Bes 143b3e

BES-143
Pedagogy of
Indira Gandhi
Mathematics
National Open University
School of Education
Block
3
CONTENT BASED METHODOLOGY-I
UNIT 10
Number Systems, Number Theory, Exponents and 5
Logarithms
UNIT 11
Polynomials: Basic Concepts and Factoring 35
UNIT 12
Linear Equations, Inequations and Quadratic 61
Equations
UNIT 13
Sets, Relations, Functions and Graphs 91
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. I. K. Bansal (Chairperson) Prof. Anju Sehgal Gupta
Former Head, Department of Elementary School of Humanities
Education, NCERT, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Shridhar Vashistha Prof. N. K. Dash (Director)
Former Vice-Chancellor School of Education
Lal Bahadur Shastri Sanskrit IGNOU, New Delhi
Vidhyapeeth, New Delhi
Prof. M. C. Sharma
Prof. Parvin Sinclair (Programme Coordinator- B.Ed.)
Former Director, NCERT School of Education
School of Sciences IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Gaurav Singh
Prof. Aejaz Mashih (Programme Co-coordinator-B.Ed.)
Faculty of Education School of Education
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Pratyush Kumar Mandal
DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
SPECIAL INVITEES (FACULTY OF SOE)

Prof. D. Venkateswarlu Dr. Bharti Dogra
Prof. Amitav Mishra Dr. Vandana Singh
Ms. Poonam Bhushan Dr. Elizabeth Kuruvilla
Dr. Eisha Kannadi
Dr. Niradhar Dey
Dr. M. V. Lakshmi Reddy
Course Coordinators : Prof. M.C. Sharma, SOE, IGNOU

Dr. Anjuli Suhane, SOE, IGNOU
COURSE TEAM
Course Contribution Language Editing
Prof. Amitav Mishra
Unit 10
SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi
Adopted from ES-342
Format Editing
Unit (11, 12 and 13)
Dr. Anjuli Suhane
Dr. P.K. Singhal
Principal
ASVJ Sr. Secondary School, Delhi Proof Reading
Dr. Anjuli Suhane
Content Editing SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. C.P.S. Chouhan
Former Dean
Faculty of Education, AMU, Aligarh
Prof. D. Venkateswarlu
PRODUCTION
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SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi
January, 2017
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2017
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Course : BES-143 Pedagogy of Mathematics
BLOCK 1: UNDERSTANDING THE DISCIPLINE OF MATHEMATICS

Unit 1 Nature and Scope of Mathematics
Unit 2 Aims and Objectives of Teaching -Learning Mathematics
Unit 3 How Children Learn Mathematics
Unit 4 Mathematics in School Curriculum
BLOCK 2: TEACHING -LEARNING OF MATHEMATICS

Unit 5 Approaches and Strategies for Learning Mathematics
Unit 6 Organizing Teaching-Learning Experiences
Unit 7 Learning Resources and ICT for Mathematics Teaching-Learning
Unit 8 Assessment in Mathematics
Unit 9 Professional Development of Mathematics Teacher
BLOCK 3: CONTENT BASED METHODOLOGY-I

Unit 10 Number Systems, Number Theory, Exponents and Logarithms
Unit 11 Polynomials: Basic Concepts and Factoring
Unit 12 Linear Equations, Inequations and Quadratic Equations
Unit 13 Sets, Relations, Functions and Graphs
BLOCK 4 : CONTENT BASED METHODOLOGY-II

Unit 14 Statistics and Probability
Unit 15 Parallel Lines, Parallelograms and Triangles
Unit 16 Trigonometry and its Application
Unit 17 Mensuration and Coordinate Geometry
BLOCK 3 CONTENT BASED
METHODOLOGY-I
Block Introduction
The course BES-143: Pedagogy of Mathematics contains four blocks. This is
the third block which is titled as Content based Methodology-I. In the first two
blocks nature, aims, curriculum and approaches of teaching-learning & assessment
tools of mathematics have been discussed. This is the block where the subject
contents/concepts have been discussed together with the suggested methodology
for the teaching-learning and evaluation. This block focuses on the basic concepts
of algebra, polynomials and their factorization, solution of linear and quadratic
equations, sets, relations and functions and various ways of transaction of these
topics in the classroom. This block consists of four units.
Unit 10: Number System, Number Theory, Exponents and Logarithms
Unit 11: Polynomials: Basic Concepts and Factoring
Unit 12: Linear Educations, Inequations and Quadratic Equations
Unit 13: Sets, Relations, Functions and Graphs
Unit 10 provides a detailed account of the development of the number system
and number theory. The need for different number systems and their interrelations
are discussed. This unit focuses on the concepts of exponents and logarithms.
Moreover, in this unit the concepts of HCF and LCM also find their places.
Everyone knows that mathematics is an art of problem solving. The representation

of unknown quantities by alphabets paved the way for algebra. The algebraic
calculations and procedures are the backbone of all problem-solving exercise. In
algebra the unknown quantities are known as variables which can assume different
values under different conditions. The variables are generally represented by the
alphabets x, y, z, etc. Anyone who wants to pursue higher mathematics must be
proficient in dealing with algebraic expressions. Thus, Unit 11 deals with the
basic concepts of algebraic calculations, in particular the polynomials and their
factorization.
In problem solving, when a real life situation is translated in the language of

mathematics, we get equations and/or inequations which are solved to obtain the
answer to the problem. So the Unit 12 discusses the methods of solving linear
and quadratic equations along with their applications.
Apart from problem solving, the study of Mathematics at the higher level can
not be pursued without the knowledge of functions. Unit 13 deals with the
concepts of sets, relations and functions to the beginners.
For each of the concepts discussed in the four units of this block, we have
suggested some teaching-learning strategies which may help your learners to
understand them better. These teaching-learning strategies involve various ways
of instructional transaction and interacting with children.
4
Number Systems,
UNIT 10 NUMBER SYSTEMS, NUMBER Number Theory,
Exponents and
THEORY, EXPONENTS AND Logarithms
LOGARITHMS
Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Number Systems
10.3.1 Sets of Numbers
10.3.2 Natural Numbers
10.3.3 Zero and Integers
10.3.4 Rational and Irrational Numbers
10.3.5 Real Numbers – Operations and their Properties
10.3.6 The Number Line
10.4 Exponents and Logarithms
10.4.1 Exponents, Power and Root
10.4.2 Indices and Logarithms
10.4.3 Use of Logarithmic Tables
10.5 Elementary Number Theory
10.5.1 Basic Concepts
10.5.2 Prime Factorization: HCF, LCM
10.5.3 Division Method for Finding HCF, LCM
10.5.4 Applications of HCF and LCM
10.6 Let Us Sum Up
10.7 Unit End Activities
10.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
10.9 Suggested Readings
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Numbers form an essential element of our everyday thought and language. In
present day life, every activity requires the use of numbers. Prices and weights
of commodities, scores of games, travel time tables, etc., all are expressed in
numbers. Man owes much of his success or progress to the art of computing
with numbers.
The present course of Mathematics in schools introduces the students to the
various properties of natural numbers, integers, rational numbers, and real
numbers. They are essential for learning of arithmetic, algebra and geometry
and their study begins from Class I and continues till Class VIII. It is, thus,
assumed that the student who enters Class IX, i.e., the secondary stage, has a
working knowledge of all these types of number systems.
This unit introduces the system of real numbers along with its sub-systems.
The relationship among these systems is sketched so that there are no gaps in
their treatment. Structure of natural numbers and different subset of natural
numbers will be also discussed in this unit. We shall explain interesting aspects 5
Content Based of some subsets of the set of natural numbers. The concepts are explained and
Methodology-I illustrated with examples drawn from familiar situations. It is expected that you
will be able to plan their lessons more effectively after going through this unit.
10.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, the you will be able to:
• understand the system of real numbers and the relationships between its
various sub-systems;
• understand algorithms and the routine processes of carrying out
computations;
• illustrate with diagrams (on a number line) clearly showing the meaning
and relationships between the four fundamental operations on real
numbers;
• help students to acquire an in-depth knowledge of the system of real
numbers and its application in day to day life;
• state and interpret the meanings of different subsets of natural numbers;
• explain basic concept of number theory;
• exemplify the various situations in which processes such as factorization,
LCM and HCF are applied; and
• use various child-centred methods that help children to understand process
of factorization, LCM and HCF.
10.3 NUMBER SYSTEMS

It may be noted that concept of ‘number’ is different from that of ‘numeral’.
Thus, the teaching of the number system incorporates the idea of numeration,
but is distinct from it. We shall assume the knowledge of the base-ten
numeration system, while discussing number systems in this unit.
Further, we shall use the idea of ‘set’, which is basic and central to all
mathematical operations. The language of sets simplifies and clarifies
explanations. It is also assumed that before reaching the secondary stage,
students have sufficiently worked with numbers and are familiar with basic
ideas, at least intuitively. The basic knowledge of concepts such as one-to-one
matching, counting, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, fractions,
decimals, etc. on the part of readers has been assumed. If necessary, teachers
may recapitulate these ideas before teaching this Unit.
10.3.1 Sets of Numbers

Main Teaching Point: The relationship between different sets of numbers.
Teaching-Learning Process:
1) Let pupils recall that ‘fractions’, ‘negative numbers’, ‘zero’, ‘decimals’,
etc., are different kinds of numbers. Ask them to give examples/instances
to illustrate their use.
2) Encourage pupils to observe that these different kinds of numbers overlap
and are related to each other. Ask them to arrange these numbers in order
starting with the simplest. A diagram such as the following may be useful.
6
Number Systems,
Number Theory,
Exponents and
Logarithms
Fig. 10.1
3) Discuss the above diagram with the help of questions such as:
• Are natural numbers positive?
• Is it true that {fractions} ∩ {integers} = φ?
• Why is zero on the dotted line separating positive and negative
numbers?
• Is there a one-to-one correspondence between the set of positive
integers and the set of negative integers?
Methodology: The discussion method is used to bring out the relationship

between different sets of numbers using diagrams and their analysis. A quiz
organized in the class can be an effective technique for recapitulation.
10.3.2 Natural Numbers

Main Teaching Point: Properties of natural numbers
The teaching of natural numbers can be approached in two ways, either by
following the history of the development of number concept, or by simulating
the same through activities in the classroom. In both the cases, the key idea to
be explored is a one-to-one correspondence between objects in a group and
notches or tally marks to keep a record of the sizes of group.
To any given finite set we attach a label, called a number. The same label
is attached to all those sets which are in one-to-one correspondence with
the given set. Through activities – playing with blocks, crayons and other
objects – two primary number concepts, cardinal and ordinal may be
developed. A cardinal number tells the size of a group and an ordinal number
tells the place of a member of the group in the sequence of numbers (which is
used in counting). The natural number is an idea (or a mental tool), which
helps in telling ‘how many objects are in a group’ or the size of the group.
Natural Numbers (N) : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …. …………….. are also called counting
numbers. They start with the ‘unit’ or ‘one’ and are successively obtained by
using the idea of ‘one more’ or the successor. The set of natural number
has no largest number.
7
Content Based Counting is matching a given finite set and one of the natural number sets –
Methodology-I {1}, {1, 2}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 3, 4}, etc. in which every corresponds to an
element in the given set. The process of counting the objects in any set will
result in the same cardinal number, no matter how we arrange the objects.
Methodology: The discussion method is used. The properties of natural
numbers are elicited from students using inductive reasoning and by giving
illustrations.
10.3.3 Zero and Integers

Main Teaching Point: Properties of Integers
The number zero ‘0’ is introduced as (i) the number associated with the empty
set φ or { }. This can be done through an activity. For example, a child could
be given say 5 chocolates and asked to eat all of them one by one so that finally
none is left. Since the empty set is a proper subset of every non-empty set, zero
is less than any natural number k, that is 0 < k, (ii) the starting point in
arranging the objects in a sequence (on a line), and (iii) an answer to questions
like 6 – 6 = ?; 15 – 15 = ?, which can be demonstrated through counting
backwards or taking away. Zero completes counting both ways – ahead and
backwards. The set of numbers consisting of zero and natural numbers is called
the set of whole numbers (W).
Whole Numbers : {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ………..}
Zero is the smallest whole number. There is no greatest whole number.

A more inclusive set than W is the set of Integers (I). The set of integers can
be introduced through activities involving (a) opposites such as profit and loss,
rise in level and fall in level earning and spending etc. or (b) direction – high
and low, east and west, north and south, etc. The integers consist of negative
integers, zero and positive integers. Thus, the set of integers (I) may be
presented as:
I : { …. …. ….. –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3, + 4 …. …. ….. }
The number zero is not included in the set of positive integers or in the set of
negative integers. The set of integers has no smallest or largest number. It
extends to infinitely in both directions. The natural numbers are assigned the
positive (+) sign and called positive integers. For every positive integer (+a),
we have a negative integer (–a) such that :
(+a) + (–a) = 0
The extension to negative numbers can be demonstrated by presenting a pattern
in subtraction.
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
–1 –2 –3 –4 –5 –6 –7 –8
4 3 2 1 0 A B C
Clearly A is one less than 0, B is one less than A and so on. Further A is such
that when 1 is added to it, we get zero, B is such that when 2 is added to it, we
get zero.
8
Thus, A is the opposite of 1 and B is the opposite of 2 etc. These can be Number Systems,
represented by –1 and –2. The other negative integers may also be explained in Number Theory,
the same way. Exponents and
Logarithms
Thus, (1) + (–1) = 0, (+2) + (–2) = 0. But we know that 1 – 1 = 0 and 2 – 2 = 0,
so we can replace +(–1) by –1 and +(–2) by –2. By convention, we do not put
a sign with positive numbers +(+1) =1 and –(+1) = –1, etc.
The set of integers is closed under addition, subtraction and multiplication. But
3 15 200
while trying division, we find ; ; etc., are not integers, that the
4 27 327
system which is not closed under division. We, therefore, extend number
systems further and define “rational numbers” (Q).
Methodology: The discussion-cum-lecture method is used. The properties of

integers are enlisted by giving illustrations and using inductive reasoning.
Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Is the sum, difference, product, quotient of two given integers always
an integer?
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2) Illustrate with examples the rules for multiplication of integers.
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3) Show that the square of an even integer is even and the square of an odd
integer is odd.
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Content Based 10.3.4 Rational and Irrational Numbers
Methodology-I
Main Teaching Points:
a) Need for rational numbers
b) Need for irrational numbers
p
Numbers which can be expressed in the form , where p and q are integers
q
and q ≠ 0, are called rational numbers (Q). Fractions are a subset of rational
numbers. Rational numbers (or fractions) can be easily introduced through
activities involving equal sharing or partitioning of sets. These are interpreted
as a part of a whole; a part of a group; indicated as division and as a ratio. In
fact, the word rational comes from the word ‘ratio’. The same number can be
written in many ways as a ratio of integers. For example:
+3 +6 -6 -9 +15 2 4 6 8
3= = = = = = = =
+ 1 +2 -2 - 3 + 5 3 6 9 12
Since any integer ‘n’ can be written as n/1, integers form a subset of the set of
rational numbers. It can be easily demonstrated that the set of rational numbers
is closed under addition, subtraction, multiplication and division (provided we
do not divide by zero). It is also closed under the operation of finding the
power of a number (i.e., squaring, cubing, etc.). But, it is not closed when we
try to find roots – square root, cube root, etc. Sometimes, the root of a rational
number is itself a rational number. Sometimes, it has a rational approximation,
but cannot be written exactly in the form of a ratio.
p
i.e. ,q ≠ 0
q
Such numbers are called irrational numbers.
The numbers etc. 2, 3, 3 6, 4 12, are irrational numbers.
Another way of describing irrational numbers as distinct from rational numbers
is to consider the decimal form of numbers. It is possible to prove that for each
rational number the pattern of digits in the decimal representation either
1 1
terminates, e.g., = 0.05 or recurs, e.g., = 0.142857142857………..
20 7
In case of irrational numbers the decimal representation neither terminates nor
recurs, e.g., 2.131133133331….
For some numbers such as 2 , 3 etc., it is easy to prove that they are
irrational, while for other numbers such as π, it may be quite difficult. The
proof for ‘ 2 is irrational’ is of special importance as we use the method of
contradiction: we assume that it is rational and show that this leads to a
contradiction.
m
Assume 2= where m and n are coprime integers, that is they do not have a
n
common integral factor (other than 1 or –1).
10
m m2 Number Systems,
Now 2= ⇒ 2 = 2 ⇒ m 2 = 2n 2 ...... (1) Number Theory,
n n
Exponents and
∴m2 is even m is even. Logarithms
(Since the square of an odd integer is odd and that of an even integer is even).
Now let m = 2p, p ∈ I
m2 = 4p2 (from (1) above)
2n2 = 4p2
n2 = 2p2
∴n2 is even n is even
or n = 2q, q∈ I
Hence, m and n are both even i.e., they have a common factor 2, which
contradicts the initial assumption.
Hence, 2 is an irrational number.
Methodology: Illustrations are given and mainly the lecture cum discussion
method is used for showing the need for rational numbers, while the deductive
method is used to prove that certain numbers are not rational.
Check Your Progress

4) Is the sum, difference, product, quotient of two given irrational numbers
always a rational number?
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5) Is the sum of two irrational numbers always irrational?

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6) Is the product of two irrational numbers always irrational?

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11
Content Based 10.3.5 Real Numbers – Operations and their Properties
Methodology-I
a) Properties of real numbers
b) Concept of absolute value of a number
The union of the sets of rational numbers and irrational numbers is called the
set of real numbers.
{Real numbers} = {Rational numbers} ∪ {Irrational numbers}
Most of the numbers used in multiplication at school stage are real numbers.
But, there are still some roots that are not irrational numbers, e.g. - 9 , - 1 .
These are different kinds of numbers, sometimes called non-real numbers.
These are studied in senior secondary classes. The union of real and non-real
numbers is called the set of complex numbers. The diagram below gives the
sequence of development of the number system from natural numbers to real
numbers.
S. No. Number System Closed under Operations

1. Natural numbers (N) addition, subtraction,
1, 2, 3, 4, …. …. multiplication
2. Whole numbers (W) addition, subtraction,

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …. …. multiplication
3. Integers (I) addition, subtraction,

…, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …. …. multiplication
4. Rational numbers (Q) addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division
5. Real numbers (R) addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division
The study of the properties of real numbers is one of the major aspect
of curriculum at the secondary level. It is, therefore, necessary that the
meaning of the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division be explained through examples and their properties be inductively
generalized.
Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division operations are binary since

we carry them out on two numbers. Addition is counting forward,
multiplication is repeated addition, subtraction is the inverse of addition and
division is repeated subtraction. The properties of real numbers are listed in the
next table.
12
The Properties for Real Numbers Number Systems,
Number Theory,
1. Closure Laws a + b is a real ab is a real number.
Exponents and
For all a, b ∈ R number. Logarithms
2. Commutative Laws a+b=b+a ab = ba
3. Associative Laws (a+b) + c= a + (b + c) (ab)c = a(bc)
4. Identity Laws There is a unique real There is a unique
number 0, such that real number 1, such
for all a ∈ R, a + 0 = that for all a ∈ R, a ×
0+a=a 1=1×a=a
5. Inverse Laws For all a ∈ R , there For all a ∈ R (except
is unique real number 0) there is a unique
–a such that 1
real number such
a + (–a) = 0 = (–a) + a a
1 1
that a   = 1 =  a
a a
6. Distributive Law For all a, b, c ∈ R
a(b+c) = ab + ac
The Order Laws for Real Numbers

7) The Trichotomy Law
If ‘a’ is a real number then out of the three statements given below, exactly
one is true.
(i) a = 0, (ii) a is positive, (iii) – a is positive
8) For any two real numbers a and b, exactly one of the following three
statements is true:
(i) a < b, (ii) b < a, (iii) a=b
These laws are used to prove many results, which have been taught as rules.
Two simple rules are proved here.
1) For any real number a, a. 0 = 0 = 0.a
Proof : 1 + 0 = 1 (identity law)
a (1 + 0) = a.1
By distributive law
a.1 + a.0 = a.1
But, identity law is
a.1 + 0 = a.1
Hence, by uniqueness of 0, a.0 = 0
2) For any two numbers (–a) + (+a) = 0. (Inverse law), multiplying by (–b)
we get
(–b)(–a) + (–b)(+a) = 0
Now, (–b) × (+a) = (–ba). (To be proved earlier)
(–b) (–a) + (–ba) = 0
13
Content Based By using inverse law we argue that:
Methodology-I
(–b) × (–a) should be opposite of (–ba).
Hence (–b) × (–a) = + ba.
An important concept, which should be made clear through examples is the
absolute value of a real number. Recall the idea of opposites and ask pupils to
write additive inverses (using signed numbers).
The absolute value of numbers that are additive inverses of each other is the
same. We use the symbol for absolute value. Thus,
-2 + 2 + 2
= = ; − 5 = + 5 = +5 etc.
3 3 3
x, if x ≥ 0
In general, for all x, x = 
- x, if x < 0
Note that the last line means that the absolute value of a negative number is a
positive number − 3 = −( −3) = +3.
Methodology used: Properties are enlisted on the blackboard by putting
questions to the students regarding them. The concept of absolute value is
illustrated through examples.
Check Your Progress

