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FMDS0609
FMDS0609
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6-9 Industrial Ovens and Dryers
Page 2 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
List of Figures
Fig. 2.3.3.2. Typical sprinkler arrangement for a festooned cloth dryer ........................................................ 6
Fig. 2.3.3.3. Typical sprinkler arrangement for a single-pass carpet dryer ................................................... 7
Fig. 2.3.4 Typical large spray-drying unit ....................................................................................................... 8
Fig. 2.4.8.15(A). Example of application of a combustion safeguard supervising a continuous line pilot
for a group of line burners during lighting-off and firing ................................................... 17
Fig. 2.4.8.15(B). Example of application of a combustion safeguard supervising a pilot for a continuous
line burner during lighting-off and the main flame alone during firing .............................. 17
Fig. 2.4.9.1.5 Typical unacceptable safety ventilation systems using dual purpose fans alone
(recirculation combined with spill exhaust) ............................................................................ 19
Fig. 2.4.9.1.9(A). Selection of a safety ventilating fan. The reduction of volume for fan B exceeds that
of fan A for a given increase in system resistance .......................................................... 20
Fig. 2.4.9.1.9(B). Centrifugal fans; divided into three groups according to blade shape ........................ 20
Fig. 3.3.(A). Example of solvent evaporation-rate curve for a batch oven .................................................. 32
Fig. 3.3.(B). Airflow test illustrating undesirable characteristics usually present inan oven safety
ventilation system using dual purpose fans alone ................................................................... 33
Fig. 3.3.(C). Typical acceptable safety ventilation systems using safety ventilating fans, with no
recirculation through fans .......................................................................................................... 34
Fig. 3.3.1. Schematic of a low oxygen atmosphere oven and solvent recovery system ............................ 35
List of Tables
Table 2.4.9.2.4. Altitude Correction Factors ................................................................................................. 22
Table 2.4.9.2.5.8 Lower Explosive Limit Correction Factors for Elevated Oven Temperatures ................. 22
Table 2.4.10.1 Limiting Oxidant Concentrations for Flammable Gases When Nitrogen or Carbon Dioxide
are Used as Diluents .......................................................................................................... 24
Table 2.4.10.1 Limiting Oxidant Concentrations for Flammable Gases When Nitrogen or Carbon Dioxide
are Used as Diluents (cont’d) .............................................................................................. 25
Table 2.5.8.1. Test Frequency for Functionality Tests of Safety Controls .................................................... 28
Table 3.4.1. Reported Losses, 2009-2019 ................................................................................................... 35
1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet addresses the inherent fire and explosion hazards in industrial ovens and dryers from fuel,
process combustibles, and flammable volatiles.
When appropriate, references to data sheets concerning ancillary equipment and processes have been
included. The terms “oven” and “dryer” are used interchangeably in this data sheet.
Special types of ovens, dryers, and kilns and associated processes are addressed in other data sheets. (See
Section 4.0.)
1.1 Changes
April 2021. This document has been completely revised. The following significant changes were made:
A. Added a recommendation to install classified electrical equipment in the interior of ovens if flammable
vapor may be present.
B. Added a recommendation to use Data Sheet 6-11 for control of volatile vapor concentration in ducts
if bypass ducts are prohibited by environmental regulations.
C. Added a recommendation to size water supply for simultaneous operation of duct and oven sprinklers
supplied by a common water source.
D. Deleted recommendation for portable extinguishing equipment.
E. Deleted recommendation related to electrical disconnects for electric heaters.
F. Clarified gas detector recommendation to open path IR-type detectors because other technologies are
FM Approved only up to 200°C [392°F].
G. Added recommendation to conduct process hazard analysis for low-oxygen atmosphere ovens to
ensure the atmosphere cannot reach flammable limits under normal operating conditions.
H. Added a recommendation to establish a documented program for safety interlock bypass management.
I. Added recommendation to establish a documented program to address changes in operating
parameters, including conveyor speed to address loss history.
J. Added recommendation to conduct daily visual inspection of explosion vents to check for obstructions.
K. Revised test frequency for some combustion safety devices to annual.
L. Updated loss history.
1.2 Hazard
The primary hazards associated with ovens and dryers are fires and explosions. Many ovens process
combustible products or products that emit flammable vapor during drying or curing. Special atmosphere
ovens can use flammable gas in concentrations above the upper explosive limit (UEL) to aid in processing
or curing. Buildup of combustible deposits or accumulation of flammable gases in any portion of the oven,
dryer, or ductwork can lead to a serious fire or explosion. Operation, ventilation, protection, and housekeeping
recommendations in this data sheet are developed to address the loss experiences of FM Global clients.
See sections 3.2 and 3.3 for more information on fuel and process vapor explosions.
See Understanding the Hazard (UTH): Oven, Dryer and Thermal Oxidizer Fires and Explosions (P0246).
2.2.3 Ducts
2.2.3.1 Design and install ducts in accordance with Data Sheet 7-78, Industrial Exhaust Systems.
2.2.3.2 Insulate ducts and ventilate the space around them to keep temperatures of combustible construction
below 160°F (70°C). See Data Sheet 1-13, Chimneys.
2.2.3.3 Locate the exhaust duct inlet in the zone or area where the concentration of flammable vapor inside
the oven or dryer is greater.
2.2.3.4 Pitch ducts in which flammable vapor condenses so they drain to suitable traps or other safe locations.
2.2.3.5 Avoid the use of a common manifold exhaust duct from multiple ovens or with other equipment. This
increases the fire and explosion exposure from one to the other. However, common exhaust ducts may be
necessary where ovens are connected to solvent recovery systems and certain fume disposal or cleaning
equipment. See Data Sheet 6-11, Thermal and Regenerative Catalylic Oxidizers.
2.2.3.6 Local regulations may prohibit the use of bypass ducts for environmental reasons. If bypass ducts
are prohibited by local regulations, ensure vapor concentration in the ductwork is controlled in accordance with
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheet 6-11.
2.3 Protection
E. Install the system in accordance with Data Sheet 2-0, Installation Guidelines for Automatic Sprinklers.
F. Locate piping on the outside of the oven, with the sprinklers nipple-down in a pendant position by
inverted U bends. If there is not room for the sprinklers themselves, place them in dome-shaped recesses
at least 10 in. (250 mm) in diameter.
