable
with minimal damage to the insulation or internal conductors of the wire or cable.
Winch Machine
An Industrial Winch Machine is a mechanical device that is used to pull in
(Wind up) or let out (wind out) or otherwise adjust the tension of a rope or wire rope
(Also called "cable" or "wire cable"). In its simplest form, it consists of a spool and
attached hand crank. In larger forms, winches stand at the heart of machines as diverse as tow trucks, steam
shovels, and elevators. The spool can also be called the winch drum. More elaborate designs have gear
assemblies and can be powered by electric, hydraulic, pneumatic, or internal combustion drives. Some may
include a solenoid brake and/or a mechanical brake or ratchet and pawl device that prevents it from
unwinding unless the pawl is retracted.
Multimeter
A multimeter, also known as a volt-ohm meter, is a handheld tester used to
measure electrical voltage, current (amperage), resistance, and other values.
Multimeters come in analog and digital versions and are useful for everything
from simple tests, like measuring battery voltage, to detecting faults and complex
Diagnostics. They are one of the tools preferred by electricians for
Troubleshooting electrical problems on motors, appliances, circuits, power
Supplies, and wiring systems.
VOLTMETER AND AMMETER
Wattmeter
A wattmeter is an electric instrument that is used to measure the electric power of
Various electric circuits. It consists of a current coil and a voltage coil. These instruments are widely used in
the transmission and distribution of electric power and these are also used for protection purposes.
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
SWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio), is a measure of how efficiently radio-frequency power is transmitted
from a power source, through a transmission line, into a load (for example, from a power amplifier through a
transmission line, to an antenna). Mathematically:
VSWR is the voltage ratio of the signal on the transmission line:
VSWR = |V (max)| / |V (min)|
Where V (max) is the maximum voltage of the signal along the line, and V (min) is the minimum voltage
along the line.
TONG tester (clamp meter)
An electrical tong tester is also known as a clamp meter which measures current in a circuit in amperes
which is a measurement of the movement of the electron over a point during a given period. A clamp meter
measures the vector sum of the currents flowing in all the conductors passing through the probe, which
depends on the phase relationship of the currents.
Frequency meter
A frequency meter is an instrument that displays the frequency of a periodic electrical signal. Nowadays
frequency counter is used instead of a frequency meter. It measures the frequency in Hertz. We can find
analog and digital versions of this device.
OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer)
It is a fiber-optic instrument used to characterize, troubleshoot and maintain optical
Telecommunication networks. OTDR testing is performed by transmitting and analyzing pulsed laser light
traveling through an optical fiber. The measurement is said to be unidirectional as the light inserts at the
extremity of a fiber optic cable link.
Sequence tester
This instrument detects the phase sequence of three-phase systems. Color-coded test leads are provided for
connecting to the three mains phases of the system under test.

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(Diploma in Computer Engineering)

3rd year / 1st part

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UNIT-1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................................. 5

DEFINITION TELECOMMUNICATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

UNIT-2: PRINCIPLE OF LONG DISTANCE COMMUNICATION ........................................................................................................... 16

INTRODUCTION TO THE INDIVIDUAL TELEPHONE CHANNEL ...........................................................................................................................................................................16

UNIT-3: TELEPHONE TRAFFIC SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................................. 23

NETWORK TRAFFIC LOAD AND PARAMETERS..........................................................................................................................................................................................................23

UNIT-4: CELLULAR MOBILE TELEPHONE AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATION .......................................................................... 33

BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................33

UNIT-5: ACCESS NETWORK & TRANSMISSION NETWORK .............................................................................................................. 40

ACCESS NETWORK ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................40

UNIT-6: MEASURING INSTRUMENTS & TOOLS .................................................................................................................................... 50

WINCH MACHINE ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................51

Telecommunications devices include telephones, telegraph, radio, microwave communication arrangements,

Role of telecommunication in the development of the nation

Block Diagram of telecommunication

Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

Types of Guided Media

Twisted Pair Cable

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

Shielded Twisted Pair

Optical Fibre Cable

1. The signal is broadcasted through air

Broadcasting of audio and visual information

In a Manual switching system, the operator has full control of a connection.

It is a switching system in which all the operations required to execute

Electromechanical switching systems are a combination

Strowger/Step by Step Switching

Space Division Switching

Time division switching

1. A large number of switching elements are required.

Crossbar exchange organization

The two main sections of the Crossbar Exchange organization are

Rotary Dial Telephone

Special information tone

Introduction to the individual telephone channel

Stored program control

of a computer, it is called the Stored Program Control (SPC).

Modes Of Centralized SPC

Synchronous Duplex Mode

A comparator is used in between these two processors. The Comparator helps in

Load Sharing Mode

Two Stage Switches

connections can be realized by a two-stage switch of N × K and K × N switching matrices

adopting a three-stage structure in place of two-stage structure

Time Division Space Switching

Time Division Time Switching

TIME MULTIPLEXED SPACE SWITCHING:

TIME MULTIPLEXED TIME SWITCHING:

Network traffic load and parameters

Peak Busy Hour

Call completion rate (CCR):

A0= Carried traffic

A-A0= Lost traffic

GOS = Call congestion = loss probability