7) Prove that:
a) a (b – c) = ab – ac
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b) – [a + (–b)] = –a + b
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c) (a + b) (a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2
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14
8) Illustrate the meaning of Number Systems,
Number Theory,
a) Additive inverse Exponents and
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b) Multiplicative inverse
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9) If, a, b and c are real numbers and a > b, which is larger (a) a + c or b + c
(b) ac or bc?
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1 1
10) If a > b > 0, which is larger (a) a or b , (b) or ?
a b
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11) Is each of the following true or false?
a) R = R– ∪ {0} ∪ R+ b) R+ ∩ {0} = φ
c) R– ∩ {0} = φ d) R+ ∩ R– = φ
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10.3.6 The Number line

Main Teaching Point: Representation of real numbers on the Number line
In recent years the idea of Number line has been used as a very effective aid to
familiarize pupils with the properties of the number system.
Draw a horizontal line and mark on it a set of evenly spaced points to represent
the integers, this line is called the Number line.
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 15
Content Based Given a rational number, we can mark a point representing it by using a scale
Methodology-I or a geometrical construction. The approximate rational value of an irrational
number can be marked as a point by measurement, but the exact position of a
point representing an irrational number can be marked by using a geometrical
construction. Thus, for every real number we can mark a point on the number
line. The order relation is also indicated by movement on the Number line as
shown below:
…. –5 < –4 < –3 < –2 < –1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 …..
Of the two consecutive numbers, the one on the right is greater than the one on
the left. Thus, 8 is greater than 6. We write 8 > 6; 0 is greater than all the
negative numbers. Sets of numbers can be shown by marking corresponding
points.
Examples
(i) {–3, –2, 0, 1, 2} (ii) {Real numbers from –3 to 4}
(iii) {Positive real numbers} (iv) {Multiples of 2}

• means point is included. 0 means point is not included. The thick part of line
shows continuity between finite boundaries. Infinite sets are shown by an
arrow at one end or both ends.
Again we associate numbers with displacements, +5 is a number which is 5
units away from 0 and on the positive (i.e. right) side of it. We show
displacement with a segment and direction by putting an arrow head to the
segment. Thus, any number is represented by a directed line segment. To
represent the sum of two numbers on a Number line we draw the first arrow
with its tail at the origin, the second with its tail at the head of the first.
Examples
(i) 4+3=7 (ii) 4 + (–3) = 1
(iii) –4 + (–3) = –7 (iv) –4 + 3 = –1

The segment representing the answer has been shown by a dotted line. There is
no need to do subtraction on the Number line because the subtraction sum can
be changed to an addition sum.
4 – 3 = 4 +(–3) = 1, 4 – (–3) = 4 + 3 = 7
Multiplication can be represented as repeated addition. Division can be
represented as repeated subtraction. Thus, the Number line is a useful aid to
illustrate the properties of rational numbers. The Number line can also furnish
16 an excellent model for portraying the meaning of directed numbers. The
negative number is designated as a direction-changing operator. Different Number Systems,
directional situations can be described by different rules. Number Theory,
Exponents and
The irrational numbers such as 2 , 3 , can be represented with the help of Logarithms
geometrical constructions using the Pythagoras theorem. Draw a line segment
of unit length. With this as the base erect a right-angle triangle of altitude 1
unit. The hypotenuse of this triangle will be of length 2 . Now use this
hypotenuse as base and on it erects another right-angle triangle of altitude 1.
The hypotenuse of this triangle is 3 and so on.
Methodology: Recapitulating the method used for dividing a line segment into
number of parts, the skill of plotting the numbers on a Number line is
developed by the practice method using proper geometrical instruments.
Check Your Progress

12) Pick out pairs of numbers from {–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3}, construct addition
sums and draw Number line graphs. Verify the commutative and associative
laws.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
13) Draw a Number line graph to represent-
i) {Real numbers greater than –5 and less than 5}
ii) x < 30
iii) x > 30
10.4 EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS

Computation is an important aspect of Mathematics. In many problems from
real life, we find large numbers and that too connected by complicated terms,
formed from monomials. Suppose we have a problem involving an expression
like:
53296 × 32847 5 × 102
×
243941 27
17
Content Based The usual process of computation may take a long time and cause frustration.
Methodology-I Why should numerical complexities be imposed upon the students? Many
devices to facilitate the solving of such problems have been developed and
logarithm is one of these.
10.4.1 Exponents, Power and Root

a) Properties of exponents
b) Power and root as inverse processes
Power Notation
Number = (Base)Exponent
16 = 24
2 is the base
4 is the exponent
16 is 4th power of 2
The exponent tells how many times the base is taken as a factor. Successive
multiplication leads to the idea of power.
21 = 2 = 2 first power of 2
22 = 2×2 = 4 squared or second power of 2
23 = 2×2×2 = 8 cubed or third power of 2
24 = 2×2×2×2 = 16 fourth power of 2
… … …
2n = 2 × 2 × …. × 2 (n factors) = 2n nth power of 2
xn means a variable/literal number for which a number can be substituted has
been raised to nth power.
In teaching of powers in the beginning, n should be taken as a positive integer,
then a negative integer, and lastly, a rational number.
For any real number x the following laws hold:
1) xm × xn = xm+n
2) xm/xn = xm–n
3) (x/y)n = xn/yn
4) x0 = 1
5) x–n = 1/xn
We can also consider xm/n where m/n is rational.
What does xm/n, n > 0 mean
Now, let y = xm/n and so yn = xm or y = n

xm
It is always possible to find nth root, n

a m is the positive nth root of am.
18
The inverse operation of taking a power of a number is that of taking the Number Systems,
corresponding root. A square root is indicated by the radical symbol . Number Theory,
Exponents and
Thus, 16 = 4. With higher roots, an index is placed on the radical to show the Logarithms
order of the root.
Square
Square Root
3
27 ; 4 16 ; 5 243; etc., represent 3rd root of 27, 4th root of 16 and 5th root of
243 respectively.
The students should be exposed to a large number of examples so that they
grasp the methods of finding roots by observing the pattern. The easiest
method is that of finding roots by prime factorisation. Another method for
finding the square root is called ‘division method’ of ‘square root algorithm’ by
which the successive digits of the root are found one by one. Sometimes, it is
difficult to explain why the rule works. A proper demonstration with proper
explanation at each step is, therefore, necessary.
In short, in the field and laboratory, roots are read from tables or on slide rule,
or occasionally are computed by the rule or division method. Secondary level
students should be acquainted with the table of roots and the methods of
interpolation.
Methodology: Inductive method is used to arrive at the different properties of

exponents and a number of illustrations are given so that students are able to
grasp the pattern.
10.4.2 Indices and Logarithms

a) Indices and logarithms as inverse processes
b) Properties of logarithms
We have considered sets of powers of various numbers. To give meaning to
logarithm, closer attention is given to the indices (or exponents) themselves.
The logarithm of a number is the index to which the base is raised to get the
number. For example, the logarithm of the number 243 to the base 3 is 5,
because 35 = 243. This is abbreviated as log3 243 = 5.
Each statement in the logarithmic form has its equivalent statement in the index
form.
log3 243 = 5 35 = 243
log2 64 = 6 26 = 64
Early in the seventeenth century, Henry Briggs expressed each of the natural
numbers from 1 to 20,000 and 90,000 to 100,000 in the form log10n where n
was calculated correct to 14 decimal places. Adrian VIacq completed the table
for natural numbers between 20,000 and 90,000. The calculations were the
19
Content Based basis of tables of logarithm. The first practical system of logarithms was
Methodology-I published by Napier in 1614. The word logarithm is derived from the Greek
word ‘logos’ meaning ratio.
In our calculations, we use logarithms to the base 10 or common logarithms
only. In practice, therefore, we do not write the base, we simply write log 10 =
1; log 100 = 2 etc. while calculating.
Since logarithm is really the index corresponding to a number, we can write
index laws using logarithmic notation. Thus:
i) log xy = log x + log y
ii) log x/y = log x – log y
iii) log xm = m log x
x
iv) if x = an, n = loga x, then x = a loga
Since we use base 10, it is necessary to introduce the idea of expressing a
number in standard form. Thus,
5636
5636 = × 1000 = 5.636 × 103; 349 = 3.49 × 102
1000
56.36 = 5.636 × 101; .002 = 2.0 × 10–3
Any number, ‘n’, can be expressed as n = m × 10p, where p is an integer

(positive, zero or negative) and 1 < m < 10. This is called the standard form of
any number, ‘n’.
The index ‘p’ in the standard form gives the integral part of the logarithm.
This is called the characteristic. The decimal part of the logarithm is taken from
a table. This is called the mantissa.
Methodology: The discussion cum lecture method is used to make the concept
understood by students. Many examples are given to illustrate bn = m <=> logb
m = n. A suitable drill exercise may be provided.
10.4.3 Use of Logarithm Tables

a) Reading mantissa from logarithm tables
b) Use of logarithm tables for calculations
Sufficient practice is required in writing the characteristics and reading the
mantissa from the table. Examples such as the following may be given:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
61 .7853 .7860 .7868 .7875 .7882 .7889 .7896 .7903 .7910 .7917 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
To find log 6.176, we note that log 61 has the decimal number column headed
by 7, where the decimal number is .7903. Log 6.176 is obtained by adding to
.7903 the number 4, actually .0004, found by noting that 4 is the number
headed by 6 in the difference column. This gives log 6.176 as .7907. Since 6
lies between 1 and 10, log 6.176 = 0.7907.
20
Log 61.76 = 1.7907 (61 lies between 10 and 100), log 617.6 = 2.7907 (617 lies Number Systems,
between 100 and 1000). It should be emphasized that (a) the mantissa always Number Theory,
lies between 0 and 1, and hence the mantissa is always positive, (b) to find the Exponents and
characteristic we have only to count the number of digits in the integral part of Logarithms
n and subtract 1 from it, provided n > 1. For n < 1, we count the number of
zeros after the decimal place to the first non-zero digit and add 1 to it. The
number so obtained with a negative sign gives the characteristic part of the
logarithm.
The inverse process of finding the number whose logarithm is given is called
finding the anti-logarithm. We use the symbol antilog to denote the phrase ‘the
antilogarithm of ...’. We have a separate table for finding the antilogarithm. In
using the table of antilogarithms, we disregard the characteristics and make
sure that the fractional part of the given number is indeed positive. We then
find the number by the use of the mantissa and finally insert a decimal point by
rule of the characteristics.
In the teaching of logarithm, sufficient practice should be given in the reading

of tables. The fact that the mantissa is always positive should be carefully
emphasized. Separate examples for multiplication, division and finding roots
should be worked out. Speed and accuracy should be the final goal in
calculating with logarithm.
Methodology: Every student must possess a logarithm table when this is

discussed in the class. To develop skill of using logarithm tables, sufficient
practice should be provided. Basically, the drill method is required.
Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below each question.
14) Is 25 = 52? Is 32 = 23? Is the operation ‘to the power of’ commutative? If
not, can you find the conditions for which the statement am = ma is true.
......................................................................................................................
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......................................................................................................................
15) Is the statement a2 + a2 = a4 true for all values of ‘a’? Can you find any
value of ‘a’ (real number) that makes this statement true?
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
16) Find the values of the following logarithms by first writing down a
statement in index form : e.g., for log2 32, 32 = 25, log2 32 =5.
(i) log2 512 (ii) log11 1331 (ii) log7 343 (iv) log5 625
......................................................................................................................
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21
Content Based
Methodology-I
10.5 ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY
a) What is a factor?
b) Even and odd numbers and their properties.
Teaching-Learning Process: The unit should be introduced by reviewing

fundamental operations on natural numbers in such a manner that a pattern
strikes the imagination of pupils and they are able to formulate a new
generalization which can be named as a new definition or property. The
procedure to develop this ability is outlined in the Unit.
A teacher should ensure that:
1) Induction is planned for and encouraged.
2) Deduction is urged. Some additional reasoning is necessary to arrive at a
generalization. Also, there are no stereotype patterns of formulating
“proofs”. If the essential ideas which the student develops are correct and
flawless in reasoning, his/her “proof” should be accepted as a good one.
Some activities which set the stage for deductive arguments are given for a
few selected topics:
Activities
1) Ask: What is 3 × 4?
Write the answer ‘3 × 4 = 12’ 3 multiplied by 4 is 12

3 is a divisor of 12
Read it (as shown) 4 is a divisor of 12
in many ways 3 is a factor of 12
4 is a factor of 12
12 is a multiple of 3
12 is a multiple of 4
Ask: What other numbers can be multiplied to get 12?

Explain: In a product, each of the numbers is called a factor? A factor is a
divisor.
2) Ask: Repeat the above process for some other natural numbers, such as
24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 64, (If necessary students may refer to multiplication
tables) 6 × 4. 8 × 3. 12 × 2, 24 × 1 are the factorizations of 24.
6 × 4 = 24, 8 × 3 = 24
12 × 2 = 24, 24 × 1 = 24
5 × 6 = 30, 10 × 3 = 30
15 × 2 = 30, 30 × 1 = 30
Explain: This process of finding a factorization is called ‘factoring’.
Point out that factors of natural numbers may be found in several different
ways. Give more exercises in factoring.
22
3) Ask: Does 3 have one as a factor? Do 5, 7, 9 and 11 etc. have one as a Number Systems,
factor? Number Theory,
Exponents and
What about 24, 30, 36, etc.? Does each of them has 1 as a factor? Logarithms
Bring out (by induction on the part of students) that every natural number
has 1 as the factor.
Ask: What is the product of any natural number (say n) and 1? How can it
be expressed in symbols? If n is any natural number then what is n × 1?
Demonstrate with examples that ‘n × 1 = n’ becomes true whenever a
numeral for any natural number is put in place of n.
30 × 1 = 30, 55 × 1 = 55, 82 × 1 = 82.
Bring out that every natural number has ‘itself’ as well as ‘one’ as its
factor. The number n has at least two factors n and 1 or n = nx1.
4) Ask: Think of some number that has 2 as a factor. Write it on the

blackboard. Bring out that this set of natural numbers is called the set of
even numbers. An even number is one which has the factor 2. Write
numerals for some large natural numbers, some even, some odd.
Ask: Can you tell me which of these are even? Observe the digit at the
unit’s place.
Bring out that those numbers which have digit 2 at unit’s place such as 2,
4, 6, 8 or 0, are even and the others are odd.
Ask: Suppose we multiply a natural number by an even number. What do

we get? Try a few examples and write them on the board. Help students to
reach the conclusion (inductively) that such products are always even.
Ask: Can we be sure that this is always true? We tried it for only a few
cases. Can we reason this out for all natural numbers?
Let students give their arguments. If none of the arguments produced is

good enough, bring out the associative law and suggest them to try using
it. Any even number has 2 as a factor, and therefore, 2 × a, is even where
‘a’ represents any natural number. Then (2 × a) × b = 2 × (a × b) for any
natural number ‘b’. We see that this has 2 as a factor.
This informal deduction should be encouraged by using any valid

arguments proposed by students. It must be insisted that they argue in
such a way that what they say is true for all natural numbers and not just
for a finite number of them.
Point out that this discussion shows that the set of even numbers is closed
for multiplication operation.
In the same manner, encourage students to discover that the set of even
numbers is closed under the operation of addition:
(2.a) + (2.b) = 2.(a + b)
Again use first induction, then informal deduction, to enable students to

discover generalizations about operations with odd and even numbers so
that the study of numbers becomes a more creative experience.
23
Content Based 5) Addition of odd and even numbers
Methodology-I
a) Even numbers added to even numbers:
2 6 2 230
+ 4 4 4 512
6 8 12 108
18 18 850
Elicit from pupils: It can be observed that the sum of any number of
even numbers is also even.
b) The sum of two odd numbers:

7 13 Ask pupils to find a proof.
+ 3 11 Proof: Any odd number is an even number plus one.
10 24
7=6+1 13 = 12 + 1
3=2+1 11 = 10 + 1 1+1=2
8+2 22 + 2 (an even number)
Elicit from pupils: The sum of odd natural numbers is an even number.
In the same manner get the generalization: The sum of an odd and an
even number is an odd number.
6) Multiplication of an odd and an even number

Review the facts that:
a) Multiplication is a shorter form of addition.
b) Multiplication of an even number by an even number.
c) Multiplication of an odd number by an even number.

Let pupils observe that this amounts to adding an odd number to itself
even number of times. Give examples.
Elicit: An odd number multiplied by an even number yields an
even number.
d) Multiplication of an even number by an odd number

Let pupils observe that this is the same as adding an even number to
itself odd number of times. Give examples.
Elicit: An even number multiplied by an odd number yields an
even number.
Similarly, let pupils get the generalization. The product of two odd
numbers is an odd number.
Methodology: Mainly the inductive method is used. The deductive method is

used to write down the proofs of some properties of even and odd numbers.
24
Check Your Progress Number Systems,
Number Theory,
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below each question. Exponents and
Logarithms
17. A number x multiplied by any other number y always given product as y.
What is the value of x?
.......................................................................................................................
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.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
18. Prove that the sum of two consecutive numbers always odd.
.......................................................................................................................
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.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
19. Show that the product of two even numbers is divisible by 4.
.......................................................................................................................
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.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
10.5.2 Prime Factorization : HCF, LCM

a) Prime factorization of a number
b) Finding HCF and LCM using prime factorization
Teaching-Learning Process
1) Ask: Write the factors of the numbers 1 to 10. Think of numbers that have
exactly two different factors: 1 and the number itself.
Explain that these are called ‘prime numbers’. Explain that numbers with
more than two different factors are called ‘composite numbers’.
Ask: Have students examine prime numbers and find out how many of
these are even.
Explain that 1 is not a prime number since it does not have two different
factors.
2) Write down numbers such as 36, 60 and 84. Have students write the
various factorizations of these numbers. Use the factor tree and show how
to complete the factorizations by continuing to factorize composite factors.
25
Content Based Ask students to repeat the process for several other numbers. Encourage
Methodology-I them to tell what they notice.
Bring out that the final prime factors are the same except for their order
(induction). Then, ask for a deductive argument that this is true for all
natural numbers.
Explain: This is called the ‘unique factorization property of natural
numbers’ – that every composite natural number can be factored into
primes in only one way, except for order of presentation.
3) Explain – If two or more numbers have a certain number as a factor, we
say the factor is common to the numbers. For example, 12 and 18 have 1,
2, 3 and 6 as common factors. Ask students to write common factors of
different sets of numbers and pick out the ‘Highest or Greatest Common
Factor’. Explain that this is called the Highest (or Greatest) Common
Factor (H.C.F.).
Solve some more examples on finding common factors and picking out the
highest common factor.
Point out that we can use prime 60 = (2 × 2 × 3) × 5

factorization of each number and find 84 = (2 × 2 × 3) × 7
out H.C.F. by multiplying all the
common factors. Common Factors are (2, 2, 3)
H.C.F. = 2 × 2 × 3 = 12
4) Ask students to recall the factors of some natural numbers. Explain that if
one number is a factor of another then the second is called a ‘multiple’ of
the first.
Ask students to write ‘multiples’ of several numbers, such as 3, 5, 7, 9, 12.
Bring out the meaning of the common multiple of any two numbers.
Given two (or more) numbers, then any number which is a multiple of
each of them is called a ‘common multiple’ of them.
Explain: Least Common Multiple (L.C.M.) of several numbers is the
smallest number which is a multiple of each of them.
Multiples of 14 = 14, 28, 42, 56
Multiples of 21 = 21, 42, 63, 84
Common multiples = 42, 84, 126
L.C.M. = 42
Use prime factorization to find L.C.M. 8=2×2×2

If the numbers are 8, 14 and 21 and N 14 = 2 × 7
is their L.C.M., then N is divisible by 21 = 3 × 7
all the three numbers. We find a N=2×2×2×?
numeral in place of ? mark. N must
have 2 × 2 × 2 as a factor. It should N=2×7×?
also have 2 × 7 as a factor and 3 × 7 as N=3×7×?
a factor. N=2×2×2×7×3
We see 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 × 3 satisfy these conditions. Therefore,

L.C.M. = 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 × 3 = 168.
26
Methodology: Inductive reasoning is used to illustrate the method of Number Systems,
finding H.C.F. and L.C.M. using prime factorization. Number Theory,
Exponents and
10.5.3 Division Method for Finding HCF, LCM Logarithms
Main Teaching Point: To find HCF by division method.

Teaching-Learning Process: Euclid developed a method of finding H.C.F.
that was based on the learning relation. His process is called ‘Euclidean
Algorithm’.
The process should be demonstrated Find H.C.F. of 84 and 270. Divide

through different examples: the smaller (84) into the larger
H.C.F. (84, 270) = (270). The remainder is 18. Now
divide 18 into the first number 84.
H.C.F. (18, 84) = Repeat the process till the
H.C.F. (12, 18) = remainder is 0.
H.C.F. (6, 12) =
Explain the ‘why’ of the process. 84) 270 (3

H.C.F. is the largest number that 252
divides each of the two numbers. 18) 84 (4
270 = 84 × 3 + 18. 72
12) 18 (1
A divisor of both 270 and 84 must 12
divide 18. 6) 12 (2
84 = 18 × 4 + 12. 12
0
A divisor of 84 and 18 must divide 12.
18 = 12 × 1 + 6
A divisor of 12 and 18 must divide 6.
The last divisor is the H.C.F. ∴ H.C.F. = 6.

