Theme-1 Bricks Beads and Bones Notes
Theme-1 Bricks Beads and Bones Notes
Theme-1 Bricks Beads and Bones Notes
❖ INTRODUCTION
➢ It started flourishing along River Indus (now in Pakistan) at around 2600 B.C.
➢ Harappan civilization was the largest Bronze age civilization in the world
➢ After 1900 B.C., most of the sites were abandoned due to some reasons. By 1900 B.C.
major part of the civilization ended.
➢ The civilization is dated between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE. The period of the civilization
is broadly divided in to three: -
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Kalibangan,(Rajasthan) Chanhudaro,(Pakistan)
Rakhi Garhi(Haryana) Mohenjodaro,(Pakistan)
Banawali (Haryana) Harappa(pakistan)
Rupar,(Punjab) Sutakagen Dor,(Pakistan)
Dholavira,(Gujarat Amri,(Pakistan)
Lothal,(Gujarat) Kot Diji(Pakistan)
Rangpur,(Gujarat) Nageshwar(Pakistan)
Surkotda (Gujarat) Balakot,(Pakistan)
➢ Subsistence strategies refer that how these people survive. What they eat etc.
➢ Archaeologist found the evidence that they depended on hunting and gathering,
cultivation, pastoralist, and for their food.
➢ Teracotta models of oxen, plough etc. show that people relied on agriculture too.
Archaeologists found grain such as wheat, barley, lentils, chickpea and sesame at the
Harappan sites. In Gujarat, Millets have been found. Rice was found rarely.
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➢ There are evidences of bones of animals which prove that people consumed meat. Bones
of cattle, fish, fowl, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig, boar, deer, and gharial are found at the sites.
Studies indicate that these animals were either domesticated or hunted by
the Harappans
➢ Agriculture was the main occupation of the Harappans. The prevalence of agriculture is
indicated by finds of grains. It is very difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices
carried out by the Harappans. But archaeologist found much evidence which shows that
they also used technology in agriculture.
➢ CROPS
➢ PLOUGHING-
➢ MULTIPLE CROPPING
▪ The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting
that two different crops were grown together.
➢ IRRIGATION
▪ Most of the Harappan sites were located in semi-arid regions. So,to enhance
agricultural produce they needed facilities of irrigation.
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▪ Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai
in Afghanistan.
▪ It is also likely that water was drawn from wells was used for irrigation.
▪ Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used
to store water for agriculture.
➢ FOOD PROCESSING
❖ TOWN PLANNING
➢ The most spectacular part of Harappan structure is the large scale town layout. The
settlement was first planned and then implemented. Bricks used in the buildings were
uniform in size. Length and breadth of bricks were four times and twice the height
(4:2:1) respectively. Most of the cities were divided into two parts.
➢ CITADEL-
▪ The western part of the settlement which is raised but small in size was
known as citadel by the archaeologist.
▪ It was built on mud brick platforms. It was walled and separated from the
Lower Town.
▪ The citadel was probably used for special public purpose. Many special
building like The Great Bath, Store house etc.
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❖ ROAD AND STREETS
➢ The roads and streets in the lower town were laid out in a grid pattern, intersecting at
right angles.
➢ The streets and drains were first laid out and then houses were built on the same pattern.
❖ HOUSES
➢ Different activities like cooking, weaving etc. were carried out in the courtyard
particularly during the hot and dry seasons.
➢ There were no windows along the walls on the ground floor. So privacy could
be maintained.
➢ The main entrance did not provide view of courtyard and interior. Every house had
bathroom paved with bricks which was connected through the wall to the street drains.
➢ In some houses remains of staircases to reach second storey or roof have been found.
➢ In smaller settlements such as Lothal, the houses were built of mud bricks and drains
were made of burnt bricks.
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➢ Many houses had wells which were reachable from outside for the use of outsiders. It is
estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700.
❖ DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF THE HARAPPANS
➢ One of the striking features of Harappan cities was the well planned drainage system.