Fan
Fan Fan chamber
Cloth Heater
Roll
Work space
Roll
Fan
Fan Heater Fan chamber
Fan
Fan Fan LEGEND
- Automatic upright standard
sprinkler
- Automatic pendent standard
Roll sprinkler
A A - O.S.&Y. sprinkler central
valve
- Pipe rise or drop
Supply
Plan
Air
intake
Fan Fan
Carpet Carpet
Air
intake Exhaust Exhaust
Supply
Fan Fan
Carpet
Recirculating ductwork
SECTION A-A
B C
Fan chamber
Air intake
A Exhaust
A
Exhaust
Supply
B C
PLAN LEGEND
Automatic upright standard sprinklers
Automatic pendent standard sprinklers
Pipe rise or drop
2.3.3.6 Ovens, Dryers, and Lumber Dry Kilns for Wood Processing
For details of automatic sprinkler and deluge system design, see Data Sheet 7-10, Wood Processing and
Woodworking Facilities.
AS
100'
Sprinklers or
spray nozzles as
applicable
Exess-temp.- AS
limit switch Skirt
Exess-temp.-
Hot air limit switch
furnace
AS
Combustion Fixed temp.heat
chamber responsive device for
deluge valve
AS
Deluge valve
(if applicable)
A. Locate the sprinklers or water spray nozzles around the periphery of the dryer at the top. For dryers
having an air-diffuser plate above the product spray head, locate the sprinklers or spray nozzles beneath
the diffuser plate; no protection is needed in the space above. Space sprinklers 8 ft (2.4 m) apart around
the periphery.
B. In spray dryers having a skirt, install a second set of sprinklers or water spray nozzles beneath the
skirt, using the same arrangement and spacing as at the top of the dryer.
C. Make sure automatic sprinklers, if used, have temperature ratings appropriate for the maximum
operating temperature of the equipment. For operating temperatures above 650°F (343°C), use open-head
deluge systems.
D. Actuate deluge systems, if used, by fixed-temperature heat-responsive devices having temperature
settings from 100°F to 125°F (55°C to 70°C) above the maximum operating temperature of the equipment.
Locate the devices at the top of the dryer. Alternatively, if there is an air-diffuser plate, locate the devices
immediately below the diffuser plate. Do not use rate-of-rise detection devices because of rapid
temperature changes during startup.
D. For ovens having horizontal conveyors nearly as wide as the oven, with a relatively large volume below
the conveyor where the flammable mixtures could accumulate, locate vents on the oven wall both above
and below the plane of the conveyor.
E. Distribute vents evenly along the length of the oven so the maximum distance between vents does
not exceed five times the width or height of the oven, whichever is smaller.
F. Locate vents as close as possible to ignition sources. If the oven is compartmentalized, install as much
venting as practical near ignition sources.
G. Provide a distance of at least two explosion vent diameters between an explosion vent outlet and any
large, flat obstruction (e.g., a wall). Use hydraulic diameter for vents that have a cross section other than
circular.
H. Preferably, vent outdoors. For ovens located indoors, a vent pipe or duct may sometimes be needed
to direct discharge to a safe outdoor location. Vent pipes and ducts will, however, increase the vented
explosive pressure experienced by the equipment. Vent pipes and ducts with a length-to-diameter ratio
(L/D) of 1 or less can usually be installed on either high-strength or low-strength equipment if there are no
obstructions in the discharge. Do not vent indoors unless the building room volume is at least ten times
the vented volume of the oven.
I. Use square or circular vents whenever possible. Where rectangular vents are unavoidable, ensure the
longer side is not more than 3 times the shorter side.
J. Use lightweight vent panels, preferably not more than 2.5 lb/ft2 (12 kg/m2).
K. Ensure there are no combustibles exposed to the flame jet that would exit the vent. If possible, allow
for a distance of 50 ft (15 m) between vents and combustibles that are easily ignited by a short-duration
fire exposure.
C. Obtain the latch release force from the manufacturer’s literature and its listing in the Approval Guide.
D. Select and install the hinges to resist at least 200% of the total latch release force.
E. Secure or restrain vent panels and doors at the bottom or on one side as necessary to prevent flying
missile damage. Do not hinge panels at the top, as the panel weight will impede the discharge of gas
through the vent opening. Additionally, the panel may close due to gravity following its operation.
F. Arrange vent doors so they do not close by themselves after opening, thus creating a vacuum inside
the oven after an explosion.
2.4.5.3.2 If vent wall panels are secured by latches on two or four sides, with no hinges, secure the panels
as follows:
A. Use FM Approved explosion-relieving fasteners.
B. Roof panels may be secured by the panel weight alone.
C. Both wall and roof panels may be secured by shear pins of specific shear strength that will break at
the designed panel-oven release pressure.
D. Use the following formula to calculate the maximum allowable release force per latch. Deduct the weight
of the roof panels from the design release pressure before calculating the fasteners or latch forces.
UNHINGED PANEL FORMULA:
A × Pr = F × L
Or
A × Pr = F
L
Example B
Panel Area (A) 8 ft2 (0.74 m2)
Design release pressure (Pr) 20 lb/ft2 (957.6 Pa)
Number of latches (L) 4
English
8 ft2 × 20 lb/ft2 = F = 40 lb maximum allowable release force per latch
4
Metric
0.74 × 957.6 = F = 177.2 N maximum allowable release force per latch
4
Note: 177.2 N × 0.1020 kg/N = 18.1 kg
2.4.5.4 Explosion vents need not be provided on low-oxygen atmosphere ovens due to the difficulty of
maintaining the oven gas tight. The inert atmosphere and the emergency inert system provide appropriate
explosion prevention.
2.4.6.4 Locate the sensor for the excess temperature limit control in accordance with a risk assessment to
determine the optimal location for hazard mitigation.
2.4.6.5 For gas-fired or oil-fired ovens and dryers, interlock the excess temperature limit control with the
safety shutoff valves.
2.4.6.6 For steam-heated ovens and dryers, interlock the excess temperature limit control with a self-closing
valve in the steam supply line.
2.4.6.7 For electrically heated ovens and dryers, interlock the excess temperature limit control with a contactor
in the main supply circuit to the heating units. Do not use the contactor that is used for temperature control.