Methodology: The demonstration-cum-lecture method is used. The reason at
every step should be discussed.
Check Your Progress

20. Find the H.C.F. and L.C.M. of 66 and 110 by prime factorization.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
21. Find the product of H.C.F. and L.C.M. in each of the following:
i) 45 and 75 ii) 140 and 490
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
27
Content Based 22. By division method, show that two consecutive numbers are always
Methodology-I coprime.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
23. Using Euclid’s method find the H.C.F. of 65 and 395.
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
10.5.4 Applications of HCF and LCM

Main Teaching Point: To solve word problems.
Teaching-Learning Process: A word problem is a device useful in teaching
problem solving. These devices are used as a practice material upon which a
student can apply the generalization or the principle already learnt. A student’s
success is dependent on his recall and understanding of generalizations that suit
the situation under consideration.
Ask students to read the problem, analyse the information given in the problem
to locate what is known and to understand what is to be found out. Encourage
students to translate the verbal statement into mathematical sentences to
discover the procedure.
Example: A school had 851 boys and 629 girls. It divided the students into the
largest possible number of separate classes for boys and girls which had an
equal number of students. Find the number of classes.
Given: Number of boys = 851
Number of girls = 629
Analysis: Since the students are divided into largest possible equal classes, the
size of each class is the H.C.F. of 851 and 629 i.e. 37.
851 + 629 1480
Total number of classes = =
37 37
= 40
Example: Six bells at intervals of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 seconds respectively. If
they just now tolled together, when will they next toll together and how often
will they toll together in 30 minutes?
Given: Six bells toll at intervals of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 seconds respectively.
Analysis: The timings of tolling for each bell separately will have to be the
multiples of their respective intervals. Hence, the timing of their tolling
together is the L.C.M. of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12.
28
i.e. Number Systems,
Number Theory,
120 seconds 2 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 Exponents and
120 seconds = 2 minutes 2 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 Logarithms
No. of times they will toll together 3 1, 1, 3, 2, 5, 3,

In 30 minutes 1, 1, 1, 2, 5, 1
30
= +1
2
= 16 times
L.C.M. = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 120
(Discuss why 1 more)
Methodology: The discussion method is used together with the Heuristic
approach. It should be stressed that students translate the verbal statement into
a mathematical sentence themselves.
Check Your Progress

24. Three cans of capacity 900 ml, 1.2 l and 1.5 l are to be filed with oil.
What is the size of the largest container which will fill each of them a
complete number of times.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
25. In a morning walk three persons step out together. If their steps measure
72 cm, 84 cm and 96 cm, at what distance will they again step together.
.....................................................................................................................
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.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
10.6 LET US SUM UP

The teaching of numbers starts with the arithmetic of natural numbers. This in
turn helps in defining rational numbers and their arithmetic. By assuming that
the rational numbers are ordered pairs (p, q), where p and q are natural
numbers, one can proceed to define real numbers in several ways. For example
as a decimal, in which case both rational and irrational can be expressed as a
sequence of decimal digits. One may, however, prefer to conceptualize real
numbers as measuring numbers (magnitudes) based on the 1− 1
correspondence with points of the Euclidean line. It may be noted that defining 29
Content Based real numbers in terms of rationals and irrationals is of great importance. It
Methodology-I enables us free analysis from geometric intuition. In actual practice, the
concept of real numbers may be taught as relative to (a) the structure of the real
line and (b) its arithmetic and algebraic properties. In the former case (a), the
real number is essentially treated as a geometric entity in the latter case (b), as
the arithmetized entity based on the natural (via the rational) numbers.
Through, the device of labeling points on a line with arithmetized real numbers
the two concepts are usefully combined.
10.7 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

1) If n ∈ N, prove that n2 + n is always even.
2) If n/13 < 5/17 find the greatest integral value for n.
3) Find all fractions p/q between 0 and 1, where p and q are relatively prime
natural numbers and 2 ≤ q ≤ 5. Find the mean value of all these fractions.
Which is the largest and which is the smallest of these fractions?
4) Set up situations to show that:
a) Each prime number greater than 3 is either 1 less or 1 more than a
multiple of 6.
b) There is an infinite number of twin primes (Twin primes are pairs of
prime differing by 2 such as 3, 5, 5, 7; 11, 13; and so on).
c) From 2 onwards, there is at least one prime number between any
number and its double.
5) a) Ask pupils to examine the subtraction and division of odd and even
numbers. Ask them to give generalizations by inspection and then
work out a proof for the same.
b) Have pupils test the effect of squaring on numbers.
6) Using the relation 84 = 60 + 24, give an argument to show that any divisor
of 60 and 84 must also be a divisor of 24.
7) Show that any common multiple of a pair of numbers is a multiple of their
L.C.M.
8) Determine two numbers, knowing their H.C.F. and their sum as given in
the following table:
Sum 72 360 552 420
H.C.F. 9 18 24 12
9) Given any counting number value for n such as 50, find a formula for the
sum of the first n numbers.
Sum = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … … + n.
Give the analysis of the nature of the problem and examine it to discover a
pattern which should help in arriving at a formulation.
10) Euclid proved that whenever the natural number n is such that 2n+1 –1 is a
prime number, then multiplying this prime by 2n produces a perfect
number.
11) Explore Euler’s polynomial : n2 – n + 41 to get prime numbers.
30
10.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Number Systems,
Number Theory,
Exponents and
1) The sum, the difference and the product of two integers is always an Logarithms
integer, but it is not necessary for the quotient of two integers to be an
integer. For example (–3)÷ 2 is not an integer.
2) The product of two positive integers is positive
3 × 5 = 15 7 × 2 = 14
The product of two negative integers is positive
(–3) × (–5) = 15 (–7) × (–2) = 14
The product of a positive and a negative integer is negative
(–2) × 7 = – 14 3 × (–4) = –12
3) Let 2n be an even number.
(2n)2 = 4n2 which is divisible by two, and hence it is even. Let 2 n + 1 be
an odd number.
(2n +1)2 = 4n2 + 4n + 1
4n2 and 4n are both divisible by 2.
∴4n2 + 4n + 1 is not divisible by 2, hence it is odd.
4) Yes, the sum, the difference, the product and the quotient of two rational
numbers is always a rational number.
5) The sum of two irrational numbers is not always irrational. Ex.
( )
3 + − 3 = 0 and ‘0’ is rational.
6) The product of two irrational numbers is not always irrational.
3
For example 2 × 3 4 = 3 2 × 4 = 3 8 = 2 which is rational.
7) a) a (b – c) = ab – ac
Proof : LHS a (b – c) = a {b +(– c)} = ab + a(–c)
= ab + a(–c)
= ab – ac = RHS
b) – [a + (–b)] = –a + b
{a + (–b)} + {–a + b} = a + (–b) + (–a) + b = a + (–a) + (–b) + b
(by commutative and associative properties)
=0+0=0
∴ – [a + (–b)] = –a + b
c) (a + b) (a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2
Proof: LHS = (a + b) (a + b)
= (a + b) a + (a + b) b.
= a.a + b.a + a.b + b.b
= a2 + ab + ab + b2
(by commutative property)
= a2 + 2ab + b2 = RHS
31
Content Based 8) a) Additive inverse of ‘a’ is the number ‘b’ such that
Methodology-I
a + b = 0 = b + a.
Thus, the additive inverse of a is – a.
For example, the additive inverse of –5 = –(–5) = 5
b) The multiplication inverse of a ≠ 0 is the number b such that
1
a×b=1=b×a b=
a
1
Thus, the multiplicative inverse of a is
a
-2 3
For example, the multiplicative inverse of is − .
3 2
9) a) a > b a+c>b+c
a > b, c > 0 ac > bc
a > b, c < 0 ac < bc
10) a) a > b > 0 a > b
1 1
b) a > b > 0 = <
a b
11) All are true.
12) Find (–3) + 2 and 2 + (–3) using the number line
2 + (–3) =–1 (–3) + 2 = –1

The dotted arrow represents the sum.
For a positive number we move to the right and for a negative number
we move to the left.
∴ 2 + (–3) = (–3) + 2
The commutative property is verified.
Similarly, the associative property can also be verified.
13) (i) Real numbers greater than –5 and less than 5.
(ii) x < 30
(iii) x > 30
32
14) No, the operation ‘to the power of’ is not a commutative operation Number Systems,
m a Number Theory,
a = m if a = m
Exponents and
15) No, it is true if a = 0 Logarithms
16) (i) 83 = 512 ∴ log8 512 = 3

3
(ii) 11 = 1331 ∴ log11 1331 =3
3
(iii) 7 = 343 ∴ log7 343 = 3
(iv) 54 = 625 ∴ log5 625 = 4
17) x=1
18) Let the two consecutive numbers be n and n + 1, sum = n + (n + 1) = 2n
+ 1 = even number + one ∴ sum is odd.
19) Let the two even numbers be 2n and 2m (n, m ∈ N).
∴ Product = (2n) × (2m)
= 2 × (n × 2) × m (associativity of multiplication)
= 2 × (2 × n) × m (commutativity of multiplication)
= (2 × 2) × n × m (associative property)
= 4nm
Thus,
Product of two even numbers is divisible by 4.
20) 66 = 2 × 3 × 11 and 110 = 2 × 5 × 11
∴ H.C.F. = 22 and L.C.M. = 330
21) i) H.C.F. of 45 and 75 = 15 and L.C.M. of 45 and 75 = 225
H.C.F. × L.C.M. = 15 × 225 = 3375
ii) H.C.F. of 140 and 490 = 70 and L.C.M. of 140 and 490 = 980
H.C.F. × L.C.M. = 70 × 980 = 68600
22) Let the number be n & n + 1.
n n + 1(1
-n
1 n (n
-n
0
∴H.C.F. of n and n + 1 = 1
∴ n and n + 1 are coprime
23) 65 395 (6
– 390
5 65(13
– 65
0
H.C.F. = 5
33
Content Based 24) Capacity of the first cane = 900 ml
Methodology-I
Capacity of the second cane = 1.2 l = 1200 ml
Capacity of the third cane = 1.5 l = 1500 ml
The capacity of the largest container which can fill each one of them in
complete number of times = H.C.F. of 900, 1200 and 1500.
H.C.F. of 900 and 1200
1
900 1200
-900
300 900(3
-900
0
H.C.F. of 900 and 1200 = 300
5
300 1500
1500
0
Capacity of the container = 300 ml.

25) They would again step together at a distance equal to the L.C.M. of
their steps = L.C.M. of 72, 84 and 96.
= 2016 cm.
= 20.16 m
10.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Adler, Irving (1957) : Magic House of Numbers, The John Day Company Inc.,
New York.
Dantizing, Tobias (1975) : Number, The Language of Science, The Macmillian
Company, New York.
Jones, Burton W. (1947) : Elementary Concepts of Mathematics, The
Macmillian Company, New York.
Jones, Burton W. (1955) : The Theory of Numbers, Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Inc., New York.
Meyer, Jeromes (1952): Fun with Mathematics, Faweet Publications, New
York.
Sawyer, M.M. (1964) : Prelude to Mathematics, Penguin Books Ltd., England.
34
Polynomials: Basic
UNIT 11 POLYNOMIALS : BASIC CONCEPTS Concepts and Factoring
AND FACTORING*
Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Basic Concepts of Polynomials
11.4 Polynomials: Concepts and Definitions
114.1 Polynomials in One Variable
114.2 Polynomials in Two Variables
11.5 Operations on Polynomials
11.5.1 Value of Polynomials and Zeroes of a Polynomial
11.5.2 Addition of Polynomials
11.5.3 Subtraction of Polynomials
11.5.4 Multiplication of Polynomials
11.5.5 Division of Polynomials
11.6 Factorization of Polynomials
11.6.2 Factoring a Quadratic Polynomial
11.6.3 Method of Spitting the Middle Term
11.6.4 Method of Splitting the Middle Term, (contd.)
11.7 Remainder Theorem
11.7.1 Use of Remainder Theorem in Factorization
11.8 Let Us Sum Up
11.10 Points for Discussion
11.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit assumes that the students have already understood the basic ideas
regarding dividend, divisor, quotient and remainder in arithmetic in earlier
units. Also, they are familiar with the concept of numbers. They also know
factorization of numbers into prime factors in arithmetic. However, a brief
recapitulation by the teacher can help them to revise their basic concepts before
you start actual teaching of this unit. The concepts to be learnt in this unit will
be effectively learnt if they are related to the previous knowledge of the
students. The concepts and techniques learnt in this unit would form the
foundation for learning algebra later.
11.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to :
• clarify basic concepts of variables constant, algebraic expression and their
numerical values, and zeroes of a polynomial;
35
* A few sections of this unit has been adopted from ES-342, IGNOU, 2000
Content Based • explain the meanings of degree of a polynomial, monomials and binomials,
Methodology-I coefficients and constant terms; Co
• develop the skill of performing fundamental operations on polynomials;

• clarify the meaning and purpose of factorization of polynomials in algebra;
• develop skill to factorize quadratic polynomials by using basic algebraic
identities;
• find ways of helping children to perform fundamental operations on
polynomials;
• clarify the meaning of the statement of the remainder theorem;
• enable to compute remainder factorize quadrate and to polynomials x-a;
• enable to use remainder theorem to factorize polynomials; and
• use constructivist approach for teaching the concept and use of remainder
theorem.
11.3 BASIC CONCEPTS OF POLYNOMIALS

Main Teaching Points
a) Meaning of a variable, terms, and expression
b) Value of an expression for given values of the variables
Teaching Learning Process

Teaching of algebra should begin with the relationship between arithmetic and
algebra.
Variables
In algebra, we use alphabets to represent value, size and quantity in different
situations. For example, the fact that the perimeter of a rectangle can be
obtained by adding the length of its four sides, can be written algebraically as
follows:
P=2a+2b or P=2 (a+b)
Where P represents the perimeter of the rectangle and 'a' and 'b' represent its
length and breadth respectively. Here, a and b will take different values for
different rectangles. Similarly, value of P will be determined by the values of
a and b.
In algebra, the letters like P, a and b, which are used to represent different
elements and which take different values in different situations are referred to
as unknowns or variables. Numbers and variables together act as alphabets of
the language of algebra.
Terms
A combination of variables and numbers joined by operations of multiplication
and division is known as a ‘term’. For examples:
7x 1
3xy, - 2x 2 yz, , , 5x 3 are all terms. Terms are like words in English
y 2z
language.
36
Algebraic Expression Polynomials: Basic
Concepts and Factoring
A combination of terms connected by operations of addition or subtraction is
called an algebraic expression. For example:
x
2x + y, x 2 - 3xy, 3x 2 + 2x + 4,+ 4xy - 7 are all algebraic expressions connected
y
by multiplication and division are also algebraic expressions. Several algebraic
expressions connected by multiplication and division are also algebraic
expressions.
2x + 3
For example, (x + 5) (x + 2) ,
2
1- y
, (x + 1) - (x + 2) (x + 3) are also algebraic
expressions.
Number of Variables in an Algebraic Expression.

The expressions
3x + 1 2
2x 2 - 3x + 1, , (2x + 5) are algebraic expressions in one variable x. Also,
2x - 3
x
3y+y2 is an algebraic expression in one variable y. 2x + y, x 2 - xy, + 4xy - 7
y
are algebraic expressions in two variables x and y.
Similarly, 2x+y+3z–1 is an algebraic expression in 3 variables x, y and z.
Value of an Algebraic Expression

An algebraic expression becomes a number when all its variables, such as x, y,
z, are assigned definite numerical values and indicated operations are
performed with those numerical values. Such a number is called the value of
the algebraic expression.
For example, consider the algebraic expression 2x+y. When x=2 and y=3, the
value of the expression is 2(2)+3=7. Thus, 7 is the value of the expression.
Consider another algebraic expression 3x2-2xy + y2. It’s value, when x=-1 and
y=2 is computed as follows:
3x2 – 2xy + y2 = 3(–1)2 – 2(–1) (2) + (2)2 = 3 + 4 + 4 = 11.
\ 11 is the value of the expression when x=-1 and y=2.
The value of the expression will change if we change the values of x and y.
Methodology: Discussion method to be used.
11.4 POLYNOMIALS : CONCEPTS AND

DEFINITIONS
Definition of
a) Polynomial
b) Monomial, Bionomial, and Trinomial
37
Content Based Teaching Learning Process
Methodology-I Co
Consider several algebraic expressions. Write them such that in all the terms,
variable is neither in the denominator nor under the root sign. Then ask the
students to identify the algebraic expression in which powers of the variables
are only positive integral numbers.
Explain:
An algebraic expression in which the variables in the terms are raised to
positive integral powers only is called a polynomial.
Example 1: Consider the Following algebraic expressions:
(i) 3x2 (ii) 5x – 1 (iii) x3 – 2x + 3 (iv) 3x2 – 2xy + 4y2

1
(v) x + or x+x–1 (vi) x 3 - 3 x + 2 or x3 – 3x1/2 + 2
x
3x + y 1
(vii) or (3x + y) (x – y)–1 (viii) x + y = (x + y)2
x-y
In algebraic expression (i) - (iv), the powers of the variables are 1, 2 or 3.
These algebraic expressions are polynomials.
In expression (v), the power of variable is –1
1
In expression (vi), the power of variable is
2
In expression (vii) and (viii) also, the power of variable is not a positive
integer.
Therefore, the algebraic expressions (v), (vi), (vii) and (viii) are not
polynomials.
Polynomials consisting of a single term are called monomials. For examples,

2x, 3x2, –7y, 5 are all monomials.
Polynomials having two terms are called Binomials. The expressions 3x + 2y,
5x – 3, 7 – 2y, and x2 + 3xyz are all binomials.
Similarly, a trinomial is a polynomial having three terms. For examples,

3x2 + 2x + 1, x3 – xy + y3, 2x2 + 3x + 2y, x + y + 2 are all trinomials.
Methodology: Inductive method using different examples is used.
11.4.1 Polynomials in one Variable

a) Degree of the polynomial
b) Standard form of a polynomial
c) Constant polynomial
d) Linear, Quadratic and Cubic polynomials.
The polynomial involving one variable is called a polynomial in one variable.
38 Such polynomials x, y, s and t respectively may be written as:
p(x) = 3x2 – 2x + 5 p(y) = 3y + 2 Polynomials: Basic
2 3 2 Concepts and Factoring
p(s) = s – 2 p(t) = t – 3t + 2t + 4
Ask: What is the highest value of the exponent of the variable in each of the
above polynomials. In the first polynomial there are three terms. The exponent
of x is highest in the term 3x2. It is 2. In p(y), the highest exponent of the
variable y is 1.
Explain:
The highest exponent of the variable in a polynomial is called the degree of the
polynomial. The degree of p(x) is 2, the degree of p(y) is 1, the degree of p (s)
is 2 and the degree of p (t) is 3. The term which has the highest exponent of the
variable is written first and then the other terms are written in the decreasing
order of the exponent of the variable.
Explain:
The standard form of a polynomial of degree n in one variable x is:
p(x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 + a2xn-2 + + + + ............................ + an–1 x + an.
a0, a1, a2, .......................... an–1, an are constants and n is a positive integer.
Linear Polynomial A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear polynomial.

For example,
3x + 2, 2y – 1, t + 3 are all linear polynomials.
Quadratic Polynomial A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic
polynomial. For example,
x2 – 2x + 3, 3y2 – 2y + 1, s2 + 3s + 5 are quadratic polynomials in variables x,
y and s respectively.
Cubic Polynomials A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic polynomial.