➢ They were covered with big bricks which could be lifted easily to clean the drains. For
sewage from the houses, pits were provided at either side of the street.
➢ Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning.
➢ Little heaps of materials mostly sand have frequently been found alongside the drains.
This shows that the drains were cleaned at regular intervals.
➢ On citadel, some special buildings were built like 'The great bath of Mohenjo-Daro'. Such
buildings were used on some religious occasions or on public gatherings.
➢ The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank surrounded by corridors on all four sides.
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➢ There were two flights of steps on north and south leading into the tank.
➢ The tank was made watertight by laying bricks on the edge and using mortar
and gypsum.
➢ Rooms were made on three sides of the tank, with one room having a large well.
➢ Across the lane there was a smaller building with eight bathrooms, four at each side of a
corridor, with drains from each bathroom connecting to a drain that ran along
the corridor.
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▪ Strategies to analyze social and economic differences amongst people living
within a particular culture include study of burials.
▪ Some of the burials contained ornaments, pottery etc, may be a belief that
these things can be used after life.
▪ Jwelleries were found in both men and women burials which mean that
both men and women used ornaments.
▪ This shows that there were social differences. Some persons were poor and
some were rich.
➢ By studying Artefacts
▪ Studying artefacts is another strategy to find out social differences.
Artefacts are divided into utilitarian and luxuries.
▪ Luxury artefacts are rare objects made of valuable materials are generally
concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa. For
Example, little pots of faience were used as perfume bottles.
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❖ RAW MATERIALS
➢ Raw materials required for craft production. The variety of materials used to make beads
is remarkable:
➢ Stones
▪ Carnelian (of a beautiful red colour) jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite
➢ Metals
▪ like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
➢ Harappan craftpersons used different methods to make craft works. Beads were made of
two or more stones by cementing together, while some of stone with gold caps.
➢ Some were decorated by painting and some had designs etched on them.They made
bangles, ladles out of shells.
➢ Special tools were used for craft work. Specialized drills have been found at Chanhudaro,
Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.
▪ Evidences of tools,
▪ Raw materials,
▪ Unfinished objects,
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▪ Rejects OR waste materials
➢ Established settlements
▪ Harappan people established settlements in Nageshwar, Balakot
and Shortughai.
▪ Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, was the best source of lapis-lazuli.
▪ Lothal which was near sources of carnelian, Steatite from south Rajasthan
and north Gujarat and metal from Rajasthan.
➢ Sent expeditions
▪ They might have sent expeditions to areas such as the khetri region of
Rajasthan (for copper) and south India (forgold).
▪ Nageshwar and Balakot were areas for shell.
▪ Expeditions to the khetri region and south India established
communication with local communities.
➢ Contact with distant lands (Trade relation )
▪ Harappans probably had trade contacts with the Oman peninsula. Chemical
analyses have shown that both the Omani copper and Harappan artefacts
have traces of nickel, which suggests a common origin.
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❖ SEALS AND SEALINGS
➢ When a bag of goods was sent from one place to another, its mouth was tied with a rope.
➢ On the knot was affixed some wet clay on which one or more seals were pressed, leaving
an impression.
➢ If the bag reached with its sealing intact, it meant that it had not been tampered with.
➢ The seal had a motif (generally an animal- Unicorn)) which conveyed a meaning to those
who could not read.
➢ Seals were basically used to convey the identity of the sender and to facilitate long
distance communication.
❖ CHARACTERISTICS OF SCRIPT
➢ Harappan scripts found on many objects as seals, copper tools, rims of jars, terracotta
tablets, bone rods etc.
➢ Most of Harappan inscriptions which find out are short. The longest containing about 26
signs.
➢ Many signs were used and they are around 375-400 in numbers.
❖ WEIGHTS
➢ Exchangers were regulated by a precise system of weights usually made of a stone called
chert (a kind of stone, generally cubical with no markings).