2.4.6.8 Only use components for the excess temperature control that will fail safe (i.e., cause the same
response as an excess temperature condition).
2.4.6.9 For zoned ovens, provide separate excess temperature limit controls in each zone.
2.4.6.10 For zoned ovens, provide an audible/visual low temperature alarm in a zone if a low temperature
condition will result in evaporation of a flammable vapor in a downstream zone exceeding the level that can
be exhausted by the exhaust ventilation system.
For indirect-fired ovens, an automatic purge for the work chambers may be omitted. A manually controlled
purge by the best available means is acceptable provided no flammable vapor is given off by the materials
processed.
For direct-fired ovens, manually controlled purge by the best available means is acceptable, provided the
following criteria are met:
A. The volume of the oven, based on external dimensions, is less than 350 ft3 (10 m3).
B. No flammable vapor is given off by the work processed.
C. Interlocks are provided and their contacts wired into the oven’s safety control circuit.
This will ensure opening of oven doors and fresh-air inlet dampers and operation of fans before the fuel safety
shutoff valve(s) can be energized and opened and electric ignition activated.
For both mechanical and natural-draft ventilation systems, it may be necessary to open doors and have the
fresh-air inlet and exhaust dampers in the open position to provide sufficient purge air. Provide interlocks
to prove the dampers and doors in the correct position or use mechanical stops and cutaway dampers.
2.4.8.1.2 Provide a purge of at least four volume changes with fresh air by operating the recirculating and
ventilating fans.
2.4.8.13.1.1 External oven heaters can be provided with pilots with low-pressure (gas pressure below 1.0
psi [6.9 kPa, 0.069 bar]) atmospheric inspirator mixers supplied with undiluted gas, if the heater chambers
into which the pilots fire are continuously maintained sufficiently negative (at least -0.20 in. water column [-50
Pa, -0.5 mbar]) with respect to room-air pressure. To ensure this negative pressure, induce the proper amount
of fresh air for complete combustion using motor-driven fans.
2.4.8.13.1.2 The main burners of gas-fired and oil-fired automatic and semi-automatic-lighted ovens can be
ignited by normal gas-fired or oil-fired pilots. Provide combustion safeguards wired into the safety control
circuit as described in Section 2.4.8.15, unless the ovens are indirect-fired and have explosion-resistant
heating systems.
2.4.8.13.1.3 Gas and light (No. 4 or lighter) oil-fired ovens can be provided with direct electric ignition if the
design of the burners renders gas pilots impractical.
2.4.8.13.2 Ensure the pilot flame is stable, even during substantial fluctuations in draft or back pressure.
2.4.8.13.3 Ruggedly design each pilot mounting assembly and install securely so the pilot cannot be moved
out of the position where it will furnish reliable ignition for the burner.
Line 3
burners
Continuous
premixed Pilot gas
line pilot
Fig. 2.4.8.15(A). Example of application of a combustion safeguard supervising a continuous line pilot for
a group of line burners during lighting-off and firing
3 4 5
Premixed gas
1 2 Burner
manifold
Fig. 2.4.8.15(B). Example of application of a combustion safeguard supervising a pilot for a continuous line burner
during lighting-off and the main flame alone during firing
2.4.8.16.2 Limit automatic recycling to one attempt to relight after accidental flame failure during firing. Do
not use automatic recycling except for automatically lighted ovens having pilots.
2.4.8.16.3 At continuous-line gas burners, the total length of burner supervised by a single FM Approved
combustion safeguard should be not more than 50 ft (15.3 m). At burners where the total length exceeds 20
ft (6.1 m) the trial-for-ignition periods should be automatically limited to not more than 15 seconds (see Figure
2.4.8.15(B). This includes those consisting of a limited number of individual radiant-cup burners or line-
burner sections that are supplied from a common burner manifold, have reliable flame propagation between
consecutive burners without special external flame-propagation devices, and are located directly adjacent
to one another.
2.4.9.1 General
2.4.9.1.1 Dilute the vapor evaporated at the peak rate to a concentration not exceeding 25% of the LEL using
safety ventilation. Flammable vapor concentrations up to 50% of LEL are permitted if continuous vapor
concentration indicators and controllers are used as recommended in Section 2.4.9.2.5.
2.4.9.1.2 Provide an automatic pre-ventilation period for each oven startup at gas-, oil-, steam- or electric-
heated ovens to purge the work chamber of any flammable vapor before the heating or electric ignition
systems can be activated and the conveyor placed in operation.
2.4.9.1.3 Provide a purge consisting of at least four volume changes with fresh air.
2.4.9.1.4 Damper Design
2.4.9.1.4.1 If closure or incorrect positioning of any door or damper will prevent proper purging of the entire
oven work chamber, interlock it with the safety-control circuit to ensure proper positioning before and during
the purge period.
2.4.9.1.4.2 Design throttling dampers so the system will handle at least the minimum ventilation rate required
for safety at normal operation when they are set in their maximum throttling position. This can be done by
cutting away part of the dampers or permanently stopping them partially open to produce the necessary
ventilation rate as proved by airflow tests. This does not apply to any dampers that may be required in
connection with special extinguishing systems.
2.4.9.1.4.3 In ovens where dampers and variable-speed fans control the safety ventilation or temperature
by modulating airflow, design the system so that reducing the volume of air cannot reduce the safety
ventilation rate below that required for safe operation. If LEL detectors are used, provide a fast-acting
continuous LEL detector interlocked to shut down the source of heat and solvent or product feed, and bypass
the exhaust to atmosphere where an oxidizer is used, at no more than 50% of the LEL. See Section 2.4.9.2.5.
2.4.9.1.5 Provide a positive safety ventilation system using one or more motor-driven centrifugal fans to safely
dilute and discharge vapor given off by the work to oxidizers/solvent recovery systems or out-of-doors. Do
not return atmosphere containing flammable vapor to the heated work chamber through the fans (see Figure
2.4.9.1.5) unless the system is designed to prevent excessive concentrations. See Section 2.4.9.2 and Data
Sheet 6-11, Thermal and Regenerative Catalytic Oxidizers.
2.4.9.1.6 Circulate the fresh air within the oven to all parts of the work chamber and around the material
being heated. This is best done by motor-driven circulating or recirculating fans so arranged that there are
no pockets where solvent vapor can accumulate.