For example,
x3 – 2x2 + 3x + 2, x3 – 1, 4y3, s3 + s2 + s are all cubic polynomials in
variables x, y and s respectively.
Constant polynomials A polynomial consisting of only constant term is

known as a constant polynomial. For example,
p(x) = 3 is a constant polynomial. It is a polynomial of degree 0 as 3 can also
be written as 3x0 .
Methodology: After giving various examples, inductive reasoning is used to

generalize the concepts.
11.4.2 Polynomials in Two Variables

a) Degree of a term in case of more than one variable
b) Linear and quadratic polynomials in the variables
Degree of a term with more than one variable is the sum of the exponents of all
the variables x and y. In the term 2xy2z2 is 1 + 2 + 2 = 5, because the exponents
of the variables x, y and z are 1, 2 and 2 respectively. 39
Content Based Discuss the degree of terms by considering different examples of terms in
Methodology-I several variables with positive integral exponents. Co
Explain: A linear polynomial in two variables x and y is a polynomial in which

the maximum degree of any of its term is one. Consider various examples of
polynomials in two variables x and y such that -
a) x2 + y2
b) x + 3y + 2
c) 2xy – 5
d) 3x + 5y
e) 3x + 2xy2 + y3
In polynomial (a), degree of each of its term is 2 so, it is not a linear
polynomial whereas in polynomial (b) degree of the terms are 1,1 and 0
respectively. Since the highest degree of any of its term is 1, it is linear
polynomial. Discuss that (c) and (e) are not linear polynomials but (d) is a
linear polynomial. Similarly, explain that if in a polynomial, the highest degree
of any of its term is two then it is a quadratic polynomial. Standard form of a
linear polynomial in two variable is p(x, y) = ax + by + c.
The quadratic polynomial in two variables is

p (x, y) = ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f
where a, b, c, d, e and f are constants.
Methodology: After giving various examples, inductive reasoning is used to

generalize the concepts.
While arithmetic is mainly concerned with the techniques of performing the
four fundamental operations with numbers, algebra is concerned with general
principles and properties of these operations. In other words, algebra
generalizes arithmetical concepts.
11.5 OPERATIONS ON POLYNOMIAS

Before teaching the operations on polynomials, the teacher should clarify to
his/her students that there is a lot of similarity between basic operations on
integers and on polynomials. Like numbers, polynomials can also be added,
subtracted, multiplied or divided. As in integers, the result of adding
subtracting or multiplying polynomials is also a polynomial. But, when we
divide one polynomial by another polynomial, we get a quotient and a
remainder just as in the case of division in integers.
11.5.1 Value of a Polynomial and Zeroes of a Polynomial

a) Value of a polynomial for given values of the variables
b) Meaning of zero of a polynomial

The value of a polynomial for given values of the variables is obtained by
substituting these values of the variables in the polynomial and simplifying the
numerical result.
40
Ask: How do you find the value of a polynomial for some assigned value of Polynomials: Basic
the variable? Concepts and Factoring
Explain: Illustrate it by considering several examples as follows:

Let p(x)= 3x3 – 5x2 – 4x + 4 be a polynomial in x. Find the value of p(x) for
x=0
The value of p(x) for x = 0 is obtained by substituting x = 0 in the given
polynomial and it is denoted by p (0).
‫ ׵‬p(0) = 3(0) 3 – 5(0) 2 – 4(0) + 4 = 0 + 4 = 4
Thus, value of the given polynomial for x = 0 is 4.
Ask: Can you obtain the value of the polynomial for x=1?
Let them do and obtain the result.
p(1) = 3(1) 3 – 5(1) 2 – 4(1) + 4 = 3 – 5 – 4 + 4 = –2
Similarly, ask them to find out p(2).
p(2) = 3(2) 3 – 5(2) 2 –4(2) + 4 = 24 – 20 – 8 + 4 = 0
Explain: The value of polynomial changes as the value assigned to x changes.

Also, explain that the value of the polynomial for which p(x) becomes 0 is
called the zero of the polynomial.
In the above example x = 2 is a zero of the given polynomial p(x) = 3x3 –5x2 –
4x + 4 because for x = 2, the value of p(x) is zero.
There are as many zeroes of a polynomial as the degree of the polynomial.

However, these may be real numbers or complex numbers. Let the students
verify themselves that for the above polynomial other two zeros are x = –1 and
2
x = - . The teacher should carefully select a few polynomials with one or
3
more integral zeroes. Students should be asked to find the integral zeroes for
the polynomials given to them.
Methodology: Through illustrations students should be taught to find the value

of a polynomial and then inductively define zeroes of a polynomial.
11.5.2 Addition of Polynomials

Main Teaching Point
a) Similar terms or like terms
b) How to add two polynomials

Ask the students to add 5 pens and 3 pens.
5 pens + 3pens = 8 pens.
Now, ask them to add 5 pens and 3 shirts. It can only be written as 5 pens +3
shirts. In the first case, two things that we want to add are alike. So, we were
able to add them. But in the second instance pens and shirts are different things
and so we could not add them up. Similarly, in polynomials ask them to add
2x2 and 3x2 and let them tell that it is 5x2. Again, ask them to add 2x2 and 3x4.
Let them write it as 2x2 + 3x4.
41
Content Based Explain: Terms having the same variable part are called similar terms or like
Methodology-I terms. We can add similar terms to get one single term. But when we have to Co
add two terms which are not similar as 2x2 and 3x4, we can only express it as
2x2 + 3x4 (it is referred to as ‘indicated sum’)
Provide the students with several terms, and ask to add them up.
Illustration: Given: 3x2, 5x3, 2x3, 7x, 8x2, –2x
Identify similar terms and add them up.
3x2 and 8x2 are similar, so, 3x2 + 8x2 = 11x2
5x3 and 2x3 are similar, so, 5x3 + 2x3 = 7x3
7x and -2x are similar, so, 7x + (–2x) = 5x
Explain: in the case of polynomials, similar terms in the polynomials are

added and other terms are shown as indicated addition.
Example 2: Add the polynomials p(x) = x3 + 2 x2 + 3 and q(x) = 3x2 + 5x + 2

In both the polynomials identity the similar terms and add them up and write
the other terms as indicated addition.
In these two polynomials
2x2 and 3x2 are similar and therefore 2x2 + 3x2 = 5x2
3 and 2 are similar terms and 3 + 2 = 5
So, p(x) + q(x) = (x3 + 2x2 + 3) + (3x2 + 5x + 2)
= x3 + (2x2 + 3x2) + 5x + (3 + 2)
= x3 + 5x2 + 5x + 5
Example 3: Add x2 + 3x – 5 and 2x2 – 2x + 3
(x2 + 3x – 5) + (2 x2 – 2x + 3)
= (x2 + 2x2) + [(3x) – (2x)] + [(–5) + (3)]
= 3x2 + x–2
This method of addition is described as row method of addition. However,
polynomials can also be added by writing one polynomial under the other
polynomial such that similar terms are written one below the other, as in the
method of number addition.
Explain: Write the first polynomial, then write the second polynomial such
that similar terms are written in the same column, then add the two
polynomials. Example 2 can be done as follows also:
x3 + 2x2 +3
2
+ 3x + 5x + 2
x3+ 5x2 +5x + 5
Example 3 can be done as follows:

x2 + 3x – 5
2x2 – 2x + 3
3x 2 + x – 2
The teacher should give a few more similar examples to clarify the process of
addition of polynomials to the students. In the end, a few problems may be
42
given as exercises. Students should be asked to practice both column method of Polynomials: Basic
addition and row method of addition. Concepts and Factoring
Methodology: Lecture-cum-discussion method is used to illustrate that only

similar terms can be added.
Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below each question.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
Add the following polynomials by row method:
1) p(x) = 2x2 + 3x + 5 q(x) = 3x2 – 4x – 7
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
2) p(x) = x3 – 2x – 3 q(x) = x2 – 3x + 1
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
Add the following polynomials by column method:
3) p(t) = 2t2 + t – 1 q(t) = 3t – 5 – 3t2 r(t) = 1 – 3t – 3t2
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
4) p(k) = k4 + k2 + 2 q(k) = k2 + 2k + 1 r(k) = k3 – 3k + 3
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
11.5.3 Subtraction of Polynomials

Main Teaching Point
To subtract one polynomial from another.
Teacher Learning Process
Explain: The subtraction of polynomials involves the same principles and
process as the subtraction of integers. Remind them that 7– (–3) = 7 + 3 = 10
and 7 – (3) = 4.
Just as in the case of addition of polynomials, we subtract only like terms. For
example, to subtract –3x from 7x. We write as 7x – (–3x) = 7x + 3x = 10x and
to subtract 3x from 7x we write as 7x – (3x) = 7x – 3x = 4x. Note the sign of
the term to be subtracted by row method or by column method. In both the
ways, the sign of every term of the polynomial to be subtracted is changed.
Example 4: Subtract x-y from 2x + 3y
Row method: (2x + 3y) – (x – y) (sign of both the terms in polynomial
= 2x + 3y – x + y to be subtracted is changed and then
= [2x + (–x)] + [3y + y] added as usual)
= x + 4y 43
Content Based
Methodology-I Co
Column Method:
2x + 3y Polynomials are written one below the other
–(x – y)
Sign of each term of the polynomial to be
2x + 3y
–x + y subtract is changed
The answer is the x + 4y.

x + 4y
Example 5: Subtract 2x2 + 2y2 – 6 from 3x2 – 7y2 + 9
Row method
(3x2 – 7y2 + 9) – (2x2 + 2y2 – 6) (Changing the signs of the terms
2 2 2 2 of polynomial to be subtracted)
=3x – 7y + 9 – 2x – 2y + 6
=(3x2 – 2x2) + (–7y2 – 2y2) + (9 + 6)
Column Method
3x2 – 7y2 + 9 (Changing the signs of the terms
–(2x2 + 2y2 – 6) of polynomial to be subtracted.)
3x2 – 7y2 + 9
– 2x2 – 2y2 + 6
x2 – 9y2 + 15
The answer is x2 – 9y2 + 15

Let p(x) = 3x2 – 4x + 7
q(x) = 2x3 + x2 – 5x – 3
and r(x) = 3x2 – 2x + 1
Ask the students to compute

p(x) – q(x), q(x) – p(x), [ p(x) – q(x) ] – r(x) and p(x) – [ q(x) – r(x) ]
Then ask: Is p(x) – q(x) = q(x) – p(x)?
Let them tell that the two answers are different.
Explain: Subtraction is not commutative.
Ask: Is [ p(x) – q(x) ] - r(x) = p(x) – [q (x) – r(x) ]?
Explain: Subtraction is not associative. Point out that whereas addition of

polynomials is both commutative and associative. The subtraction is neither
associate nor commutative.
Methodology: Lecture-cum-discussion method is used. Sufficient practice
should be provided so that the students develop the skill.
44
Check Your Progress Polynomials: Basic
b) Compare your answer with the one give at the end of the unit.
5) Perform the subtractions given below:
i. 3x – y ii. a2 – 3b + c2
– (2x – y) –(a2 + 5b + 3c2)
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
6) Subtract by row method:
(–6x – 8y) – (–3x + 8y)
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
7. Subtract x2 – 7y2 + 1 from 2x2 + 3y2 – 3 by row method.
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
8. What should be subtracted from x4 – 1 to get 3x2 – 2x + 1 + x4?
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
9. What should be added to x3 + 3x2 + 1 to get x5 – 2x2 – 3x?
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
11.5.4 Multiplication of Polynomials

a) To multiply a monomial by a monomial
b) To multiply a polynomial by a monomial
c) To multiply a polynomial by a polynomial

Three fundamental properties of operations are most commonly used in the
process of multiplication of polynomials.
Commutative law which tells us xy = yx
Associative law Which expresses the fact that (xy) z = x (yz) and
Distributive law Which states that x (y + z) = xy + xz. When a monomial

is multiplied by another monomial, laws of exponents are also useful.
In particular, xm .xn = xm+n
Explain: To multiply a monomial by another monomial, we arrange the

numbers together and the variables together using commutative and associative
properties. Then using law of exponents, find the product. 45
Content Based Example 6: Multiply 3x3 y by 5xy3z
Methodology-I Co
Solution (3x3y) (5xy3z)
= (3×5)(x3 · x)(y · y3) · z
= 15x4y4z (using commutative and associative properties)
Example 7 Multiply –2ay z by 4xyz2
2
Solution (–2ay2z) (4xyz2)

= (–2) (4) (a) (x) (y2 · y) (z · z2)
= – 8axy3z3
Explain: To multiply a polynomial by a monomial, we multiply each term of

the polynomial by the monomial just as in distribution law.
Example 8 Multiply 2x2 – 3x – 5 by 4x
Solution 4x (2x2 – 3x – 5)
= (4x) (2x2) – (4x) (3x) – (4x) (5)
= (4 · 2) (x · x2) – (4 · 3) (x · x) – (4 · 5)x
= 8x3 – 12x2 – 20x
In actual practice, we straight away write the last step doing it orally without
showing the intermediary steps.
For example: – 2x (5x2 –3xy + 1) = –10x3 + 6x2y – 2x
Explain: To multiply a polynomial by another polynomial, we multiply each

term of the second polynomial by each term of the first polynomial just as in
distributive law.
Example 9 Multiply 2x + 3y by 2x3 – xy + 2y2
Solution (2x + 3y) (2x3 – xy + 2y2)

= 2x(2x3 – xy + 2y2) + 3y (2x3 –xy + 2y2)
= (4x4 – 2x2y + 4xy2) + (6x3y – 3xy2 + 6y3)
= 4x4 – 2x2y + [4xy2 + (–3xy2)] + 6x3y + 6y3
= 4x4 – 2x2y + xy2 + 6x3y + 6y3
Example 10 Multiply x2 – 3x – 2 by 3x2 + x – 1
Solution (x2 – 3x – 2) (3x2 + x – 1)

=x2(3x2 + x – 1) – 3x (3x2 + x – 1) – 2(3x2 + x – 1)
= 3x4 + x3 – x2 – 9x3 – 3x2 + 3x – 6x2 – 2x + 2
=3x4 + (x3 – 9x3) + (–x2 – 3x2 – 6x2) + (3x – 2x) + 2
= 3x4 – 8x3 – 10x2 + x + 2
Methodology: The method of multiplication is illustrated through various

examples and sufficient practice should be provided to develop the skill.
46
Check Your Progress Polynomials: Basic
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the Unit
10) Find the following products:
(2x + 3) · (x + 4)
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
11) (x3 – x2 – 1) (2x2 + x + 3)
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
12) (x + y) (x2 – xy + 2y2)
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
13. (x – y) (x + y) (x2 + y2)
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
11.5.5 Division of Polynomials

a) To divide a monomial by a monomial
b) To divide a polynomial by a polynomial
c) Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder

Here we will be restricting ourselves to division of polynomials in one variable
only. The process of division in the case of polynomials is the same as in
arithmetic. The similarity between the two processes should be made clear to
the pupils by giving suitable examples.
In case of numbers, we can only divide a bigger number by a smaller number.
Similarly in case of polynomials a higher degree polynomial can be divided by
a polynomial of lower degree.
Example 11: Divide 12x3 by 5x
12x 3 12.x.x.x 12 2
Now, 12x 3 ¸ 5x = = = x
5x 5x 5
xm
or we can use the law of exponents : n
= x m -n . Note that in integers, when a
x
smaller integer is divided by a larger integer, the answer is not an integer.
3
For example, 3 ¸ 7 = , it is not an integer. Similarly, if we divide a
7
monomial of smaller degree by a monomial of higher degree, then the answer
3x 3
is not a polynomial clearly, 3x ¸ x 3 = 3 = 2 ; it is not a polynomial.
x x 47
Content Based The process of dividing a polynomial by another polynomial is quite similar to
Methodology-I long division for integers. Here, we write the dividend and the divisor both in Co
decreasing powers of the variables and then divide as illustrated in the
following example:
Example 12: Divide 3x2 – 9x + 6 by 3x
Step 1 : both the polynomials should be x-3

written in decreasing powers of x. 3x 3x 2 - 9x + 6
The polynomials are already in this 3x 2
form
-
- 9x + 6
- 9x
+
6
2 3x 2
Step 2 : Divide the first term of the dividend by 3x ¸ 3x = = x write it
3x
as the first term of the quotient.
Step 3 : Multiply the divisor by the quotient of step 2 and write it below the
dividend and subtract to get – 9x + 6.
Step 4 : Divide – 9x by 3x the result in –3, write it as the second term of the
quotient.
Step5 : Multiply the divisor by the quotient of step 4 and write it below the
divided and subtract to get 6.
Step6 : Since the degree of 6 is smaller than the degree of 3x, the process
stops. Thus, when 3x2 – 9x + 6 is divided by 3x, the quotient is x – 3
and the remainder is 6.
Ask the students to verify that 3x2 – 9x + 6 = 3x × (x – 3) + 6
(Dividend = quotient × divisor + remainder)
Example 13: Divide 2x3 – 3x2 + 5x – 1 by x – 2

Step1 : Write both the polynomials is standard form.
Step2 : Divide first term of 2x 2 + x + 7

dividend by the first x-2 2x 3 - 3x 2 + 5x - 1
term of divisor
2x 3 2x 3 - 4x 2
2x 3 ¸ x = = 2x 2 - +
x
write it as first term of x 2 + 5x - 1
the quotient.
x 2 - 2x
- +
7x - 1
7x - 14
- +
13
48
Step3 : Multiply the divisor by the quotient in step 2, write it below the Polynomials: Basic
dividend and subtract to get x2 + 5x – 1 Concepts and Factoring
Step4 : Divide the first term of this polynomial by the first term of the
divisor.
x2
x2 ¸ x = = + x (with proper sign) write it as the second term
x
(with proper sign) of the quotient.
Step5 : Multiply the divisor by the quotient in step 4, write it below the new
dividend and subtract to get 7x – 1.
Step6 : Ddivide the first task of this new dividend by the fist term of the
7x
divisor 7x ¸ x = = +7 write it as the third term (with a proper
x
sign) of the quotient.
Step7 : Multiply the divisor by the quotient in step 6 writes it below the
new dividend and subtract to get 13.
Step8 : Since the degree of 13 is less than the degree of the divisor, the
process stops.
When 2x3 – 3x2 + 5x – 1 is divided by x – 2, the quotient is 2x2 + x + 7 and the
remainder is 13.
Ask the students to verify that
Dividend = Quotient × Divisor + Remainder
or 2x3 – 3x2 + 5x – 1 = (x–2) (2x2 + x + 7) + 13
Check Your Progress

Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the our given at the end of the unit.
Divide and write the quotient and remainder in each of the following:
14) (6m2 – 17m – 3) ÷ (m – 3)
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
15 ) (8y2 – 6y – 5) ÷ (2y + 1)
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
16) (27x3 – 1) ÷ (3x – 1)
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
49
Content Based
Methodology-I
11.6 FACTORIZATION OF POLYNOMIALS
Co
In the preceding section you were introduced to the methods of multiplying

polynomials to obtain polynomials of higher degree. Now, we shall consider
the reverse procedure, i.e., techniques of writing a polynomial as a product of
two or more polynomials of lower degree.
a) What is a factor?
b) Meaning of factorization of polynomials

Students have already learnt in arithmetic, the concept of factors and prime
factorization of numbers. In algebra, the concept of factor is the same, given a
polynomial, we express it as a product of immedicable polynomials and the
process is called the factorization of the polynomial.
For example, we know that
1) (2x) . (3x2) = 6x3
2) (2xy) . (x + y) = 2x2 y + 2xy2
3) (x2+x) . (2x + 1) = 2x3 + 3x2 + x
In examples 1, 6x3 is the product of 2x and 3x2. 2x and 3x2 are called the
factors of 6x3.
So, in these examples, we get—
S. No. Polynomial Factors
1. 6x3 2x and 3x2
2. 2x2y + 2xy2 2xy and x + y
3. 2x3 + 3x 2 + x x2 + x and 2x + 1
Explain: If a polynomial can be expressed as a product of two or more

polynomials of lower degree, then these polynomials of lower degree are called
its factors.
Ask: In the above examples, which of the factors can be further factorized?
2x = 2 . x (2 and x are further factors)
3x2 = 3 . x . x (3, x and x are further factors)
Similarly,
2xy = 2 . x . y (3 more factors)
x2 + x = x(x + 1) (2 more factors)
x + y and 2x + 1 cannot be factorized further.
Therefore,
6x3 = 2 . 3 . x . x . x (it has 5 factors)
2x2y + 2xy2 = 2 . x . y . (x + y) (it has 4 factors)
50 2x3 + 3x2 + x = x(x + 1) (2x + 1) (it has 3 factors)

Explain: These factors are such that they cannot be factorized further. Polynomials: Basic
A polynomial which can not be factorized is called irreducible.
Expressing a polynomial as a product of irreducible factors is similar to prime
factorization of numbers.
Methodology: Discussion with inductive reasoning is used to clarify that
concept.
11.6.2 Factoring a Quadratic Polynomial

To factorize using algebraic identities
Teaching learning Process
Students have already learnt in lower classes
That (x + a) 2 = x2 + 2ax + a2 ............................................(i)
2 2 2
(x – a) = x – 2ax + a .............................................(ii)
2 2
(x + a) . (x – a) = x – a ...................................................(iii)
A quadratic polynomial is of the form p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are

real numbers, a ≠ 0. The students may be led to discover that the right hand
side expressions given in the above equations are quadratic polynomials and
the left hand side expressions are their factors, since (x + a) 2 = (x + a) (x + a)
and (x – a) 2 = (x – a) (x – a).
Note that the first term and the last term of the quadratic polynomials in the
above equations are perfect squares. So, whenever a given quadratic
polynomial in its standard form is such that the first and the last term are
perfect square, then it might be possible to express it in any one of the above
forms. The following examples may be given to clarify the method.
Example 14: Factorize x2 + 10x + 25

The first and the last terms are x2 and 25. They are perfect squares. The
quadratic polynomial may be written as-
x2 + 10x + 25 = (x) 2 + 2(x) (5) + (5)2
= (x + 5)2 ............................................. (using identity(i))
Example 15: Factorize 9x2 + 12x + 4

The first and the last terms are 9x2 and 4. Clearly they are perfect squares. The
quadratic polynomial may be written as:
9x2 + 12x + 4 = (3x)2 + 2(3x) (2) + (2)2

= (3x+2)2……………………………………..(using identity (i))
Example 16 : Factorize 25x2 – 30x + 9

The first and the last terms are 25x2 and 9, which are perfect squares. The
quadratic polynomial may be written as
25x2 – 30x + 9 = (5x)2 – 2(5x) (3) + (3)2
= (5x-3)2…………………………………(using identity (ii))
51
Content Based Example 17: Factorize 9x2 – 16
Methodology-I Co
The first and the last terms are 9x2 and 16 which are perfect squares. The
quadratic polynomial may be written as:
9x2 – 16 = (3x)2 – (2)2
= (3x + 4) (3x – 4) ………………………….(using identity (iii))
After giving a few more similar examples, the teacher may give some exercises
for practice.
Methodology: Method is illustrated using various examples and sufficient drill
should be provided to develop the skill.
11.6.3 Method of Splitting the Middle Term

Main Teaching Point
To factorize a quadratic polynomial of the type x2 + (p + q) x + pq by splitting
the middle term.
A polynomial of the form x2 + (p + q) x + pq can be factorized into linear
factors by splitting the middle term as follow:
x2 + (p + q) x + pq = x2 + px + qx + pq
= x (x + p) + q(x + p)
= (x + p) (x + q)
Explain: If a given polynomial of the form x2 + bx + c is such that b = p + q

and c = pq for some numbers p and q , then the given polynomial can be
factorized by splitting the middle term as shown above. The numbers p and q
are determined by hid and trial. The method should be illustrated through
examples as follows:
Example 18: Factorize x2 + 7x + 12 Note that p + q = 7 and pq = 12 Ask the

students to find two numbers p and q such that p + q = 7 and pq = 12 by hit and
trial.
The pupils should be made to think as follows: Find two numbers whose
product is 12 or break it up as product of two numbers. As 12=1 × 12 or 2 × 6
or 3 × 4
Out of these, 3 and 4, are such that 3 + 4 = 7
\ p and q are 3 and 4.
Now, we can factorize the polynomial.
As follow: x2 + 7x + 12 = x2 + (4 + 3) x + (4.3)
= x2 + 4x + 3x + 4.3
= x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4)
= (x + 4) (x + 3)
Which are the required factors?
Example 19: Factorize x2 + x – 6.
Here, p + q = 1 and pq = – 6.
52
Now, break up –6 into product of the two numbers. Polynomials: Basic
–6 = 1 × (–6) or (–1) × 6 or 2 × (–3) or (–2) × 3.
Out of these –2 and 3 are such that (–2) + 3 = 1.
\ p and q are –2 and 3.
\ x2 + x – 6 = x2 + [(– 2) +3)] x + (–2) (3)
= x2 – 2x + 3x + (–2) (3)
= x (x–2) + 3 (x–2)
= (x–2) (x + 3)
Which are the required factors.
Example 20: Factorize x2 – 7x + 10

Here, p + q = –7 and pq = + 10.
Now, break up 10 into product of the two numbers.
10 = 1 × 10 or (–1) × (–10) or 2 × 5 or (–2) × (–5).
Out of these –2 and –5 are such that (–2) + (–5) = –7.
\ p and q are –2 and –5.
\ x2 – 7x + 10 = x2 + [(–2) + (–5)]x + (–2) (–5)
= x2 + (–2)x + (–5)x +(–2) (–5)
= x(x – 2) + (–5) (x – 2)
= (x – 2) (x – 5)
Methodology: The method is illustrated using several examples and then
practice should be provided to develop the skill.
11.6.4 Method of Splitting the Middle Term (Contd.)