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➢ Lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2,4,8,16,32 etc.), while the higher
denominations followed the decimal system.
❖ ANCIENT AUTHORITY
➢ Different arguments put forwarded by the archaeologists over the central authority of
Harappa
➢ There are three major views about the existence of a central authority in the
Harappan society.
▪ Some archaeologists have the opinion that there were no rulers in the
Harappan society and that everybody enjoyed equal status.
▪ Others have the opinion that there was no single ruler but several rulers.
Monenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa had separate and so on.
▪ Some others suggest that there was a single state. This theory was based on
the similarity of artefacts, planned settlements etc. One statue is find out
by the archaeologist referred as “Priest King” according to the
Mesopotamia rulers.
➢ The last opinion considers being more plausible as it is doubtful that such complex
decisions were made and implemented collectively by entire communities.
❖ CHANGES OCCURRED
➢ The archaeologist found some changes around 1900 BCE which shows their decline as
➢ The Evidences that reflected the disappearance of Harappan civilization by 1800 BCE.
➢ The expansion of population and its migration took place towards Gujarat, Haryana,
Western U.P etc.
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➢ After 1900B.C. sites which existed marked the transformation of material
culture i.e. disappearance of distinctive artefacts of civilization like weights, seals, distant
trade, etc. Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialization also disappeared.
➢ The reasons responsible for the end of the civilization is still unknown. But probable
reasons are;
➢ Climatic Change
➢ Deforestation
➢ Excessive floods
➢ Cunningham was the first Director General of ASI (Archaeological Survey of India).
➢ His main interest was in the archaeology of early history from 6th century BCE-
4th century CE, and later periods.
➢ He used the accounts left by Chinese pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between
the 4th and 7thcenturies CE.
➢ He also collected, documented and translated inscriptions found during his surveys.
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➢ Site like Harappa did not fit well in his area of investigation.
➢ Although Harappan artefacts were found during the 19th century and some of these
reached Cunningham.
➢ But he did not realize how old these were as they were not part of the itinerary of Chinese
pilgrims and was not known as an Early Historic city.
➢ But he was unable to place it in the time frame with which he was familiar. He thought
that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley.
➢ Daya Ram Sahni and Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at Harappa and Mohenjodaro
respectively
➢ Based on these finds, in 1924, John Marshall, Director General of the ASI, announced the
discovery of a new civilization in the Indus valley to the world.
➢ This meant that all the artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together,
even if they were found at different stratigraphic layers.
➢ As a result, valuable information about the context of these finds was irretrievably lost.
R.E.M Wheeler rectified this problem. He recognized that it was necessary to follow the
stratigraphy of the mound rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontallines.
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➢ Organic material such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds generally decomposed while stone,
burnt clay, metal etc.survive.Materials such as pottery, tools, ornaments, and house hold
objects are available.
➢ The second, and most complicated, is in terms of function: archaeologists have to decide
whether, for instance, an artifact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meant for
ritual use.
➢ Archaeologists also try to identify the function of an artefact by investigating the context
in which it was found. Whether it was found in a house, in drain, grave or in kiln.
➢ Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining
seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others, with plant motifs, are thought to
indicate nature worship.
➢ Many reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the assumption that later
traditions provide parallels with earlier ones. This is because archaeologists often move
from the known to the unknown, that is, from the present to the past.
Archaeologist’s attempts to reconstruct the religious practices of Harappan
people
Ø The discovery of pots, querns, beads etc in the Harappan sites and their graves
provide enormous information
Ø Traces of cotton and dresses depicted on seals and sculptures, give us an idea
about the dressing style of the Harappan people
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Ø In Some seals a figure shown seated cross legged in a ‘yogic’ posture, sometimes
surrounded by animals has been regarded as a depiction of proto-Siva that is an
early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism.
The two important structures that have been found by archaeologists are: The fire
altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal and The Great Bath at Monhenjodaro,
something meant for ritual use.
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