2.4.9.1.7 Provide interlocks for fans, conveyors, and heating systems to ensure the following:
A. All fans whose failure would adversely affect the safety ventilation rate or flow pattern are placed in
operation before the conveyor can be started.
B. Failure of any fan will automatically stop the conveyor, close the safety shutoff valves, and deactivate
the ignition (of gas-fired or oil-fired ovens) or de-energize electrically heated ovens. If stopping the
conveyor is likely to result in the work igniting, provide interlocks to ensure the following:
1. The conveyor is in operation before the safety shutoff valves can be energized and opened and
the electric ignition system activated (for gas-fired and oil-fired ovens), or the heating system energized
(for electric-heated ovens).
Damper
Recirculating Inlet blast
fan gate
Fresh air Recirculating Damper
Heater in fan
Heater
radiator
tubes
Recirculating Splitter
Recirculating fan damper
fan
Inlet blast gate
Splitter
Fresh air
damper Heater in
Fresh
air
in Direct gas line burner
Outdoor
exhaust stack Damper
Fig. 2.4.9.1.5 Typical unacceptable safety ventilation systems using dual purpose fans alone
(recirculation combined with spill exhaust)
2. Failure of the conveyor will automatically close the safety shutoff valves, deactivate the ignition
system, or (for electric-heated ovens) open the contactor in the main power supply.
It is acceptable to move the conveyor semi-automatically to remove work from the oven in the event of a
conveyor stoppage due to fan failure. This may be controlled by a pushbutton switch.
Where an automatic material feeding system supplies a conveyor at a point adjoining the oven entrance
(as with a lithograph oven coater) the feeding system may be interlocked with the fans instead of the conveyor.
2.4.9.1.8 Connect safety ventilating fans to their motors by direct coupling or V-belt drive using two or more
belts.
2.4.9.1.9 Select each fan so that, under field conditions, its operating point will fall in the steep portion of
the characteristic curve of volume versus static pressure with fan speed constant (see Figure 2.4.9.1.9(A)).
Increased resistance in the system at ducts and inlets, the effect of outdoor wind conditions or fans drawing
from the same room, etc., will produce the minimum reduction in the safety ventilation rate. To ensure each
fan will have an adequate pressure characteristic for normal safety ventilation duty, select the fan with the
following blade-tip speeds in operating condition:
• At least 7,500 ft/min (2,300 m/min) for fans having backward inclined blades (see Figure 2.4.9.1.9(B),
Group 1)
• At least 6,800 ft/min (2,100 m/min) for fans having radial tip blades (see Figure 2.4.9.1.9(B), Group 2)
• At least 5,000 ft/min (1,500 m/min) for fans having forward curved blades (see Figure 2.4.9.1.9(B), Group
3)
PREFERRED CHARACTERISTIC
Fan A -steep CURVE
Fan speed constant
Fan B -flat Normal operating point
for required safety
ventilation
Static pressure
1 2
c e
an
l
s ist tic
S re is 1
m er
te ract
s
sy a 2
S- ch
A A
A Trailing tangent
Fig. 2.4.9.1.9(B). Centrifugal fans; divided into three groups according to blade shape
2.4.9.1.10 Provide a fan interlock in the oven safety-control circuit for each fan whose failure would adversely
affect the safety ventilation rate or flow pattern. There are four acceptable methods:
A. Mount a rotational switch on the fan’s drive shaft and wire it into the safety-control circuit.
B. Wire an auxiliary contact of an overcurrent-protected starter for the fan motor into the safety control
circuit.
C. Wire a contact of a relay whose coil is energized from the load side of an overcurrent-protected starter
for the fan motor into the safety-control circuit.
D. Energize the safety-control circuit dirirectly (or through a transformer) from the load side of an
overcurrent-protected starter for the fan motor.
Caution: The overcurrent protection of the starter should not exceed the convention rating required for the
fan motor alone.
2.4.9.1.11 Provide an airflow or differential pressure switch for each fan wired into the safety control circuit.
Table 2.4.9.2.5.8 Lower Explosive Limit Correction Factors for Elevated Oven Temperatures
Oven Temperature LEL Correction Factor
77°F (25°C) 1.00
212°F (100°C) 0.94
300°F (149°C) 0.90
400°F (204°C) 0.86
500°F (260°C) 0.82
Note: These values were derived from data presented in US Bureau of Mines Bulletin 627.