Main Teaching Point
To factorize a quadratic polynomial of the type ax2+bx+c by splitting the
middle term.
Teaching Learning Process.

When a quadratic polynomial is of the form ax2 + bx + c such as 2x2 + 9x + 4
or 3x2 – 14x + 8, the factors are of the form px + q and rx + s. Multiplying
px+q and rx + s we get (px + q)(rx + s) = prx2 + (ps + qr)x + qs comparing it
with ax2+ bx + c, we get a = pr , b = ps + qr and c = qs.
It is also seen that (ps).(qr) = (pr) (qs) = ac.
\ Coefficient of x = b
= sum of two numbers ps and qr whose product is ac
So, the method of factoring ax2 + bx + c is similar to the one for the polynomial
x2 + bx + c except for now we have to find two numbers whose sum is b and
their product is ac.
Consider the following examples:
53
Content Based Example 21. Factorize 2x2 + 9x + 4
Methodology-I Co
Here, we have to find two numbers p and q such that p + q = 9 and pq = 2 × 4
=8
Now, break up 8 into product of two numbers 8 = 1 × 8 or (–1) × (–8) or 2 × 4
or (–2) (–4)
Out of these pairs 1 and 8 are such that 1 + 8 = 9
\ p and q are 1 and 8.
\ 2x2 + 9x + 4 = 2x2 + (1 + 8)x + 4
= 2x2 + x + 8x + 4
= x(2x + 1) + 4 (2x + 1)
= (2x + 1) (x + 4)
Example 22: Factorize 3x2 – 14x + 8
Here, we have to find two numbers p and q such that p+q = (–14) and
pq = 3 × 8 = 24
Now, break up 24 into product of two numbers 24 = 1 × 24 or 2 × 12 or 3 × 8
or 4 × 6
Or (–1) × (–24) or (–2) × (–12) or (–3) × (–8) or (–4) × (–6)
Out of these pairs, –2 and –12 are such that (–2) + (–12) = –14
\ p and q are –2 and –12.
\ 3x2 – 14x + 8 = 3x2 + (–2–12)x + 8
= 3x2 – 2x – 12x + 8
= x(3x – 2) – 4 (3x – 2)
= (3x – 2) (x – 4)
Example 23: Factorize 6x2 – 11x – 2
Here, we have to find two numbers p and q such that p + q = (–11) and
pq = 6 × (–2) = –12
Now, break up –12 into product of two numbers –12 = 1 × (–12) or (–1) × 12
or 3 × (–4) or (–3) × 4
Or 2 × (–6) or (–2) × 6
Out of these pairs 1 and –12 are such that 1 + (–12) = –11
\ p and q are 1 and –12.
\ 6x2 – 11x – 2 = 6x2 + (1 – 12)x – 2
= 6x2 + x – 12x – 2
= x(6x + 1) – 2 (6x+1)
= (6x + 1) (x – 2)
Methodology: The method is illustrated by various examples and sufficient
54 practice is required to develop the skill.
Polynomials: Basic
Check Your Progress Concepts and Factoring
Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below each question.
Factorize the following quadratic polynomials:
17) x2 + 8x + 15
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
18) x2 – x – 6
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
19) 5x2 + 40x + 60
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
20) 54x2 – 15x – 4
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
11.7 REMAINDER THEOREM

a) Statement of remainder theorem
b) Use of remainder theorem to find remainder

You have already taught your students the process of dividing a polynomial by
another polynomial. If a polynomial p(x) is divided by q(x) to give quotient
s(x) and remainder r(x), then verify that:
p(x) = q(x) . s (x) + r(x)
Also, remind them that degree of remainder r(x) is smaller than the degree of
the divisor. Now, as a special case, p(x) divided by x – a to give quotient q (x)
and remainder r(x), then-
p(x) = (x – a) q (x) + r(x)
and degree of r(x) is smaller than the degree of the divisor x – a, which is 1.
\ degree of r(x) should be zero as r(x) is a constant polynomial (r) ,
independent of x.
\ we get p(x) = (x – a) q (x) + r
55
Content Based Ask: Find the value of the polynomial
Methodology-I Co
p(x) at x = a
p(a) = (a – a) q(a) + r = r
This leads to an important theorem, known as remainder theorem which states
as
'If p(x)is a polynomial and it is divided by (x-a), where a is a real number, the
remainder will be p (a)'
Illustrate through examples, how remainder theorem is useful in finding the

remainder without actual division.
Example 24: Find the remainder when 3x2 + 2x + 1 is divided by x – 4.
Here, p(x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1,
Comparing x – 4 with x – a, we get a = 4.
According to remainder theorem,
Remainder, r = p(4) = 3.(4)2 + 2(4) + 1
= 48 + 8 + 1 = 57
Example 25: Find the remainder when x3 – 2x2 + x – 5 is divided by x + 2.
Here, p(x) = x3 – 2x2 + x – 5,
Comparing x + 2 with x – a, we get a = –2.
According to remainder theorem,
\ Remainder = p(–2) = (–2)3 – 2(–2)2 + (–2) – 5
=–8–8–2–5
= – 23
Methodology: Deductive method is used to explain the meaning of the
statement of the remainder theorem. Than various illustrations are given to find
the remainder.
11.7.1 Use of Remainder Theorem in Factorization

Teaching Points
a) x – a is a factor of p(x) if p(a) = 0
b) Factorizing a cubic polynomial using the factor theorem
Main Teaching Process
Ask: When p(x) is divided by x – a, the remainder is p(a). If p(a) turns out to
be zero, what do you conclude?
Explain: If the remainder is zero, then p(x) = (x – a). q(x) and therefore x – a is
a factor of p(x).
\ If p(a) = 0, for some number a, than x-a is a factor of p(x). This statement is
called the factor theorem.
Example 26: Find if x – 3 is a factor of x3 – 3x2 + 4x – 10.
Here, p(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 4x – 10
p(3) = (3)3 – 3(3)2 + 4(3) – 10
= 27 – 27 + 12 – 10
=2≠0
x – 3 is not a factor of p(x)
56
Example 27: Find the factor of x3 – x2 + x – 1. Polynomials: Basic
3 2 Concepts and Factoring
Here, p(x) = x – x + x – 1
p(1) = 13 – 12 + 1 – 1
=1–1+1–1
=0
Now, divide p(x)by x – 1 to get the other factor
x 2 +1
x - 1 x3 - x 2 + x - 1
x3 - x 2
- +
x -1
x -1
- +
0
\ x3 – x2 + x – 1 = (x – 1) (x2 + 1)
since, (x2 + 1) is irreducible
\ These are the required factors.
Example 28: Find the factors of x3 + 3x2 – 4x – 12
Here, p(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 4x – 12
\ p(1) = 1 + 3 – 4 – 12 = –12 ≠ 0
\ (x – 1) is not a factor of p(x)
p(–1) = (–1)3 + 3(–1)2 – 4 (–1) – 12
= –1 + 3 + 4 – 12
= 7 – 13 = – 6 ≠ 0
\ (x + 1) is not a factor of p(x)
p(2) = (2)3 + 3(22) – 4(2) – 12
= 8 + 12 – 8 – 12 = 0
\ (x-2) is a factor of p(x)
Now, divide p(x) by (x – 2):
x 2 + 5x + 6
x - 2 x 3 + 3x 2 - 4x - 12
x 3 - 2x 2
- +
5x 2 - 4x - 12
5x 2 - 10x
- +
6x - 12
6x - 12
- +
0
57
Content Based \ x3 + 3x2 – 4x – 12 = (x – 2)(x2 + 5x + 6)
Methodology-I Co
= (x – 2) [x2 + (2 + 3)x + 2.3]
= (x – 2) [x2 + 2x + 3x + 2.3]
= (x – 2) [x (x + 2) + 3(x + 2)]
= (x – 2) (x + 2) (x + 3)
These are the required factors.
Example 29: For what value of k is x3 – kx2 + 4x – 12 divisible by x – 3.

Here, p(x) = x3 – kx2 + 4x – 12
Comparing x – 3 with x – a, we get a = 3
\ Remainder = p(3) = (3)3 – k(32) + 4(3) – 12
= 27 – 9k + 12 – 12
= 27 – 9k
For divisibility, p (3) = 0 Þ 27 – 9k = 0 Þ k = 3
Methodology: Inductive logic is used to illustrate that x-a is a factor of
p(x) if p(a) = 0
Check Your Progress

b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the Unit.
21) Find whether p(x) is divisible by q(x) for p(x) = x3 – 2x2 + x + 3 and
q(x) = x – 4.
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
22) For what value of k, q(x) will be a factor of p(x)in the following:
p(x) = x3 + 2x2 + kx – 2 and q(x) = x + 2
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
11.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have learnt some strategies and approaches to clarify certain
important concepts such as constants, variables, algebraic expression, value of
an algebraic expression and polynomials. You have also leant how to teach
effectively, the concepts of basic operations involving polynomials and impart
58
skills to perform these operations. You have also studied the techniques of Polynomials: Basic
factorizing quadratic polynomials. The use of remainder theorem is algebra to Concepts and Factoring
find the remainder without performing the division was also presented. It was
also shown that the remainder theorem may be used to factorize polynomials of
higher degree. In short, this unit provides you a foundation for further
development in teaching algebra.

At the end of this unit you may:
1) Give your students some more exercises on basic operations with
polynomials and factorization;
2) Evaluate the learning outcomes of your students after this unit has been
taught;
3) Prepare lesson plans or develop teaching aids for teaching factorization
and multiplication of polynomials; and
4) Visit your nearby schools and observe the teaching of polynomials to see
whether the ideas and techniques learnt in this unit find a place in
classroom teaching.
11.10 POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

1) Can we correlate the ideas involved in this unit with corresponding
concepts in arithmetic?
2) Can we correlate the concepts of products and factors involved in this unit
to the concepts of area and volume in mensuration and develop some
novel teaching aids.
3) Can remainder theorem be used to develop a general technique of
factorization?
11.11 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) 5x2 – x – 2 2) x3 + x2 + x – 2
3) –4t2 + t – 5 4) k4 + k3 + 2k2 – k + 6
5) (i) x (ii) –8b – 2c2 6) –3x – 16y
2 2
7) x + 10y – 4 8) –3x2 + 2x – 2
9) x5 – x3 – 5x2 – 3x – 1 10) 2x2 + 11x + 12
11) 2x5 – x4 + 2x3 – 5x2 – x – 3 12) x3 + xy2 + 2y3
13) x4 – y4 14) Quotient=-6m+1, Remainder = 0
15) Quotient = 4y – 5, Remainder = 0 16) Quotient = 9x2 + 3x + 1, Remainder = 0
17) (x + 3) (x + 5) 18) (x – 3) (x + 2)
19) 5(x + 2) (x + 6) 20) (9x – 4) (6x + 1)
21) Not divisible 22) k = –1
59
Content Based
Methodology-I
Co
Brunmifiel Charles F. (et.al.) (1961): Algebra-I, Addison -Wesley Publishing

Company Inc., U.S.A.
Gager, William A. (et.al.) (1953): Functional Mathematics Book-1, Charles
Scribner's Sons, New York.
Gupta, H.N . and Shankaran, V. (Ed.) (1984): Content-cum-Methodology of
Teaching Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi.
IGNOU (2000): Teaching of Mathematics, ES-342, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Johan R.E. (et. al.) (1961): Modern Algebra; First Course, Addison -Wesley
Pubilshing Company Inc., U.S.A.
Russel, Donald S. (1961): Elementary Algebra, Allyn and Bacon Inc., Boston.
60
Linear Equations,
UNIT 12 LINEAR EQUATIONS AND Inequations and
Quadratic Equations
INEQUATIONS AND QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS*
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Linear Equation in One Variable
12.4 Linear Equation in Two Variables
12.4.1 Graph of a Linear Equation in Two Variables
12.4.2 Graph of a Linear Equation Involving Absolute Values
12.4.3 System of Linear Equations in Two Variables
12.4.4 Methods of Solving System of Linear Equations
12.4.5 Solution of Word Problems
12.5 Inequations
12.5.1 Graphical Representation of Inequations
12.6 Quadratic Equation in One Variable
12.6.1 Solution of a Quadratic Equation
12.6.2 Relation between Roots and Coefficients
12.6.3 Equations Reducible to Quadratic Form
12.6.4 Solving Word Problems
12.7 Let Us Sum Up
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The word equation is within the comprehension of the students. They must be
able to differentiate between an expression and an equation. Equations are of
different types depending on the number of variables and the degree of
variables. Besides, there are many situations which are represented by
inequalities. The student is familiar with the solution of linear equations in one
variable.
This unit gives various ways to teach linear equations in two variables and
quadratic equations in one variable. Linear inequations and their graphical
representation are also discussed.
12.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the distinction between linear equation in one variable and the one
in two variables; a system of equations in two variables and quadratic
equations;
61
Content Based • show graphically a linear equation in two variables;
Methodology-I
• use various methods of solving systems of linear equations in two variables
and quadratic equations;
• describe the difference between consistent and inconsistent systems of
equations, both graphically and algebraically ;
• inculcate problem solving skills, that are:
i) translate word problems into mathematical models;
ii) apply mathematical techniques to solve word problems; and
• show graphically the linear inequations; and
• plan and design learning activities that help to teach linear educations,
inequations and quadratic equations.
12.3 LINEAR EQUATION IN ONE VARIABLE

a) Recognizing a linear equation in one variable
b) Solution of a linear equation in one variable

Students are familiar with the terms equation, expression, variable and degree.
As a prelude to further study of equations, you may find out whether students
can discriminate between an expression and an equation.
You may present them with a number of expressions and equations and ask
them to select those which are equations. Also ask them to find out the number
of variables in these equations and write the degree of expression in each of the
equation.
Explain: Equations in which there is only one variable and the degree of the
variable is also one, are called equations of degree one in one variable.
They are also called linear equations in one variable, Consider, a linear
equation in one variable, say, x + 5 = 7.
Ask the students whether the given equation is true for x = 3?
Students will be able to tell that it is true only for x = 2.
Explain: The value of the variable for which the given equation is true is
called the solution of the equation.
Standard form of the linear equation in one variable is ax+b=0 and its solution
is obtained as follows:
ax + b = 0
Adding (–b) to both sides, we get
ax + b + (–b) = 0 + (–b)
ax = –b
1
Multiplying both sides by , we get
62 a
1 1
a
(ax) = (- b)
a
Linear Equations,
Inequations and
Quadratic Equations
b
x=- is the solution of the linear equation ax + b = 0.
a
Methodology: Discussion with various illustrations.
Check Your Progress

Notes; a) Write your answer in the space given below each question.
1) Which of the following are equations?
i) 2x + 3 = 5 ii) 3x – 5 iii) 3x ≠ 2x – 10 iv) x > 10
v) 3x + 2y = 7 vi) 2x + 4y < 4 vii) x2 + 3x – 4 = 0 viii) 4x – 3y
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
2) Which of the following are linear equations in one variable. Also write
their solutions:
i) 3x + 2 = 14 ii) 2x + 3y = 7 iii) 2x – 3 = 7 iv) x2 + x = 6
v) –2x + 7 = 0 vi) 5x – 3 = 3x + 1
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
12.4 LINEAR EQUATION IN TWO VARIABLES

An equation of degree one involving two variables is discussed in this unit.
Such an equation has infinite solutions and its graph is a straight line. The
methods of solving system of linear equations in two variables and consistency
of equations are the main points which are dealt with here.
12.4.1 Graph of Linear Equation in two Variables

a) Finding various solutions of a linear equation in two variables
b) Graph of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line
63
Content Based Teaching Learning Process
Methodology-I
Through examples you should bring out inductively that an equation of degree
one in two variables has infinite solutions and when plotted on a graph, they lie
on a straight line.
After revising the solution of a linear equation in one variable, ask them to find
the solutions of a linear equation in two variables. viz. x + y = 5,
Explain: Any set of values of x and y, which satisfies the given equation, is
called the solution of the equation.
Here, x=1 and y=4 is a solution of the given equation.
Ask them if they can tell any other solution?
Ask them if they can find a solution of the equation with x=10? Let them learn
to find the value of y for a given value of x.
Substituting the value of x in the given equation,
they get: 10 + y = 5 y = –5
∴ x =10 and y = –5 is a solution of the equation.
Ask: How many solutions of the given equation they can find?
Explain: Every linear equation in two variables has infinitely many solutions.
Ask them to write down 5 different solutions of the given equation and plot
them on a graph.
Say, the 5 solutions of x + y = 5 are
x 0 1 2 3 4
y 5 4 3 2 1
Observe that all the points lie

on a straight line.
Explain: The graph of an
equation of degree one in two
variables is a straight line. That
is the reason it is called a linear
equation.
Also, ask them to find any
other solution of the equation Fig. 12.1
and plot it on the graph. Note
that it also lies on the same line.
Ask them to take any point of the line say, (5,0). Note that x = 5 and y = 0 is a
solution of the equation.
Explain: i) Every solution of the equation lie on this line and
ii) Every point of this line is a solution of the given equation
Consider, various examples from real life where two variables are linearly
related.
Example 1: A train is moving with a uniform speed of 60 km/hr. Draw the
time distance graph.
64
Read from the graph the distance travelled in 2.5 hours. Linear Equations,
Inequations and
We know that Speed = Distance/Time
Quadratic Equations
Denoting time by x and distance by y,
y
we get 60 = 60x = y 60x – y = 0
x
It is a linear equation in two variables x and y.
Find various solutions of the equation as shown below:
Time in Hours (x) 1 2 3 4 5
Distance in km (y) 60 120 180 240 300
Thus, we plot the ordered pairs: (1,60), (2,120), (3,180), (4,240) and (5,300)
and join the points marked by a line.
This line represents all the solutions of the given equation.
From the graph, note that when x=2.5, then value of y=150. Indeed you can
verify that x=2.5 and y=150 is a solution of the equation 60x–y=0. Hence,
distance travelled in 2.5 hours is 150km.
Fig. 12.2
Ask the students to plot the graph of the equation x = 5.

As a linear equation in one variable x,
Its graph is a single point,as shown below:
65
Content Based
Methodology-I
Fig. 12.3
Note: It is a line parallel to Y–axis.

Now, if we consider it as a linear equation in two variables x and y, then it can
be expressed as:
x + 0.y = 5
Which means that the value of x is 5 for each value of y. So, the various
solutions of the equation are as shown below:
x 5 5 5 5 5
y –1 1 2 3 4
Plot these points on a graph and join them. Now you can see through the graph
of the equation x = 5 is a straight line parallel to the y–axis.
Fig. 12.4
Similarly, draw the graphs of x = 3 and x = –2
Explain: They are all straight lines parallel to the y-axis.
Note that the equation of y-axis is x = 0. Similarly let the graphs of y = 2,
y = 4, y = –3 etc. be drawn and interpreted by the students.
Let them conclude that graph of y=constant is a line parallel to x–axis and the
equation of x – axis is y = 0.
Methodology: Examples are discovered and the facts are derived inductively
from the different examples.
66
12.4.2 Graph of Linear Equation Involving Absolute Values Linear Equations,
Inequations and
Main Teaching Point Quadratic Equations
To draw the graph of a linear equation involving absolute value

The absolute value of a is written as |a| and it is defined as follows :
éa, if a ³ 0
Definition : a = ê
êë-a, if a < 0
Let us study the graph of a linear equation involving absolute value.
Example 2 : Draw the graph of y = 4 .
éy = 4, when y ³ 0
By definition y = 4Þ ê
ê
ëy = -4, when y < 0
The graph of the given equation is, Therefore, the union of graphs of y = 4 and
y = –4 as shown.
Fig. 12.5
Example 3 : Draw the graph of 2x - 3 = 4

é2x - 3, when 2x - 3 ³ 0
By definition 2x - 3 = ê
ê
ë- (2x - 3), when 2x - 3 < 0
é 2x - 3 = 4, when 2x - 3 ³ 0
\ 2x - 3 = 4 Þ ê
ê
ë-2x + 3 = 4, when 2x - 3 < 0
éx = 7 , when x ³ 3
ê 2 2
or ê
êx = - 1 , when x < 3
ë 2 2
∴ The graph is as shown. It consists of union of graphs of x = 7/2 and x = –1/2.
67
Content Based
Methodology-I
Fig. 12.6
Example 4 : Draw the graph of y=2lxl.
By definition of lxl,
é2x, when x ³ 0
y = 2 x can be written as y = ê
ê
ë-2x, when x < 0
Ask students to point out the difference in the graph of the equation y = 2x and
y = –2x when x ≥ 0.
Which part of the graph of y = 2x can not form a part of the latter graph?
The graph of y = 2x, when x ≥ 0, will be part of the graph of the line y = 2x in
the first quadrant.
The graph of y = –2x, when x < 0, will be part of the graph of the line y = –2x
in the second quadrant.
The graph of y = 2 x is the union of two rays as shown in the figure.
Fig. 12.7
Methodology: Discussion method is used.
68
Check Your Progress Linear Equations,
Inequations and
Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below each question. Quadratic Equations
Draw the graphs of the following equations:
3) 2x + y = 5
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
4) y = x-2
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
12.4.3 System of Linear Equations in Two Variables

a) Finding the solution of a system of linear equations in two variables
graphically
b) Conditions for consistency of a system of linear equations in two variables
Two linear equations in two variables taken together with the help of the
connective ‘and’ are called a system of linear equations in two variables. Plot
the graph of each of the linear equations on the same XY–plane. The point of
intersection of the lines is a solution of both the equations. This common
solution is called the solution of the system of linear equations. If the lines
coincide, then there are infinitely many common solutions and if they are
parallel and do not intersect, then the system has no common solution.
Example 5 : Solve the system of linear equations graphically : 2x – y = 1 and
x + 2y = 8
2x – y = 1
x 1 2 3
y 1 3 5
x + 2y = 8
x –2 0 4
y 5 4 2
Fig. 12.8
69
Content Based Draw the graph of both the equation in the same XOY plane.
Methodology-I
Note that the two straight lines intersect at point P(2,3)
So, x = 2 and y = 3 is a solution of each of the two equations.
∴ x = 2 and y = 3 is the solution of the system of linear equations. .
Explain A system of linear equations is said to be consistent if they have
one and only one solution i.e. They have a unique solution. The graph is a
two intersecting lines. Algebraically, the system of equations are in general
éa x + b1 y = c1
expressed as ê 1
ê
ëa 2 x + b 2 y = c 2
In this example, note that
a1 2 b -1 a b
= and 1 = and so 1 ¹ 1
a2 1 b2 2 a2 b2
∴ System of equations is consistent having a unique solution if

a1 b
¹ 1
a2 b2
Example 6 : Solve the following system of equations graphically:
é2x + y = 6
ê
êë4x + 2y = 6
2x + y = 6
x 0 1 2
y 6 4 2
4x + 2y = 6
x 0 1 2
y 3 1 –1
Fig. 12.9
70
Draw the graph of both the equations in the same XY–plane. Linear Equations,
Inequations and
Note that the two straight lines are parallel. They do not intersect.
Quadratic Equations
There is no common point and ∴ there is no common solution.
This system of linear equations has no solution.
Explain: A system of linear equations is said to be ‘inconsistent’ if it has no

solution. The graph is a pair of parallel lines which do not intersect each other.
In this example note that
a1 2 1 b1 1 c 6
= = , = and 1 = = 1
a 2 4 2 b2 2 c2 6
∴
a1 b1 c
= ¹ 1
a 2 b2 c2
∴ the system of equations’ is inconsistent having no solution if

a1 b1 c
= ¹ 1
a 2 b2 c2
Observe that according to first equation 2x+y=6, but according to the second
equation 2x + y = 3.
∴ If (x, y) satisfies first equation then it will not satisfy the second equation and
if (x, y) is such that 2x + y = 3 then 2x + y ≠ 6. The two equations contradict
each other.
éx - 2y = 1
Example 7 Solve ê graphically
ê
ë3x - 6y = 3
x – 2y = 1
x 1 3 5
y 0 1 2
Fig. 12.10
The same set of values of x and y satisfy both the equations.
Therefore, the lines are coincident. Each point of this line satisfies both the
equations. The system of equations,
Therefore, has infinitely many solutions.
Explain: A system of linear equations is said to be consistent, in particular

dependent, if they have infinitely many solutions. The graph in this case is
coincident lines.
Algebraically note that
71
Content Based a1 1 b1 -2 1 c 1
Methodology-I = , = = and 1 =
a 2 3 b 2 -6 3 c2 3
∴ The system of equations is dependent (consistent) having infinitely many
a b c
solutions, If 1 = 1 = 1
a 2 b2 c2
Note that the second equation can be obtained from the first equation by
æ a ö
multiplying it by 3. çç= 2 ÷÷ . Hence, the second equation is not different from
è a1 ø
the first equation. It actually depends on the first equation.
Methodology: Induction method is used. Several examples are discussed and

then the results are derived inductively.
Check Your Progress:

Classify the following system of equations as consistent, dependent or
inconsistent:
5) 2x + 3y = 5
4x + 6y = 10
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
6) 3x + 4y = 2
6x + 8y = –1
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
7) 4x – y = 5
2x – y = 3
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
éx + y = 5
8) Solve ê graphically
ê
ëx - y = 3
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
12.4.4 Methods of Solving System of Linear Equations

Main teaching Point
72 Different methods of solving a system of two linear equations in two variables

Teaching Learning Process Linear Equations,
Inequations and
1) Method of Elimination
Quadratic Equations
This method consists essentially of eliminating one of the variables from both
the equations and thus getting an equation in a single variable which can be
solved to get the value of the variable. This value of one variable thus obtained
is substituted in any of the two given equations to get the value of the second
variable.
Develop with students’ participation by various methods of elimination. They
are the following:
i) Method of Comparison
From each of the two equations, find the value of any one variable in
terms of the other and equate them.
é3x + 2y = 8
Example 8 Solve ê
ê
ë2x + 3y = 7
Finding value of x from each equation, we get
8 - 2y
3x + 2y = 8 Þ x = …………………………….. (1)
3
7 - 3y
2x + 3y = 7 Þ x = …………………………….. (2)
2
Equating (1) and (2), we get
8 - 2y 7 - 3y
∴, = Þ 16 - 4y = 21 - 9y Þ 5y = 5 Þ y = 1
3 2
8 - 2(1)
Putting this value in equation (1), we get x = =2
3
∴, the solution is x = 2 and y = 1.
Ask the students to solve the system of equations by finding the value of y
from both the equations and then comparing them and verifying that they
get the same result.
ii) Method of Substitution
Find the value of any one variable from and one of the equations in terms
of the other and then substitute it in the second equation to eliminate that
variable.
é3x + 2y = 8.......................(1)
Example 9 Solve ê
ê
ë2x + 3y = 7.......................(2)
8 - 2y
3x + 2y = 8 Þ x = ……………………….(3)
3
Substituting in the equation (2), we get
æ 8 - 2y ö
2 çç ÷÷ + 3y = 7 Þ 2 (8 - 2y) + 9y = 21
è 3 ø
Þ 16 - 4y + 9y = 21 Þ 5y = 5 Þ y = 1
Putting this value in (3), we get
8 - 2(1)
x= =2
3
∴ the solution is x = 2 and y = 1. 73
Content Based The equations can also be solved by finding the value of y from (1) and
Methodology-I substituting it in (2).
Ask the students to find the value of the variable x from the second
equation and substitute it in the first equation and then find the solution.
iii) Method of Addition or Subtraction
Make the coefficients of either x or y in the two equations equal by
multiplying the equations by suitable constants and then eliminate the
variable by addition or subtraction.
é3x + 2y = 8.......................(1)
Example 10 Solve ê
êë2x + 3y = 7.......................(2)
To make coefficients of x equal in both the equations, multiply equation (1)
by 2 and equation (2) by 3 to get:
6x + 4y = 16 ………………………….. (3)
6x + 9y = 21 ……………………………(4)
Eliminate x by subtracting equation (4) from (3):
We get –5y = –5 Þ y = 1
Substituting y=1 in equation (1), we get 3x + 2(1) = 8 Þ 3x = 6 Þ x = 2.
∴ the solution is x = 2 and y = 1.
Ask the students to eliminate y from the two equations by this method and
then solve the equations to get the same answer.
2) The Method of Cross Multiplication

Let the equations be a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 ………………….(1)
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 …………………. (2)
Multiplying (1) by b2 and equation (2) by b1, we get
a1b2x + b1b2y + b2c1 = 0 ……………………………………..(3)
a2b1x + b1b2y +b1c2 = 0 ……………………………………..(4)
Subtracting equation (4) from equation (3), we get
(a1b2 – a2b1)x + (b2c1 – b1c2) = 0
x = (b1c2 – b2c1) / (a1b2 – a2b1) ………………………….(5)
Similarly, we can find y = (c1a2 – c2a1) / (a1b2 – a2b1)………(6)
From (5) and (6), we get
x y 1
= =
b1c 2 - b 2 c1 c1a 2 - c 2 a1 a1b 2 - a 2 b1
Which can be written as below, where denominators are obtained by
cross–multiplication as indicated:
x y 1
———— = ————— = ————— ……………….(a)
(+) b1 c1 (+) c1 a1 (+) a1 b1
(–) b2 c2 (–) c2 a2 (–) a2 b2

74
Explain to the students, the steps given below to use this method. Linear Equations,
Inequations and
Steps
Quadratic Equations
i) Rewrite the equations in such a way that all the terms are on the left–hand
side and zero on the right–hand side. Write the variables x and y in order
ie first x, then y and then constants.
Now equations are in the form :
éa1x + b1 y + c1 = 0
ê
ê
ëa 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0
ii) Take the detatched coefficients, write them in cyclic order starting with
coefficients of y as given below and work the arrows as shown:
b1 c1 a1 b1
b2 c2 a2 b2
iii) Write the first cross–product below x, the second cross–product below y
and third cross–product below 1.
iv) Simplify to get the values of x and y.
é3x + 2y = 8
Example 11 Solve ê
ê
ë2x + 3y = 7
by the method of cross–multiplication.
é3x + 2y - 8 = 0
Step 1 Write equations as ê
ê
ë2x + 3y - 7 = 0
Step 2 Take the detatched coefficients and write them cyclic order starting with
coefficients of y :
2 –8 3 2
3 –7 2 3
Step 3 Write the cross–products below x, y and 1:

x y 1
= =
2( -7) - (3) ( -8) ( -8) (2) - ( -7) (3) 3(3) - 2(2)
∴
x y 1
= =
10 5 5
x 1 y 1
Step 4 = Þ x = 2 and = Þ y =1
10 5 5 5
∴ x = 2 and y = 1 is the solution.
Note: Cross–multiplication method is applicable when the given system is
consistent i.e.
a1 b
¹ 1 or a1b 2 - a 2 b1 ¹ 0
a2 b2
Methodology: Discussion method help to involve students in telling different
ways of elimination of a variable from two equations.
75
Content Based 12.4.5 Solution of Word Problems
Methodology-I
Main Teaching Point
Translating a word problem into a mathematical model
For solving word problems, the main emphasis should be on translating the
problem into a mathematical model. Once we obtain two linear equations in
two variables, they can be solvedby any one of the methods studied earlier.
After reading the problem carefully, determine what are the unknown
quantities and denote them by the variables x and y. Again read the problem
and try to write down relation between the variables and express it as a linear
equation in two variables x and y.
Example 12 A fraction becomes 2/3 on subtracting 1 from both the numerator
and the denominator. Express it as a mathematical model.
Answer : Ask the students to tell the two unknown quantities in this statement.
They can easily conclude that they are numerator and denominator.
Suppose, numerator = x and denominator = y.
x
Then, fraction is .
y
So, according to given statement
x -1 2
= Þ 3x - 3 = 2y - 2 Þ 3x - 2y = 1
y -1 3
Which is a linear equation in two variables x and y.
Example 13 The cost of 3 chairs and 2 tables is Rs 4200. Express it as a linear
equation in two variables.
Answer : In this example, we do not know the cost of 1 chair and the cost of 1
table. These are the unknown quantities. Suppose them as x and y.
Then according to the given statement, we get
3x + 2y = 4200
This is a linear equation in two variables x and y. Consider a few more such
examples of translating a given statement into a mathematical equation.
Now, let us solve a complete problem using this method.
Example 14 The difference between the ages of father and the son is 20 years.
After 5 years, father will be twice as old as his son. Find their present ages.
In this problem the unknown quantities are the present ages of the father and
the son.
Let the present age of the father be x years and the present age of the son be y
years.
Now, it is given that the difference between the ages of father and the son is 20
years.
∴ The difference between x and y is 20.
∴ x – y = 20 –(1) (This is the first linear equation in x and y)
76
After 5 years, father will be twice as old as his son. Linear Equations,
Inequations and
After 5 years, father will be x+5 years old and the son will be y+5 years old
Quadratic Equations
∴ x + 5 = 2(y + 5) Þ x + 5 = 2y + 10 Þ x – 2y = 5 –(2)
(This is the second linear equation in x and y)
We have obtained two linear equations in two variables x and y i.e.
x – y = 20 – (1)
x – 2y = 5 – (2)
Now, solve equations (1) and (2) by any one of the methods studied earlier to
find the values of x and y.
Subtracting (2) from (1), we get y=15
Substituting this value of y in equation (1)
We get x – 15 = 20 Þ x = 20 + 15 = 35.
∴ age of father = 35 years
And age of son = 15 years.
Similarly, more examples of word problems be solved with the help of the
students.
Methodology: Heuristic approach is more suitable for solving word problems.
However, discussion should be encouraged and the teacher should guide the
students towards logical thinking.
Check Your Progress
Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below each equation.
9) A fraction becomes ½ on adding 1 to both the numerator and the
denominator. On adding 2 to the denominator, the fraction becomes 1/3.
Find the fraction.
……………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………...
10) The difference between the ages of a father and his son is 30 years. Last
year(one year ago) the age of the father was four times that of his son.
Find their present ages.
……………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………...
11) A boat travels 30 km downstream in one hour and comes back in 1.5
hours. Find the speed of the boat in still water and the speed of the stream.
……………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………...
77
Content Based
Methodology-I
12.5 INEQUATIONS
It is not always the case that we are faced with problems involving equations.
There are also situations when we have to deal with inequations. Consider the
problem:
Raju went to a general store to purchase sugar. He found that it was available
in 250g and 500g packets. He could not carry more than 2 kg of sugar. How
many packets of each type could he buy?
Suppose he buys x packets of 250g and y packets of 500g sugar. Since total
weight should not exceed 2000g.
∴ 250 x + 500 y ≤ 2000 or x + 2y ≤ 8.
This is a linear inequation in two variables x and y.
In general, a linear inequation in two variables x and y is in one of the

following forms:
ax + by < c
or ax + by > c
or ax + by ≤ c
or ax + by ≥ c
where a, b, x, y are real numbers and a, b are not simultaneously equal to zero.
An ordered pair whish satisfies an inequation has infinitely many solutions.
12.5.1 Graphical Representation of Inequation

Main Teaching Point
To represent an inequation graphically
Represent graphically: 2x + y ≤ 4, where x, y R.
Let the students draw the graph of the equation 2x + y = 4.
Straight line represent the solution set of the equation 2x + y = 4.
Ask : In how many sets, the points in the plane are divided.
Explain There are three sets of points
i) Set of points which lie on the line.
ii) Set of points which lie on one side of the line, say, Region 1.
iii) Set of points which lie on the other side of the line, say, Region II.
2x+y=4
x 0 1 2
y 4 2 0
78
Consider, the points (0,5), (2,3) and (3,0) of Region I. Linear Equations,
Inequations and
Quadratic Equations
Fig. 12.11
They all satisfy the inequation 2x+y>4. Consider, the points (0,2), (–1,0) and
(1,0) of Region II.
They all satisfy the inequation 2x+y<4.
Explain that all the points of Region (I) satisfy the inequation 2x+y<4
∴ Region (I) represents the solution set of the inequation 2x+y>4, just as the
straight line represents the solution set of the equation 2x+y=4.Similarly, all
the points of Region (II) satisfy the inequation 2x+y<4.
∴ Region (II) represents the solution set of the inequation 2x+y<4.
Therefore, the straight line together with Region (II) represent 2x+y≤4.
We only shade the required region. To represent the solution set of 2x+y<4, the
line is not included and hence it is drawn dotted and only Region II, will be
shaded.
Represents
2x + Y > 4
Fig. 12.12
79
Content Based Example 15 Represent graphically: lxl ≤ 3.
Methodology-I
First draw the graph of lxl = 3 i.e. x = 3 or x = –3.
Note that all the points between the two lines represent lxl ≤ 3.
∴ Shaded region together with the two straight lines represent the solution set.
Note that lxl ≤ 3 means x ≤ 3 when x ≥ 0 or x > –3 when x < 0.
Fig. 12.13
Methodology: Discussion method is suitable as students already know how to
draw the graph of an equation.
Check Your Progress
Draw the graphs of the following linear inequations in two variables x and y:
12) lyl ≥ 4
…………………………………………………………………...............
…………………………………………………………………...............
…………………………………………………………………...............
13) x≥2
…………………………………………………………………...............
…………………………………………………………………...............
14) y–x≥3
…………………………………………………………………...............
…………………………………………………………………...............
12.6 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0 is a quadratic equation in
one variable x. Students must be able to recognize the quadratic equations form
a given set of equations as follows:
(i) 3x2 + 7x + 2 = 0
(ii) 2x2 – 3x = 5
(iii) x2 + 5 = x3 – 1
(iv) 2x2 + 1x = 3
80
(v) x2 = x + Linear Equations,
Inequations and
(vi) 3x2 – 5x + 8 = 3x2 + 2 Quadratic Equations
Only (i) and (ii) are quadratic equations.