To determine the exact LEL corrected for temperature, use the following equation from US Bureau of Mines
Bulletin 627:
LELt = LEL77°F [1 - 0.000436 (t°F - 77°F)]
LELt = LEL25°C [1 - 0.000784 (t°C - 25°C)]
Table 2.4.10.1 Limiting Oxidant Concentrations for Flammable Gases When Nitrogen or Carbon Dioxide are Used as
Diluents
Updated or Adjusted Data Original Data
N2-Air Mixture CO2-Air Mixture N2-Air Mixture CO2-Air Mixture
Gas/Vapor LOC LOC LOC LOC
Paraffins (alkanes)
b
Methane 11.1a (13.1)b 12.1 14.6b
b b
Ethane (9.5) (11.9)b 11.0 13.4b
a b
Propane 10.7 (12.8)b 11.4 14.3b
b b
n-Butane (10.6) (13.0)b 12.1 14.5b
b b
Isobutane (methylpropane) (10.5) (13.3)b 12.0 14.8b
b b
n-Pentane (10.6) (12.9)b 12.1 14.4b
c c
Isopentane (2-methylbutane) (10.5) (13.0)c 12.0 14.5c
b b
n-Hexane (10.4) (13.0)b 11.9 14.5b
c c
n-Heptane (10.0) (13.0)c 11.5 14.5
Cycloparaffins (cycloalkanes, naphthenes)
b b
Cyclopropane (10.2) (12.4)b 11.7 13.9b
Olefins (alkenes)
a b
Ethylene (ethene) 8.5 (10.2)b 10.0 11.7b
b b
Propylene (propene) (10.0) (12.6)b 11.5 14.1b
b b
α-butylene (1-butene) (10.1) (12.5)b 11.6 14.0b
c c
Isobutylene (2-methylpropene) (10.5) (13.5)c 12.0 15.0c
c c
Isopentene (2-methyl-1-butene) (10.0) (12.5)c 11.5 14.0c
Diolefins (dienes)
b b
1,3-Butadiene (8.9) (11.6)b 10.4 13.1b
Aromatics
d d
Benzene (11.4) (12.4)b 11.4 13.9b
d,e
Ethylbenzene 9.0 - 9.0d,e -
d,f
Diethylbenzene 8.5 - 8.5d,f -
d,f
Divinylbenzene 8.5 - 8.5d,f -
g,h
Toluene 9.5 - 9.5g,h -
d,i
Vinyltoluene 9.0 - 9.0d,i -
d,j
Styrene (phenylethene) 9.0 - 9.0d,j -
Alcohols
c c
Methyl aclohol (methanol) (8.5) (10.5)c 10.0 12.0c
c c
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) (9.0) (11.5)c 10.5 13.0c
g,h
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) 8.7 - 8.7g,h -
g,h
n-Propyl alcohol (n-propanol) 8.6 - 8.6g,h -
k,h
Isopropyl alcohol (2-propanol) 9.5 - 9.5k,h -
c,l
t-Butyl alcohol (t-butanol) - (15.0) - 16.5c,l
g,h
Isobutyl alcohol (2-methyl-1- 9.1 - 9.1g,h -
propanol)
c,l
Isohexyl alcohol (2-ethyl-1-butanol) (7.9) - 9.3c,l -
Esters
c c
Methyl Formate (8.5) (11.0)c 10.0 12.5c
c c
Methyl acetate (9.5) (12.0)c 11.0 13.5c
k,h k,h
n-Propyl acetate 10.1 - 10.1 -
g,h
Isopropyl acetate 8.8 - 8.8g,h -
g,h
n-Butyl acetate 9.0 - 9.0g,h -
g,h
Isobutyl acetate 9.1 - 9.1g,h -
c c
Isobutyl formate (11.0) (13.5)c 12.5 15.0c
Ethers
c c
Methyl ether (9.0) (11.5)c 10.5 13.0c
c c
Ethyl ether (9.0) (11.5)c 10.5 13.0c
m m
Propylene oxide (6.6) - 7.8 -
Ketones
c c
Acetone (10.0) (12.5)c 11.5 14.0c
c c
Methyl ethyl ketone (9.5) (12.0)c 11.0 13.5c
Table 2.4.10.1 Limiting Oxidant Concentrations for Flammable Gases When Nitrogen or Carbon Dioxide are Used as
Diluents (cont’d)
Updated or Adjusted Data Original Data
N2-Air Mixture CO2-Air Mixture N2-Air Mixture CO2-Air Mixture
Gas/Vapor LOC LOC LOC LOC
Organo-chlorides
c
n-butyl chloride (12.5)c - 14.0 -
b,n
(10.5)b,n - 12.0 -
b,o
Methylene chloride (17.5)b,o - 19.0 -
c,n
(15.5)c,n - 17.0 -
Ethylene dichloride (11.5)c - 13.0 -
b,n b,n
(10.0) (15.0)b,n 11.5 16.5b,n
c
1,1,1-Trichloroethane (12.5) - 14.0c -
c,n
Tricholoroethane (7.7) - 9.0c,n -
d,h
Vinyl Chloride 13.4 - 13.4d,h -
d
Vinylidene chloride 15.0 - 15.0d -
Inorganic Compounds
c c
Carbon disulfide (4.3) (6.4)c 5.0 7.5c
a c
Carbon monoxide (in air) 5.1 (5.1)c 5.5 5.5c
a c
Hydrogen (in air) 4.6 (4.6)c 5.0 5.2c
c c
Hydrogen sulfide (in air) (6.4) (10.0)c 7.5 11.5c
Miscellaneous nitrogen-containing compounds
c
UDMH (1,1-dimethyl hydrazine) (6.0) - 7.0c -
Commercial fuels
Motor Gasolines
c c
(70/100) (10.5) (13.5)c 12.0 15.0c
c c
(100/130) (10.5) (13.5)c 12.0 15.0c
c c
(115/145) (10.5) (13.0)c 12.0 14.5c
Aviation fuels
c,l c,l
Kerosene (8.5) (11.5)c,l 10.0 13.0c,l
c,l c,l
JP-1 fuel (9.0) (12.5)c,l 10.5 14.0c,l
c c
JP-3 fuel (10.5) (13.0)c 12.0 15.5c
c c
JP-4 fuel (10.0) (13.0)c 11.5 14.5c
Natural gas
b b
(Pittsburgh natural gas) (10.5) (12.9)b 12.0 14.4b
* Reproduced with permission of NFPA from NFPA 69, Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems, 2019 edition. Copyright© 2018, National
Fire Protection Association. For a full copy of NFPA 69, please go to www.nfpa.org.
Note:
a
All experiments performed at 25° C (77° F) unless otherwise indicated.
120 L (31.7 gal) apparatus — I. A. Zlochower and G. M. Green, “Mining Publication: The Limiting Oxygen Concentration
and Flammability of Gases and Gas Mixtures” (June 2009).
b
Flammability tube — Table 44 of Bureau of Mines Bulletin 503, “Limits of Flammability of Gases and Vapors” (1952).
c
Flammability tube — Table 11 of J. M. Kuchta, A. L. Furno, A. Bartkowiak, and G. H. Martindill, “Effect of Pressure and
Temperature on Flammability Limits of Chlorinated Combustibles in Oxygen-Nitrogen and Nitrogen Tetroxide-Nitrogen
Atmospheres” (1968).
d
~5 L (1.3 gal) vessel, ASTM E681, Standard Test Method for Concentration Limits of Flammability of Chemicals (Vapors
and Gases) (2015). – The Dow Chemical Company (Unpublished).
e
Experiments performed at 70°C (158°F).
f
Experiments performed at 114°C (237.2°F).
g
~5 L (1.3 gal) vessel, ASTM E2079, Standard Test Methods for Limiting Oxygen (Oxidant) Concentration in Gases and
Vapors (2013); — L. G. Britton, “Using Heats of Oxidation to Evaluate Flammability Hazards,” Process Safety Progress
(2002).
h
Experiments performed at 60°C (140°F).
i
Experiments performed at 105°C (221°F).
j
Experiments performed at 73°C (163.4°F).
k
~5 L (1.3 gal) vessel, ASTM E2079, Standard Test Methods for Limiting Oxygen (Oxidant) Concentration in Gases and
Vapors (2013) — L. G. Britton, The Dow Chemical Company, 1999 (Unpublished Report).
l
Experiments performed at 150°C (302°F).
m
R. M. Jones, “Reducing the Inflammability of Fumigants with Carbon Dioxide,” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry
Research (1933).
n
Experiments performed at 100°C (212°F).
o
Experiments performed at 30°C (86°F).