You should discuss with the students why others are not quadratic equations.
12.6.1 Solution of a Quadratic Equation

a) Factor method
b) Completing the square method
a) Factor Method
Express the given quadratic equation in the form p(x) = 0, where p(x) is a
quadratic polynomial. Factorize p(x) to get p(x) = q1(x) . q2(x), where
q1(x) and q2(x) are linear polynomials, so that
p(x) = 0 => q1(x). q2(x) = 0 => q1(x)=0 or q2(x)=0
( using ab=0 => a=0 or b=0).
Solve each of the two linear equations to find the solution set of the
quadratic equation.
Example 16 Solve : x2+6x+5=0
Factorizing the left hand side, we get
(x+1)(x+5)=0
=>x+1=0 or x+5=0
=>x=–1 or x=–5.
∴ {–1,–5} is the solution set of the quadratic equation x = –1 and x = –5
are also called the roots of the equation.
b) Method of Completing the Squares
To solve ax2 + bx + c = 0, (a≠0)
Multiplying both sides by 4a, we get
4a2x2 + 4abx + 4ac=0
∴ 4a2x2 + 4abx = –4ac
Adding b2 to both sides, we get
4a2x2 + 4abx + b2 = b2– 4ac
Note that L.H.S. becomes a perfect square
∴ (2ax+b)2 = b2– 4ac
∴ 2ax+b = ± b 2 - 4ac
∴ 2ax = - b ± b 2 - 4ac
- b ± b 2 - 4ac
∴ x =
2a
81
Content Based Explain: This is called a quadratic formula and it is used to solve a quadratic
Methodology-I equation p(x)=0, where p(x)is not easily factorizable. Instead of using this
formula, we can use the steps involved in completing the square process.
Moreover, b2–4ac is called the discriminant. Why?
This is because, it discriminates between different types of roots:
i) If b2–4ac>0, the roots are real and unequal.
ii) If b2–4ac=0, the roots are real and equal.
iii) If b2–4ac<0, the roots are not real.
Example 17 Solve 2x2 – 3x – 6 = 0
Here a = 2, b = –3 and c = –6.
- b ± b 2 - 4ac - (-3) ± (-3) - 4(2) (-6)

2
\x = =
2a 2(2)
3 ± 57
\x =
4
Or 2x2 – 3x – 6 = 0
Multiplying by 4a = 4 × 2 = 8, both sides, we get
16x2 – 24x – 48 = 0 16x2 – 24x = 48
Adding b2 = (–3)2 = 9, both sides, we get
16x2 – 24x + 9 = 48 + 9
LHS becomes a perfect square.
∴ (4x – 3)2 = 57 4x – 3 = ± 57 4x = 3 ± 57
3 ± 57
\x =
4
Methodology: Deductive method is used to derive the quadratic formula.
12.6.2 Relation between Roots and Coefficients

-b
a) Sum of roots =
a
c
b) Product of roots =
a
Ask students to find the roots of the following equations and complete the
following table:
Equations Roots Sum of Roots a b –b/a
2
i) x – 7x + 6 = 0 1,6 7 1 –7 7
ii) x2 – 3x – 4 = 0
iii) 2x2 – 5x – 7 = 0
iv) 3x2 – 11x + 10 = 0
v) 2x2 – 3x – 5 = 0
82

From this table, let them reach the conclusion that Sum of roots =
Linear Equations,
Inequations and
Again, ask them to complete the following table: Quadratic Equations
Equations Roots Sum of Roots c a –

i) x2 – 7x + 6 = 0 1,6 6 6 1 6
ii) x2 – 3x – 4 = 0
iii) 2x2 – 5x – 7 = 0
iv) 3x2 – 11x + 10 = 0
v) 2x2 – 3x – 5 = 0
From this table students will reach the conclusion that

c
Product of roots =
a
The above results can also be obtained algebraically as follows:
- b ± b 2 - 4ac
The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are x =
2a
- b + b 2 - 4ac - b b 2 - 4ac
ie x1 = = +
2a 2a 2a
- b - b 2 - 4ac - b b 2 - 4ac
and x 2 = = -
2a 2a 2a
-2b
∴ Sum of Roots = x1 + x 2 =
b
=-
2a a
Product of Roots= x1x2
é öù é öù
b æ ç b - 4ac ÷ ú
2 æ 2
ê b - ç b - 4ac ÷ ú
=ê +
ê2a ç ÷÷ ú ê2a çç ÷÷ ú
ç 2a 2a
ê
ë è ø ûú ê
ë è ø ûú
b 2 b 2 - 4ac 4ac c
= - = 2 =
4a 2 4a 2 4a a
∴ If, α, β are the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, then a +b = - b and ab =

c
a a
Methodology: Inductive method is used to explain the formulae and then they
are derived using a deductive logic .
Check Your Progress
Notes : a) Write your answers in the space given below each question.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the Unit.
15) If are the roots of the equation ax2+bx+c=0, find the values of
the following :
1 1
(i) + (ii) a 2b + ab2
a b
…………………………………………………………………...............
…………………………………………………………………............... 83
Content Based 16) For what values of p are the roots of the following equations equal?
Methodology-I
i) 3x2 – 5x + p = 0
ii) 2px2 – 8x + p = 0
…………………………………………………………………..................
…………………………………………………………………..................
…………………………………………………………………..................
…………………………………………………………………..................
17) Form a quadratic equation whose roots are:
i) 2 and 2
ii) 3 and –√3
…………………………………………………………………..................
…………………………………………………………………..................
…………………………………………………………………..................
…………………………………………………………………..................
12.6.3 Equations Reducible to Quadratic Form

Main Teaching Point
How to transform an equation which is not quadratic to a quadratic form in
different situations.
There are equations which are not quadratic but suitable transformation reduces
them to a quadratic equation. Such equations are reducible equations.
Example 18 Solve: 2x4 – 5x2 + 3 = 0
This is not a quadratic equation as its degree is 4. Putting x2 = z, we get
2z2 – 5z + 3 = 0
This is a quadratic equation. Now, it can be solved as a normal quadratic
equation.
Factorizing LHS we get
(2z–3) (z–1) = 0
2z–3=0 or z–1=0

z= or z=1

x2= or x2=1
x= ±32 or x=±1
1 13
Example 19 Solve x + = , (x≠0)
x 6
This is not a quadratic equation.
84
Multiplying by x, both sides, we get : Linear Equations,
Inequations and
13x
x2+1= Þ 6x2 + 6 = 13x Þ 6x2 – 13x + 6 = 0 Quadratic Equations
6
This is a quadratic equation.
Factorizing LHS we get : (3x – 2) (2x – 3) = 0
2 3
Þ 3x – 2 = 0 or 2x – 3 = 0 Þ x = or x =
3 2
Example 20 Solve: 25 - x 2 = x – 1
This is not an quadratic equation.
Squaring both sides, we get
25 – x2 = x2 – 2x + 1 Þ 2x2 – 2x – 24 = 0 Þ x2 – x – 12 = 0
Factorizing LHS we get : (x – 4) (x + 3) = 0
Þ x – 4 = 0 or x + 3 = 0 Þ x = 4 or x = –3.
Explain : A linear equation x–1=0 has only one solution ie x=1
Now, x – 1 = 0 Þ x = 1
On squaring both sides, we get x2 = 1 or x2 – 1 = 0.
It is a quadratic equation and it has two roots x = 1. These are the roots of the
quadratic equation but not of the initial linear equation. The root x = –1 is
called an extraneous root. So, whenever we do squaring both sides, we must
look out for extraneous roots by verifying the roots from the initial equation.
In this example, initial equation is 25 - x 2 = x–1
Check whether x=4 is a root of this equation. By substituting x=4, we get
LHS = √25 16 = 3, RHS = 4–1=3.
∴ LHS = RHS
∴ x=4 is a root of this equation.
Now, verify whether x= –3 is its root.
LHS = 25— 32 = 4, RHS = (–3)–1 = –4.
LHS ≠ RHS
∴ x= –3 is not its root.
It is an extravenous root.
∴ x=4 is the only root of the given equation.
Example 21 Solve √3x # 10 + √6 x =6
Keeping only one root on LHS, we get
√3x # 10 = 6 – √6 x
Squaring both sides, we get
3x+10 = 36+ (6–x) – 12 √6 x 85
Content Based Writing root term on LHS, we get
Methodology-I
12√6 x = 32–4x or 3√6 x = 8–x
Again squaring both sides, we get:
9(6 – x) = 64 + x2 – 16x or x2 – 7x + 10 = 0
Factorizing LHS, we get:
(x – 5) (x – 2) = 0 Þ x – 5 = 0 or x – 2 = 0 Þ x = 5 or x = 2
Here, students can verify that both are roots of the given equation.
æ 1 ö æ 1ö
Example 22 Solve: 3 çç x 2 + 2 ÷÷ – 16 çç x + ÷÷ + 26 = 0
è x ø è xø
1
Let x + =y
x
On squaring both sides, we get:
1 1
x2 + + 2 = y2 or x2 + = y2 – 2
x2 x2
Putting these values In the given equation we get:
3(y2–2) – 16y + 26 = 0 or 3y2 – 16y + 20 = 0
It is a quadratic equation and it can be solved as usual.
%
Let students solve it and obtain x = 1, x = 3 or x = as its roots.
Methodology: Deductive method is used for teaching the transformation in
different situations.
Check Your Progress
Solve the following equations:–
18) x - 2 + x +1 = 3
……………………………………………………………......................
……………………………………………………………......................
……………………………………………………………......................
……………………………………………………………......................
æ 2 1 ö æ 1ö
19) çç x + 2 ÷÷ - 4 çç x + ÷÷ + 6 = 0
è x ø è xø
……………………………………………………………......................
……………………………………………………………......................
……………………………………………………………......................
86
12.6.4 Solving Word Problems Linear Equations,
Inequations and
Main Teaching Point Quadratic Equations
To translate the given word problem into a mathematical model

There are a few problems which when translated into a mathematical model
form a quadratic equation. The main emphasis should be on translation of the
language of the problems into an appropriate quadratic equation in one
variable.
Example 23
Find two natural numbers whose difference is 3 and sum of their squares is
117.
Let the one natural number be x. Since the difference of two numbers is 3.
∴ The other natural number is x+3
Since sum of their squares is 117
∴ x2 + (x+3)2 = 117
On simplification, it leads to the quadratic equation
x2 + 3x – 54 = 0
It can be solved as usual to get x = –9 or x = 6, as it roots.
Since x = –9 is not a natural number
∴ the only solution is x = 6
∴ One number = 6
The other number = 6+3 = 9.
Example 24 The product of two consecutive odd numbers is 15. Find the
numbers.
Let the two consecutive odd numbers be (2x + 1) and (2x + 3).
Therefore, (2x + 1) (2x + 3) = 15 Þ 4x2 + 8x – 12 = 0
x2 + 2x – 3 = 0
It is a quadratic equation.
Therefore (x + 3) (x – 1) = 0 Þ x + 3 = 0 or x – 1 = 0
x= –3 or x = 1
when x = –3
The consecutive odd numbers are –5 and –3.
When x=1
The consecutive odd numbers are 3 and 5.
Methodology: Heuristic method is used to solve word problems. The teacher

should guide the students towards logical thinking.
87
Content Based
Methodology-I
12.7 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, you have learnt different methods of solving a system of two linear
equations in two variables and solving a quadratic equation in one variable.
You have also learnt to translate the given word problem into a mathematical
model and solving them by using your knowledge of solving equations. The
relations between roots of a quadratic equation and its coefficients also helps
us in simplifying the solution which is otherwise quite lengthy. A linear
inequation in two variables has infinitely many solutions which can be easily
represented by a graph.

Discuss with the students the solution of the following types of questions and
encourage them to use the knowledge acquired in this unit and apply logical
thinking in solving such problems:
éax + by = a 2 + b 2
ê
1. Solve ; êx y
ê + =2
ê
ëa b
æ 2 1ö æ 1ö
2. Solve: ç y + 2 ÷÷ - 25 çç y - ÷÷ + 12 = 0
6ç
è y ø è yø
æ 2x + 1 ö 4 æ 2x + 1 ö 2
3. Solve: ç
ç ÷
÷ - 10 çç ÷÷ + 9 = 0
è x -1 ø è x -1 ø
4. Find a quadratic equation whose roots are reciprocals of the roots of the
equation x2 – 5x – 14 = 0
5. Find a quadratic equation whose roots are squares of the roots of the
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a& 0'
6. Find a quadratic equation whose one root is 2 and sum of the roots
is –4.
7. Write the nature of the roots of the equation 2x2 –5x–1=0, without actually
finding the roots.
8. Find the value of k, so that the equation kx2 + 3kx + 9 = 0 has real and
equal roots.
9. Draw the graph of y £ x
12.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. (i), (v) and (vii) are equations.
2. i) Linear in one variable; x = 4
ii) Linear in two variables.
iii) Linear in one variable; x = 5
iv) Quadratic in one variable
v) Linear in one variable; x = 7/2
vi) Linear in one variable; x = 2
88
Linear Equations,
Inequations and
Quadratic Equations
5. Dependent
6. Inconsistent
7. Consistent
8. From the graph, the solution is x = 4, y = 1
9. 3/7
10. Father’s age = 41 years, Son’s age=11 years
11. Speed of the boat = 25 km/hour
Speed of the stream = 5 km/hour
12.
89
Content Based 13.
Methodology-I
14.
15. (i) –b/c (ii) –bc/a2

16. (i) 25/12 (ii) 2√2
17. (i) x2 – 4x + 4 = 0
(ii) x2 +(–3 + √3)x – 3√3 = 0
18. x=3
19. x=1

IGNOU (2000) : Teaching of Mathematics, ES-342, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Johnson R.E. (et. al.) (1961) : Modern Algebra; First Course, Addison Wesley
Publishing Company Inc., U.S.A.
Russel, Donald S.(1961) : Elementary Algebra, Allyn and Bacon Inc. Boston.
90
Sets, Relations,
UNIT 13 SETS, RELATIONS, FUNCTIONS Functions and
Graphs
AND GRAPHS*
Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Sets
13.3.1 Introduction to Sets
13.3.2 Subsets and Universal Set
13.3.3 Operations on Sets
13.3.4 Applications of Union and Intersection of Sets
13.3.5 Cartesian Product of Sets
13.4 Relations
13.5 Functions
13.6 Graphs
13.7 Let Us Sum Up
13.10 Suggested Readings.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Mathematics has been defined as the study of sets with structures. Sets provide
a language which can be used in the study of Mathematics. This language is
sometimes more expressive than the ordinary language. Set language illustrates
the use of mathematical symbolism in formulating proofs and illustrating the
structures in mathematical logic, probability, Boolian algebra, switching
circuits etc.
The concepts of relation and function are fundamental in Mathematics,

Sciences and Social Science. In Social Science, the set consists of human
beings and the relationships exist between the members of the set of human
beings such as father, mother, son, daughter etc. A function essentially shows
how one quantity varies with variation of one or more of other quantities. For
example, it may show how the area of a rectangle varies with its length and
breadth or how the volume of a sphere varies with its radius. The graph of a
function gives us a visual picture of the behavior of the function. It can help us
in understanding the properties of the function.
13.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the meaning of basic terms used in set theory;
91
Content Based • apply the concepts of sets for solving daily life problems;
Methodology-I
• analyse relations and functions;
• understand the behavior of different functions by drawing their graphs;
and
• help students to acquire an in-depth knowledge of sets, relations functions
and graphs and its application in day-to-day life.
13.3 SETS
The idea of sets was developed towards the end of the 19thcentury, George
Boole (1815-1864) and George Cantor (1845-1918) were the two
mathematicians credited with the development of the idea of sets. Cantor is
considered to be the founder of the set theory.
13.3.1 Introduction of Sets
Main Teaching Point
Basic concepts and definitions related to sets: sets and its elements, notations,
roster and set builder forms, equal and equivalent sets, finite and infinite sets.
Teaching-Learning Process
Set is a concept to be explained and not to be defined. The word set is
synonyms with the words, collection, group, bunch, chain etc. and an element
is synonym of the words object, member etc. Hence, a collection of objects in
mathematical language is called a set of elements. But, every collection of
objects is not a set. Why? It should be well-defined in the sense that we should
be able to decisively say whether any particular object belongs to the set or it
does not belong to the set.
Explain:A set is a well-defined collection of objects.

Ask: Is, the collection of all tall boys in the class; a set?
The idea of tallness is vague. Given any student of the class, we cannot say
whether he is tall or not. Hence, it is not well defined and it is not a set.
Ask: Is ‘the collection of all boys in a class whose height is above 160 cm, a
set?
Here, it is well defined that any student whose height is above 160 cm is
considered as tall and he is a member of the set. So, in this case, it is a set.
Ask : Is ‘the collection of all odd numbers from 1 to 9, a set?
Here, we can decisively say that 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 are the members of this set.
Hence, it is a set.
Explain:Sets are denoted by capital alphabets and all the members are listed
and enclosed within parenthesis. The above set can be written as A = {1, 3, 5,
7, 9}.The number ‘3 is a member of set A’ is written as 3A. It is also read as
‘3 belongs to the set A’ or 3 is an element of the set A. This form of writing a
set when all the elements are listed is called the tabular form or Roster form of
expressing a set.
92
Ask: Consider the set B= {a, e, i, o, u}. If, x B, then what can you tell Sets, Relations,
about x? Functions and
Graphs
Explain: If x A, then we can say that x is a vowel of English alphabet.
Hence, x is a member of set B, if x is a vowel of English alphabet, we write,
B={x : x is a vowel of English alphabet}. This form of writing a set, where
some rule is used to define the members of the set, is called the set builder
form. Give some exercises to write the sets given in ‘set builder form’ into
Roster form and vice-versa, so that students become accustomed to using the
language of sets.
Equal and Equivalent Sets:
Ask: Is the team consisting of Anil, Arun and Ravi same as the team consisting
of Ravi Anil and Arun? Teams are same; only members are listed in different
order.
Explain:Any two sets with the same elements are equal, irrespective of the
order in which the elements are listed.
{ a, b, c }, { a, c, b}, {b, c, a}, {c, a, b}, are all equal sets.
Ask: Are the sets {a, b, c} and {p, q, r} equal ?
Write answer: No, as they have different elements.
Ask: Can we associate the members of the set A= {a, b, c} with the members
of the set B= {p, q, r} such that no elements of A are associated with the same
element of B?
Write answer: Yes, a p, b q, cr.
Explain: This association of elements is called a one-to-one correspondence.

Two sets are called equivalent sets, if we can establish a one-to-one
correspondence between them. Equivalent sets need not be equal, but equal
sets are always equivalent.
Finite and Infinite Sets, Empty Set:

Ask:How many elements are there in the following sets ?
i) Set of natural numbers less than 10;
ii) Set of all natural numbers;
iii) Set of natural numbers between 5 and 6.
Write the answers : i) 9 elements
ii) Countless elements
iii) No elements.
Explain:In (i), we can count the number of elements in the set and we call it a
finite set. In (ii), we cannot count the number of elements in the set, so it is
called an infinite set. In (iii), there is no element in the set. It is called an empty
set, null set or void set.
It is denoted by { } or alphabet . (called ‘phi’).
Methodology: Discussion method is used alongwith a number of illustrations. 93

Content Based
Methodology-I
1) Which of the following collections are sets?

If a collection is a set, is it finite or infinite?
(i) The collection of all intelligent students in a class.
…………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………..
13.3.2…………………………………………………………………..
Subsets and Universal Set
(ii)
MainThe collection
Teaching of students of Class VII, who have got 80% or
Points:
more marks in a school.
(a) Relation between Subsets and Universal set.
…………………………………………………………………..
(b) Power set.
…………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………..
13.3.2 Subsets and Universal Set

a) Relation between subsets and universal set
b) Power set
Teaching Learning Process:
Let S be the set of all the students of a school.
Let A be the set of all the students in class VI of that school.
Let B be the set of all the students in the Cricket Team of that school.
Explain:Set A is such that every element of A is an element of the set S. Also,
set B is such that every element of B is an element of the set S. Sets A and B
are called the subsets of the set S and the set S is considered as the Universal
set for the sets A and B.
Set A is a subset of Set B, if every element of set A is in Set B. In
mathematical notations, it is expressed as:
A⊂ B, if and only, if a A a B.
Ask: Write down all the subsets of A = {1, 2, 3}.
Explain:
Every set is a subset of itself and also empty set is a subset of every set.
So, the set of all the subsets is
{ { } { 1}, { 2}, { 3}, {1, 2 }, {1, 3 }, { 2, 3}, {1, 2, 3} }
The number of subsets is 8=23
Ask: Write all the subsets of B = {1, 2} and C {1}.
94
Explain: The number of subsets of B are 4 = 22 and the number of subsets of C Sets, Relations,
are 2 = 21. Functions and
Graphs
Let the students inductively conclude that if a set has n elements, then the
number it of subsets is 2n. The set of all the subsets of a given set is called a
Power set. Thus, the set of all subsets of a set of n elements has 2 n elements.
Ask: Which of the following sets is the largest set?
(i) A = Set of all the students of the school.
(ii) B= Set of the students of class IX of the school.
(iii) C= Set of the students of class X of the school.
Explain:B and C are subsets of A and A is the largest set, which contains all
the other sets. This largest set is called the Universal set.
Explain: Set R, of real numbers is a Universal set for the sets of rational,
integers, irrational and natural numbers.
Explain: The Universal set is not unique, whereas the null set is unique.
Methodology: Discussion method is mainly used. Inductive method is used to
show that the total number of subsets in a set of n elements is 2n.