2.5.3 Commissioning
2.5.3.1.2 Measure the ventilation rate before making any process changes that would affect the rate of
ventilation required. These include changing the character of the work or solvent (or the percentage by weight
of solvent), increasing batch loads or conveyor speeds, shortening pre-drying periods, and increasing
oven/dryer temperatures or ramp rates. Moreover, before making such changes, determine the evaporation
rate and recalculate safety ventilation. Never operate an oven with its safety ventilation system impaired
or overburdened.
2.5.3.1.3 Special hazards are introduced when ovens are connected to solvent recovery or fume incineration
systems, so make frequent checks of the safety ventilation’s adequacy. Include determination of the
evaporation rate and airflow.
If oxidizers are not sized properly, they may not be able to maintain the required temperature at full airflow.
Cutting back on the ventilation to increase temperature is hazardous. If this condition exists, increase the
burner size.
2.6 Training
2.6.1 Develop and implement an operator training program in accordance with Data Sheet 10-8, Operators.
Include normal operation and emergency response in the training program.
2.6.2 Train operators in relighting procedures following accidental flame failure. Procedures will vary with
the individual oven.
3.1 Fire
Fires have occurred at dryers and ovens of practically every type. The following types of ovens have been
most frequently involved in fire:
• Coated metal (paint) ovens
• Textile, fiberboard, and paper dryers
• Ovens for impregnated electric coils
• Core ovens
• Dryers for evaporating low-flash-point solvents used in rubber coating
Firing explosions have occurred after accidental flame failures at ovens where burner flames were not
supervised by combustion safeguards. The most important cause was operation of burners with insufficient
air for complete combustion, resulting in the formation of dangerous mixtures of carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
and air.
Relighting explosions were caused by operators who, after accidental flame failure, did not properly purge
with fresh air before they activated electric ignition or introduced a lighting torch.
In oil-fired ovens, there were few fuel explosions reported because of the smaller number of these units in
service. Lighting-off explosions were caused by operators who failed to properly purge with fresh air between
unsuccessful repeated attempts to ignite burners.
Firing explosions have occurred after accidental flame failures at ovens where burner flames were not
supervised by combustion safeguards. The remainder was due to the operation of burners with insufficient
air for complete combustion, which resulted in the formation of dangerous mixtures of carbon monoxide,
hydrogen and air.
140
(63.6)
120
(54.5)
Evaporation loss-lb (kg)
100
(45.4) Oven drying curve after
30 min. still air dry
80
(36.3) Still air dry
60 curve Oven drying curve
(27.2) after 45 min. still
air dry
40 Fast
(18.2) dripping
not measured
20
(9.1) Work loaded
into oven
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time in minutes after dipping
Fig. 3.3.(A). Example of solvent evaporation-rate curve for a batch oven
B. Safety ventilation systems using natural draft alone are not dependable. The intended upward flow in
the exhaust duct and stack is too easily reduced or even reversed. Temperature changes, outdoor winds,
residue deposits or other obstructions in the exhaust duct or stack, restrictions at fresh air inlets and other
fans drawing from the same room are variables that can too easily affect the slight pressure usually
developed in such systems for producing the ventilation rate required for safety. The increased safety
afforded by forced ventilation is now recognized by oven manufacturers.
+0.1 + 25. Pa
+ 0.25 m bar
in) 2 2650CFM(75m /min)
3
E
-0.1 - 25. Pa
- 0.25 m bar
-0.4 - 100. Pa
Recirc. Recirc. - 1.0 m bar
supply top 2
header return
Radiator 1
tubes - 125. Pa
-0.5 - 1.25 m bar
Gas E D C B A
burner box Fresh
Recirc. air Measuring stations
bottom return inlet Average of
D1 & D2
A
Safety ventilation
Safety ventilation Safety ventilating exhaust stack
exhaust stack fan
Burner-products
Safety ventilating Recirculating fan
of combustion
fan return exhaust stack
Fresh
Heater fan air Explosion
resisting
Fresh air for radiators
combustion and safety
ventilation fresh air input
Burner
Supply
Heater
Return Return
Recirculating fan
(with "spill" exhaust)
Fig. 3.3.(C). Typical acceptable safety ventilation systems using safety ventilating fans, with no recirculation through fans
Solvent recovery
Blower
Oven-dryer
Fig. 3.3.1. Schematic of a low oxygen atmosphere oven and solvent recovery system
3.4.1 Introduction
Table 3.4.1 shows the oven and dryer losses reported to FM Global for the period from 2009 to 2019. Two
thirds of all oven and dryer losses were fires, with property damage driving fire losses.
3.4.3.1 Unsprinklered Bakery Oven Fire Spreads to Combustible Construction, Destroys Building
A fire occurred in a bakery oven, most likely due to combustible deposits stuck to the oven conveyor. Automatic
sprinklers were not provided in the oven or in the production area of the facility. The oven and facility were
provided with high-temperature and flame detection interlocks arranged to stop the conveyor system. These
interlocks failed, resulting in ignited material transferring from the oven to a plastic spiral conveyor cooling belt.
The plastic conveyor then caught fire, which developed sufficient heat to ignite combustible building
construction materials. It reportedly took approximately 40 minutes for the local fire department to arrive at
the facility. By that time, the entire building was involved in the fire. The building ultimately collapsed,
destroying the building and all contents.
3.4.3.2 Bakery Oven Fire Spreads to Exhaust Duct Chase and Roof
A fire occurred in the last zone of a bakery production oven as the oven was being shut down for cleaning.
The oven was provided with a manually-activated fire protection system. However, employees attempted
to fight the fire with portable fire extinguishers instead of activating the fire protection system in the oven. The
fire then spread to the exhaust ductwork, which had not been cleaned in approximately one week. The
resulting temperatures ignited the walls of the exhaust chase, and eventually spread to the roof. The majority
of the property damage was thermal damage to approximately 9,000 ft2 (840 m2) of the roof covering and
rooftop equipment. Time element (TE) was negligible as the production from the impacted oven was shifted
to other areas of the plant.
3.4.3.3 Faulty Gas Control Valve, Operator Error Lead to Rotary Dryer Explosion
A rotary dryer in a corn ethanol plant was equipped with a problematic fuel gas control valve, requiring frequent
manual resets. On the day of the incident, the fuel control valve was manually reset by plant personnel
following a safety shutdown for an unrelated cause. At that time, operators noted that the reported gas control
valve position was not consistent with the gas flow rate reported by the flow meter. The valve position reported
0% open while the meter reported increasing gas flow to the burners. An initial explosion resulted in three
of four explosion vents relieving. These vents were replaced, and the dryer was successfully restarted even
though the gas control valve did not appear to be operating within design parameters. A second explosion
occurred in the dryer, followed by two subsequent explosions in the associated cyclones.
smoke control and to confirm the fire above the suspended ceiling had been extinguished. The oven and
associated equipment were destroyed, and at least 90 gaylords of food-grade plastic pellets were discarded
due to contamination.
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-13, Chimneys
Data Sheet 1-28, Wind Design
Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting Construction
Data Sheet 1-57, Plastics in Construction.
Data Sheet 2-0, Installation Guidelines for Automatic Sprinklers.
Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing
Data Sheet 5-49, Gas and Vapor Detectors and Analysis Systems
Data Sheet 6-0, Elements of Industrial Heating Equipment
Data Sheet 6-11, Thermal and Regenerative Catalylic Oxidizers
Data Sheet 7-2, Waste Solvent Recovery
Data Sheet 7-9, Dip Tanks, Flow Coaters, and Roll Coaters
Data Sheet 7-10, Wood Processing and Woodworking Facilities
Data Sheet 7-32, Ignitable Liquid Operations
Data Sheet 7-54, Natural Gas and Gas Piping
Data Sheet 7-76, Prevention and Mitigation of Combustible Dust Explosions and Fires
Data Sheet 7-78, Industrial Exhaust Systems
Data Sheet 7-88, Ignitable Liquid Storage Tanks
Data Sheet 7-96, Printing Plants
Data Sheet 7-99, Heat Transfer by Organic and Synthetic Fluids
Data Sheet 10-3, Hot Work Management
Approval Guide, an online resource FM Approvals, see “Explosion Venting Wall Systems”
this range. For example, if a mixture of toluene and air contains between 1.1 and 7.1% toluene by volume,
it can ignite. Temperature, pressure and oxygen concentration can change the explosive range.
Festooned: Material processed in an oven that is hanged or draped between a series of points.
FM Approved: References to “FM Approved” in this data sheet mean the product or service described has
satisfied the criteria for FM Approval. See the Approval Guide, an online resource of FM Approvals, for a
complete listing of products and services that are FM Approved.
Fume incinerator: A thermal oxidizer used to destroy pollutants exhausted from ovens that use solvents
for the process. Regenerative thermal oxidizers (RTO) and regenerative catalytic oxidizers (RCO) also
perform this function.
Inerting gas: A nonflammable gas, such as argon or nitrogen, that is used to displace air and make the
atmosphere nonflammable.
Ignitable liquid: Any liquid or liquid mixture capable of fueling a fire, including flammable liquids, combustible
liquids, inflammable liquids, or any other term for a liquid that will burn. An ignitable liquid is one that has
a fire point.
Igniter: A source of ignition for a burner. Can be electric or fuel-fired.
LEL detector: A combustibles analyzer that gives a reading in terms of percent of LEL for the sampled
atmosphere.
Lower explosive limit: The minimum concentration of a flammable vapor in air at which ignition can occur.
Pilot: A fuel-fired igniter.
Plenum: A chamber from which a fan draws air. May be fitted with heating/cooling coils and damper vanes.
Purge: To flush a combustion chamber with fresh air, usually 4 volumes.
Safety blowout device: Used in a premixed fuel line to protect equipment such as a compressor from a
flareback. Consists of a flame arrestor, fire check valve, and rupture disk.
Safety ventilation: Ventilation of an oven with fresh air to keep solvent vapor diluted well below the LEL.
Normally measured and calculated using the exhaust flow rate.
Standard cubic feet (scf): Air quantity, referenced to dry air at 70°F (21°C) and 29.92 inch Hg (1 bar)
pressure. This measurement is often used for fan capacity ratings. If referenced in determining ventilation
capacity, standard cubic feet must be converted to actual cubic feet by accounting for site-specific temperature
and altitude conditions.
Solvent recovery system: An unfired system used to remove solvent vapor from the exhaust stream.
Trial-for-ignition: The maximum amount of time fuel can be admitted to a pilot or burner at startup if flame
is not detected.
Turndown: The operating range of a burner, or the ratio of the maximum firing rate to the lowest firing rate
(e.g., 10 to 1).
Upper explosive limit: The maximum concentration of a flammable vapor in air at which ignition can occur.
C. Added a recommendation to size water supply for simultaneous operation of duct and oven sprinklers
supplied by a common water source.
D. Deleted recommendation for portable extinguishing equipment.
E. Deleted recommendation related to electrical disconnects for electric heaters.
F. Clarified gas detector recommendation to open path IR-type detectors because other technologies are
FM Approved only up to 200°C [392°F].
G. Added recommendation to conduct process hazard analysis for low-oxygen atmosphere ovens to
ensure the atmosphere cannot reach flammable limits under normal operating conditions.
H. Added a recommendation to establish a documented program for safety interlock bypass management.
I. Added recommendation to establish a documented program to address changes in operating
parameters, including conveyor speed to address loss history.
J. Added recommendation to conduct daily visual inspection of explosion vents to check for obstructions.
K. Revised test frequency for some combustion safety devices to annual.
L. Updated loss history.
July 2014. The following major changes were made:
A. Revised terminology and guidance related to ignitable liquids to provide increased clarity and
consistency. This includes replacement of references to “flammable” and “combustible” liquid with
“ignitable” liquid throughout the document.