2) Write the power set of { a, b, c }.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
13.3.3 Operations on Sets

a) Union and Intersection of Sets
b) n (A B ) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A B)
c) Complement of a Set

In arithmetic we have operations of addition and multiplication. Similarly, in
sets we have operations of union and intersection denoted by the symbols ‘’
and ‘’ respectively.
Sets are lists of objects and union of sets is like making a single list of all the
elements in both the lists.
Ask: Team for English debate is the set A = { Ravi, Anil, Ashok} and the team
for Hindi debate is the set B = {Ashish, Vimal, Anil }. Write a set representing
the list of students, who are either in English debate or in Hindi debate.
Answer: C = { Ravi, Anil, Ashok, Ashish, Vimal}. Note that Anil is common
in both the teams, and hence, is listed only once in C.
95
Content Based Explain:The name of Anil is written only once. Set C is called the union of
Methodology-I sets A and B. We write:
C= AB
A B contains all the elements, which are either in A or in B. In Mathematical
notation:
x A B ⇔x A or x B.
Ask: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = { 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
Write A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
BA= {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 1, 2}
AB = B A [Since both have the same
elements listed in different order.]
Commutative law holds good for union of sets.
We can also use Venn Diagrams to illustrate commutativity of the operation of
union. Similarly, using Venn Diagrams and considering different examples,
illustrate the following properties of union of sets:
a) Associative law :A (B C) = (A B) C,
b) A = A
c) A U =U
d) A⊂B Þ A C ⊂BC
Ask: Set A = { Ravi, Anil, Ashok, Ram} represent the students, who play
cricket and the set B = { Ravi, Vimal, Naveen, Ram} represent the students
who play hockey, Write a Set C of students, who play both Cricket and
Hockey.
Answer: C = { Ravi, Ram}
Explain: Set C is the set of elements, which are common in both the sets A and
B. Set C is called the intersection of the Sets A and B, written as:
C= A B
A B contains all the elements, which are in set A and also in set B. In
mathematical notation:
x A B ⇔ x A and x B.
Ask: Write A B and B A, when
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B { 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
Answer: A B = { 3, 4, 5} and B A = { 3, 4, 5}.
A B is same as B A
or A B = B A
Commutative law holds for intersection of sets.
Illustrate the following properties of intersection of sets by considering
different examples and using Venn Diagrams:
i) Associative law : (A B) C = A (B C),
ii) A =
96 iii) A U =A
iv) A ⊂ B ⇔ A C ⊂ B C Sets, Relations,
Functions and
v) Distributive Laws: Graphs
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C ) = (A B ) (A C)
Explain: In number system we have only one distributive law i.e. a x (b + c) =
(a x b) + (a x c), but in sets, we have two distributive laws with the help of
Venn Diagrams illustrate that two sets A and B are disjoint, if there is no
element common between them i.e. when A B is an empty set.
Explain : A = { a, b, c, d, e } and B = {a, e, i, o, u),
is n (A B) = n (A) + n (B) ?
Answer: A B = {a, b, c, d, e, i, o, u}
n (A B) = 8, n (A) = 5 and n (B)= 5
n (A B) n (A) + n (B)
Explain: That, in n (A) + n (B), the common elements {a, e, } have been
counted twice, both in A and B, whereas in n(A B), they are counted only
once. So, we can conclude that:
n (A B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A B)
Explain: If is the universal set and A is any subset of , then complement of
the set A is the set of elements of , which are not in A. Complement of a set
A is denoted by A′ and A′ = { x : x A } or x A x A′.
Consider, the whole class as the universal set and let A be the set of students,
who drink tea, then A′ is the set of students in the class who do not drink tea. In
this way, the class is divided in two groups A and A′, which are such that
together they constitute the whole class, no student is common in the two
groups i.e. they are disjoint and the two groups complement each other.
Mathematically,
(i) (A′)′ = A (ii) A A′ = (iii) A A′=
Methodology: Intuitive logic and discussion is used to get the relation n
(A B) = n (A) + n (B) - n (A B). Use of Venn Diagrams is made to
illustrate various properties of union, intersection and complement sets.
Teacher should take care to compare the properties of algebra of sets with the
properties of algebra of real numbers at every step of his discussion on sets.

3. What do the shaded positions in the following diagrams represent?
A B A B
A
(i) (ii) (iii)

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
97
Content Based 13.3.4 Application of Union and Intersection of Sets
Methodology-I
Main Teaching Point
Word problems based on n (A B) = n(A) + n(B) –n (A B)

Solving word problems is the best way of understanding the knowledge
assimilated. To solve a word problem, students should first read the problem
carefully. Analyse the given data and clearly understand what is to be obtained.
Encourage students to translate the problem into a mathematical language.
Then solve the problem by applying the already learnt formulae and concepts.
Example: 1 In a class of 35 students, 25 play football and 20 play cricket. If

each student plays at least one of the two games, how many students play both
cricket and football and how many play only cricket?
With the help of students, analyse and translate the problem into a
mathematical module.
Let A be the set of students, who play football, then n(A) = 25.
Let B be the set of students who play cricket, then n(B)=20.
Since each student plays at least one of the games, n(A B)=35.
Now, we are required to find out how many students play both cricket and
football i.e. we have to find n (A B).
Now, we know that
n (A B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A B)
35 = 25 + 20 – n (A B)
n (A B) = 45 – 35 = 10
The number of students, who play Cricket only
= number of students, who play cricket – number of students, who play both
= 20 – 10 = 10.
This can be better explained with the help of Venn Diagrams.
Example: 2 In a committee, 30 people speak Hindi, 35 speak English and 15

Speak both Hindi and English. How many people speak at least one of the two
languages?
Analyse: The set A of people speaking Hindi has 30 elements i.e. n (A) = 30.
The set B of people speaking English has 35 elements i.e. n (B) = 35.
A B is the set of people, who speak both Hindi and English i.e.
n (A B) = 15.
The set of people, who speak at least one of the two languages is A B, so we
have to find n (A B).
n (A B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A B)
= 30 + 35 – 15 = 50.
Methodology:Heuristic approach is the best to solve the word problems. In

solving these problems, Venn Diagrams are also useful.
98
13.3.5 Cartesian Product of Sets Sets, Relations,
Functions and
Main Teaching Point Graphs
a) Cartesian product of sets
b) n (A x B) = n (A) x n (B).
Let the set A = {a, b, c} be the set of roads a, b and c between city P and city Q
and let B = [x, y] be the set of roads between city Q and city R.
a x
b
P Q R
c y
A = (a, b, c ) B = (x, y )
Fig. 13.1
Suppose, we take road a to go from P to Q and the road x to go from Q to R,
and represent this route from P to R as (a, x).
Ask:Write in this way all possible routes that can be taken to go from P to R.
Answer: (a, x), (a, y), (b, x ), (b, y ), (c, x ), (c, y )
Ask: Similarly write the possible routes for going from R to P.
Answer: All possible routes from R to P are (x, a), (x, b), (x, c), (y, a), (y, b),
(y, c).
Ask: What is the difference between (a, x ) and (x, a)?
Answer: (a, x) means we first take road a and then road x, whereas (x, a)
denotes that we first take road x and then road a.
Explain: (i) (a, x) and (x, a) are called ordered pairs
(ii) (a, x ) (x, a)
(iii)The set { (a, x ), (a, y), (b, x), (b, y), (c, x ), (c, y) } is the set of
all ordered pairs from the set A to the set B. It is called cross-
product or Cartesian product of the sets A and B.
A x B = { ( x, y) : x A, y B},
(iv) B x A = { (y, x) : x A, y B},
(v) Since (x, y) (y, x ), note that B x A A x B.
(vi) Note that n (A x B) = n (A) x n (B) = n (B x A)
Ask: What is R x R and R x R x R, where R is the set of real numbers?
Explain: R x R represents the Euclidean plane or XY – plane and R x R x R

represents the Euclidean three dimensional space. The word Euclidean
indicates that the idea was first conceived of by the Greek Mathematician,
Euclid. R x R is also written as R2 and R x R x R is written as R3.
Methodology: Discussion is the best way to deliver the meaning of an ordered

pair and defining A x B.
99
Content Based
Methodology-I
13.4 Relations
Main Teaching Point
What is a relation?
In real life, we have seen that two persons may be related to each other and
may not be related to each other. When they are related, we have seen different
types of relations between them such as ‘is a brother of ’ , ‘is father of ’ ‘is
friend of’, ‘is neighbor of and so on. Similarly, given any two sets A and B,
some relationship of the elements of A may exist with the elements of B.
Let A = { a, b, c, d }, B = { 0, 1, 2, 3 }
We represent a relationship from A to B by the following arrow diagram:
Fig. 13.2
In this diagram, arrows are used to represent as to which element of B is related

to any element of A.
Ask: (i) a is related to which element of B?
(ii) What element of A are related to 2 in B?
Answer: (i) a is related to 2 in B.
(ii) a and c in set A are related to 2 in set B. If this relation from set
A to the set B is denoted by R, then a is related to 2 can be
written as aR2 or simply by an ordered pair (a, 2).
Ask: Write all the ordered pairs representing the relation of elements of the set
A with the elements of the set B.
Answer: (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 3), (c, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3).
Explain: Relation R = {(x, y) : x A, y B} is a relation R from set A to set
B. It is the set of ordered pairs (x, y) with x A and y B.
In the above example
R = { (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 3), (c, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3) }
Note that relation R from A to B is a subset of A x B.
Ask: In the above relation, write the set of all the first elements of the ordered
pairs in R along with the set of all the second elements of the ordered pairs in
100 R.
Sets, Relations,
Functions and
Answer: (i) dom R = P = (a, b, c ) ⊂ A
Graphs
(ii) ran R = Q = (1, 2, 3) ⊂ B
Explain: P is called the domain of R, denoted by dom R. It is the subset of the
set A consisting of element of A, which are related to some elements in B.
Similarly, Q is called the range of the relation R denoted by ran R. It is the
subset of set B consisting of elements of B, which are related to some elements
of A.
Explain: If R is a relation from A to A, it is called a relation on A.
Example 3: Let A = { 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
Let R be a relation on A defined by xRy. If x divides y, write R.
Answer: R = { (2, 2), (2, 4, ), (2, 6), (2, 8), (2, 10), (3, 3), (3, 6), (3, 9), (4, 4),
(4, 8), (5, 5), (5, 10), (6, 6), (7, 7), (8, 8), (9, 9), (10, 10)}
Methodology: Discussion is used to arrive at the mathematical meaning of
relation.
13.5 Functions
Main Teaching Point
What is a function?
A function from set A to set B is a relation from the set A to the set B such that
every element of A is related to one and only one element of B.
Let A = (a, b, c, ) and B = (1, 2, 3, 4)
Ask the students to write down relations from A to B and discuss with them
whether they are functions or not and why?
For example, consider the relations:
f1 ={ (a, 2), (b, 1), (c, 4), (a, 3) }
f2 ={ (a, 1), (b, 3), (c, 4), }
f3 ={ (a, 3), (b, 4) }
Discuss: In f1 all the element of A are related to some elements of B. But a is

related to two different elements 2 and 3 of B. So, it is not a function. But, it is
a relation.
Also, explain that if two ordered pairs have the same first entry, then it is not a
function.
In f2, every element of A is related to one and only one element of B. Hence
this relation is a function.
In f3, c A and it is not related to any element of B, so it is not a function.
Ask: What is the dom f3 ?
Answer: dom f3 = {a, b} ⊂ A
Explain: Since, dom f3 A, it is a not a function. If f is a function, then dom

f = A.
101
Content Based
Methodology-I
So, f is a function from A to B, if
(i) Dom f = A and
(ii) No two ordered pairs have the same first entry.
If x A and x B and f : A B such that f : x y, then we write it as
y = f (x) and say y is image of x or f (x) is image of x.
If a relation is represented by an arrow diagram, then discuss with the students,

whether it is a function or not?
Explain: A relation is represented by an arrow diagram. It is not a function, if
(a) any element of A is such that no arrow starts from it (fig. (ii) )or (b) any
element of A is such that two or more arrows start from it (fig. (ii)), otherwise
it is a function (fig. (iii) ).
A B A B
(i) Not a function (ii) Not a function
(iii) It is a function.
Fig. 13.3
102
Explain: (i) For any function f from A to B, domain of f is A and B is called Sets, Relations,
the co-domain of f. Functions and
Graphs
(ii) Range of f is a subset of B.
(iii) If the domain and co-domain of a function are the sets (or
subsets) of real numbers, the function is called a real function.
Ask: Can you correlate the concept of a function with a daily life situation?
Explain: Explain that the relation between a temperature expressed in

Fahrenheit and the temperature expressed in Celsius given by C = (F-32), is a

function. Graph of this function is a straight line. Corresponding to every value
of F, we can find the value of C and vice-versa. Area of a circle ‘A’ is a
function of its radius ‘r’. This function is given by A =r2. Its graph is a part of
a parabola. Similarly, many other real life situations can be explained using the
concept of function.
Methodology: Discussion method is used to illustrate the meaning of a function,
Mainly, the lecture method is used to define domain, co-domain and range.
4) Which of the following relations is a function from {1, 2, 3} to itself:
i) { (1,2), (2,3), (3,1) } ………………………………..
ii) { (1,1), (1,2), (1,3) } ………………………………..
iii) { (1,1), (2,1), (3,1) } ………………………………..
iv)
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
13.6 GRAPHS
Main Teaching Point
Graphical Representation of Different Functions
Rene Descartes, a French Mathematician, first showed the relationship of
algebra and geometry by associating number pairs (ordered pairs) with points
in plane. The ordered pair associated with a point on the plane is called the
Cartesian coordinates of the point after the name of the mathematician.
Students are already familiar with geometrical representation of a linear
equation in two variables x and y. You can start with recapitulating the idea
and explaining that the linear equation in two variables x and y can be written
as y = (linear expression in x), and so, it also represents a function. 103
Content Based Ask: Draw the graph of y = 2x +1.
Methodology-I
y = 2x + 1
x 0 1 2
y 1 3 5
Fig. 13.4
Explain: Consider, the function f : R R,
such that f = [ ( x, y) : x R, y R, y = 2x+1 ]
Clearly, f is a real function and the above graph geometrically represents this
function. Every ordered pair belonging to f is represented by a point on this line
and ordered pair associated with every point on this line belongs to the given
function.
A real function f such that f (x) = ax + b is called a linear function because, it
represents a straight line, geometrically.
Ask: What is the graph of the function y = [ x ], where [ x] is the greatest
integer less than or equal to x.
According to the definition of [x],
If 1 x 2, y = 1, it is a line parallel to x – axis
If 2 x 3, y = 2, it is also a line parallel to x –axis and so on.
Fig. 13.5
Explain: The value of y is always an integer and the graph of y= [x] integer is
104 a life parallel to x –axis.
Therefore, the graph of the function y= (x) consists of a number of line Sets, Relations,
segments all parallel to x-asis, such that the points (1, 0), (2, 1), (3, 2) which Functions and
are not included in the graph are represented in the graph by encircling these Graphs
points.
Ask: Draw the graph of y = x2,construct the following table:
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Y 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16
Draw the graph as shown:
Fig. 13.6
Explain: The graph is called a parabola. It is symmetric about y- axis.

Ask: The students to draw the graph of y = –x2 and other simple quadratic
functions.
Explain: The function f= { (x, y)} : x R, y R, y=ax2+bx+c} is called a
quadratic function. Its graph is always a parabola with its axis of symmetry as

x= - . The parabola opens upwards if a o and downwards if a o.
Ask: Draw the graph of the function.
12
f = { (x, y) : x R – [0], y R, y = }
x
12
To draw the graph of y = , construct the following table:
x
x 1 2 3 4 6 -1 -2 -3 -4 -6
y 12 6 4 3 2 -12 -6 -4 -3 -2
Plot these points and draw the graph as shown.

12
y =
x
105
Content Based
Methodology-I
Fig. 13.7
Explain: The function is not defined at x =0.

The graph is called a rectangular hyperbola.
Here y varies inversely as x i.e. y approaches 0 as x becomes a large number
and y becomes very large as x approaches 0.
Methodology: Skill can be developed only by drill method.

5) Draw the graphs of the following functions:
x2
(i)y=3 – 2x (ii) y = (iii) y = √x, x 0
2
……………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………….
13.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed many types of activities on sets, relations and
functions. Many real life problems can be associated with the teaching of sets
and functions. Regardless of the ability level of the students, appropriate
activities can be found. Teachers should constantly gather material and ideas
for teaching of this unit.
The concepts of Cartesian product of sets, relations and functions, their domain
106 and range, and understanding the behavior of functions by graphically
representing them have been studied in this chapter. Remember that students Sets, Relations,
should develop proper understanding of these concepts as they lay a foundation Functions and
stone for the study of another important branch of Mathematics called Graphs
‘calculus’.

1) Which of the following collections are not sets and why?
a) {x : x2 – 5x+ 6 = 0}
b) {x : x is a good student of the class}
c) {x : x is a capital city of a state in India}
d) {x: x is a fair complexioned student of the class}.
2) Write the following sets in Roster Form:
a) {x : x2 = 9}
b) {x : x is a letter of the word ‘collection’ }
c) {x : x N, x is a prime number less than 20 }
d) {x : x N, x is a divisor of 10}.
3) Which of the following sets are equal?
a) {I, G, N, O, U} and { N, G, I, O, U}
b) {1, 2, 3, 5} and { 3, 5, 7, 9}
c) {1, -1 } and { x, x2 = 1}
d) {a, b, c, d,} and { c, b, a, d}
4) Write true or false:
a) {1, 2, 3} ⊂ { 1, 2, 3}
b) Set of integers is a subset of the set of natural numbers.
c) Empty set is an element of every set
d) Empty set is a subset of every set.
e) {a, b } = {b, a}
f) (a, b) = (b, a)
g) If A ⊂B and B ⊂ C, then A ⊂ C.
5) Draw arrow diagrams to illustrate the relation R from set A to set B:
a) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {4, 8, 12, 16, 20} and
R = { (1, 4), (2, 8), (3, 12), (4, 16) }.
b) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {7, 8, 9} and
R = { (1, 9), (2, 8), (3, 7), (4, 7) }.
c) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {5, 6, 7} and
R = { (1, 5), (2, 6), (3, 7) }.
d) A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and
R = { (x, y) : x A, y B and y = x + 3 }.
107
Content Based 6) Draw the graphs of the following real functions:
Methodology-I
a) f (x) = 3 + 2x
b) f (x) = 4 – x2
x
c) f (x) =
2
d) f (x) = x -x
13.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) (i) Not a set
(ii) A finite set
2) Power set= {{ }, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}
3) (i) A′ or ~ A
(ii) AB
(iii) A B′ i.e. elements, which are A and not in B.
4) (i) and (iii) are functions.
5) (i) y = 3 -2x
x 0 2 4
y 3 -1 -5
x2
(ii) y=
2
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 9 2 1 0 1 2 9
2 2 2 2
108
Sets, Relations,
Functions and
Graphs
(iii) y = √x ( x 0 )
x 0 1 4 9
y 0 1 2 3

Bhatnagar, P.L. (1971) : Introductory Lessons in Modern Mathematical
Concepts, Affiliated East West Press, New Delhi.
Hudgins, Bryce B. (1966) : Problem solving in the classroom, Macmillan, New
York.
IGNOU (2000) : Teaching of Mathematics, ES-342, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Narayan, S. and Neelima (1969) : Statements and Sets, S. Chand and Co., New
Delhi.
109

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SPECIAL INVITEES (FACULTY OF SOE)

Course Coordinators : Prof. M.C. Sharma, SOE, IGNOU

BLOCK 1: UNDERSTANDING THE DISCIPLINE OF MATHEMATICS

BLOCK 2: TEACHING -LEARNING OF MATHEMATICS

BLOCK 3: CONTENT BASED METHODOLOGY-I

BLOCK 4 : CONTENT BASED METHODOLOGY-II

Everyone knows that mathematics is an art of problem solving. The representation

In problem solving, when a real life situation is translated in the language of

10.3 NUMBER SYSTEMS

10.3.1 Sets of Numbers

Methodology: The discussion method is used to bring out the relationship

10.3.2 Natural Numbers

10.3.3 Zero and Integers

Whole Numbers : {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ………..}

Zero is the smallest whole number. There is no greatest whole number.

Methodology: The discussion-cum-lecture method is used. The properties of

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5) Is the sum of two irrational numbers always irrational?

6) Is the product of two irrational numbers always irrational?

{Real numbers} = {Rational numbers} ∪ {Irrational numbers}

S. No. Number System Closed under Operations

2. Whole numbers (W) addition, subtraction,

3. Integers (I) addition, subtraction,

4. Rational numbers (Q) addition, subtraction,

Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division operations are binary since

The Order Laws for Real Numbers

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10.3.6 The Number line

(i) {–3, –2, 0, 1, 2} (ii) {Real numbers from –3 to 4}

(iii) {Positive real numbers} (iv) {Multiples of 2}

(i) 4+3=7 (ii) 4 + (–3) = 1

(iii) –4 + (–3) = –7 (iv) –4 + 3 = –1

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10.4 EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS

10.4.1 Exponents, Power and Root

Now, let y = xm/n and so yn = xm or y = n

It is always possible to find nth root, n

Methodology: Inductive method is used to arrive at the different properties of

10.4.2 Indices and Logarithms

Any number, ‘n’, can be expressed as n = m × 10p, where p is an integer

10.4.3 Use of Logarithm Tables

In the teaching of logarithm, sufficient practice should be given in the reading

Methodology: Every student must possess a logarithm table when this is

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Teaching-Learning Process: The unit should be introduced by reviewing

Write the answer ‘3 × 4 = 12’ 3 multiplied by 4 is 12

Ask: What other numbers can be multiplied to get 12?

4) Ask: Think of some number that has 2 as a factor. Write it on the

Ask: Suppose we multiply a natural number by an even number. What do

Let students give their arguments. If none of the arguments produced is

This informal deduction should be encouraged by using any valid

(2.a) + (2.b) = 2.(a + b)

Again use first induction, then informal deduction, to enable students to

b) The sum of two odd numbers:

6) Multiplication of an odd and an even number

a) Multiplication is a shorter form of addition.

b) Multiplication of an even number by an even number.

c) Multiplication of an odd number by an even number.

d) Multiplication of an even number by an odd number

Methodology: Mainly the inductive method is used. The deductive method is

10.5.2 Prime Factorization : HCF, LCM