B. Reorganized the document to provide a format that is consistent with other data sheets.
C. Provided additional information relative to the construction and proper location of ovens and dryers.
D. Modified recommendations related to explosion vents.
E. Provided guidance on the proper design of fuel supply, transfer, and piping systems for gas-fired and
oil-fired ovens and dryers, including reference to other applicable data sheets.
F. Revised the oven and dryer ventilation system design guidance to meet current industry practices. This
includes accounting for the impact of altitude on the necessary ventilation rates, and the elimination of
the use of nominal (i.e., estimated) solvent rate data for continuous ovens.
G. Revised Appendix C, Ventilation System Design, to conform to current industry practices, to provide
increased clarity, and to provide additional guidance on the measurement of safety ventilation rates.
H. Provided more specific design guidance for the sprinkler protection of ovens and dryers.
June 2009. The reference source for solvent chemical properties has been changed to NFPA 86, Standard
for Ovens and Furnaces. NFPA 325M, Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases, and Volatile
Solids, has been withdrawn by the NFPA.
September 2003. This data sheet has been rewritten.
(2.1.2.3.4) The allowable clearance between exhaust ducts and stored combustible materials has been
increased from 18 to 30 inches (45 to 75 cm) in agreement with Data Sheet 6-4/12-69, Oil- and Gas-Fired
Single-Burner Boilers.
(2.1.3.4) The explosion venting recommendations have been revised to be in agreement with Data Sheet
1-44, Damage-Limiting Construction for weak construction and NFPA 68, Venting of Deflagrations for strong
construction. The traditional 15 to 1 ratio, which is not based on anything except experience, has been
dropped.
(2.1.4.4.2) The minimum safety control testing frequency has been changed from monthly to quarterly. This
is a more realistic and practical approach.
(2.2.3.1) Temperature control recommendations have been revised, are more flexible and take into account
flammable materials, multiple zones, location and set points. Low temperature alarms are recommended
for multiple zones with process solvents. Rating of components such as thermocouple extension wires is
also addressed. The previous Section 2.3.2.8 on excess temperature interlocks has been combined with this
section.
(2.3.3.4 and 2.4.2.1) The recommendation for airflow switches is no longer an option and is now required.
(2.3.2.7) A low fire interlock is recommended for gas and oil, not just oil.
(2.3.2.10 Previous section) The section on FM cocks has been deleted. FM cock systems are still in existence,
but should not be recommended for new installations. Combustion safeguard systems should be used.
(2.3.2.12) The three options were deleted. All that is needed is an interlock to prevent the fuel-aspirating
combustion fan from running during purge. A second safety shutoff valve is already required, and the
recommendation for an FM cock system has been deleted. A proof-of-closure switch is already required on
burner systems greater than 400,000 Btuh (117 kW), and is not available on valves under 0.75 inches (2
cm).
(2.3.2.14(b)) The option for a second safety shutoff valve has been deleted since this is now always required.
(2.3.2.15) The recommended maximum trial-for-ignition time has been decreased to 5 seconds for direct
spark ignition. A pilot can be supervised with a flame scanner whereas an electric igniter cannot. This time
can be extended if needed, however.
(2.3.2.19.3 Previous section) The allowance for one flame scanner supervising two burners has been deleted.
There is already an allowance for line-type burners to be supervised by a single scanner.
September 2000. Changes to safety ventilation and safety shutoff valve recommendations were made to
be in agreement with NFPA 86 1999. These changes are justified based on loss experience and because there
is no reason to differ from NFPA 86 with regard to any of these changes.
The nominal amounts of air required to render a solvent barely explosive have been increased for continuous
and batch ovens. Example calculations have been revised to reflect this. The nominal amounts of air have
been increased because the previous amounts did not account for LEL correction, and also so that the nominal
method would be safe to use for more solvents. For batch ovens, this is especially important because the
LEL can be reached at peak evaporation. This change does not affect Oven VentilationCalc for continuous
ovens because a calculated method is used as opposed to the nominal method.
An equation has been added for LEL temperature correction. LEL correction is important because the LEL
is reduced at elevated temperatures. This is not new to NFPA 86 and has been used all along in Oven
VentilationCalc. The data sheet contained an LEL correction table, but did not include this factor in the
examples.
LEL detector trip set point has been changed from 60% to 50%. This is not new to NFPA 86 and is in
agreement with Data Sheet 6-11, Thermal and Regenerative Catalylic Oxidizers.
The amount of air required for combustion is now always added to the amount of safety ventilation needed
for the process vapors regardless of the amount. The one third rule has been dropped. The NFPA 86
committee decided that there was no known reason for this rule.
Two safety shutoff valves are now recommended for all pilots and burners, regardless of size. A
recommendation for multi-burner operation was also added.
June 1999. This document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.
C.1.1 General
Whenever possible, determine necessary safety ventilation rates based on evaporation rates and properties
of the solvents as determined from laboratory or field testing of individual site processes (i.e., detailed solvent
rate data). “Detailed” in this context indicates an understanding of the rate of change of the introduction of
solvents into the process atmosphere to a degree sufficient to determine peak process atmosphere solvent
mass fractions. This information usually derives from detailed records of process flow rates. Often, this is
obtained by weighing coated components prior to their insertion into the oven, and removing and weighing
them at different times throughout the process to determine how much solvent had evolved at those times.
If detailed solvent rate data is unknown and unavailable, the use of nominal data may be used in some cases,
using typical evaporation rates for most common solvents as applied to coated or dipped metal. Different
solvents, work application, and degree of absorption will produce different evaporation rates of the volatiles.
Dipped sheet metal produces the highest evaporation rates ordinarily encountered.
Metric:
Calculate meters of vapor from evaporation of 1 l of the solvent,
While an understanding of the actual air volume necessary to dilute a flammable vapor is important, standard
air volume (e.g., standard cubic feet or meters per minute) still needs to be considered to verify if the fan
selected for a specific process will provide the required amount of air flow at process conditions. Fans are
typically rated by the manufacturers in terms of conditions at standard atmospheric conditions (e.g., scfm), In
order to compare the process conditions to the fan ratings, a review of calculations or revised fan curves
that compare standard to actual air volume based on the specific oven process is necessary.