The History of Forensic Science in India
The History of Forensic Science in India
This book explores the interaction between science and society and the
development of forensic science as well as the historical roots of crime detection
in colonial India.
Covering a period from the mid-19th to mid-20th century, the author examines
how the colonial rulers changed the perception of crime which prevailed in
the colonial states and introduced forensic science as a measure of criminal
identification in the Indian subcontinent. The book traces the historical background
of the development and use of forensic science in civil and criminal investigation
during the colonial period, and explores the extent to which forensic science has
proven useful in investigation and trials. Connecting the historical beginning of
forensic science with its socio-historical, socio-political context and diversity of
scientific applications for crime detection, this book sheds new light on the history
of forensic science in colonial India.
Using an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating science and technology
studies and history of crime detection, the book will be of interest to researchers
in the fields of forensic science, criminology, science and technology studies, law,
South Asian history and colonial history.
Saumitra Basu
First published 2021
by Routledge
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© 2021 Saumitra Basu
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asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Basu, Saumitra (History of science researcher), author.
Title: The history of forensic science in India/Saumitra Basu.
Description: Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2021. |
Series: Routledge studies in South Asian history |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021003144 (print) | LCCN 2021003145 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032005188 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003177203 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Forensic sciences–India.
Classification: LCC HV8073 .B36114 2021 (print) |
LCC HV8073 (ebook) | DDC 363.250954–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021003144
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021003145
ISBN: 978-1-032-00518-8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-01116-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-17720-3 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003177203
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
I dedicate this monograph to Ma and Baba for their love, endless
support, encouragement, and blessings
Contents
Introduction 1
6 Conclusion 176
In the development of the history of science, the histories of the individual scien-
tific disciplines have played a remarkable role. With regard to the subject, there
are specific approaches whose advantages and disadvantages are also important
concerns of the discipline. Undoubtedly, the developments of this discipline have
not only marked a turning point in the development of knowledge but also new
theoretical perspectives of the known facts were preceded by an extensive socio-
historical context. From the 18th century onwards, the growing specialization of
science gave rise to newer understanding about science and scientific thoughts,
which accelerated changes both in theories and in methods. In India, specifically
since the late 19th century, different scientific discoveries profoundly altered sci-
entific thoughts and their application for human welfare, which ultimately led to
the material development of society. Therefore, it is well accepted that it is only
through the history of the discipline that one can understand the origin, growth,
development, controversies, and successive changes that ultimately shape the
subject in its fullest meaning.
From the days of my early boyhood, Bengali detective novels of Saradindu
Bandopadhyay always fascinated me. I tried to understand the nature of crime
and the innovative methods of crime detection by the detective Byomkesh Bakshi.
A major motivation to visualize this project cropped up from this desire and my
source of inspiration has been Dr. Srabani Sen, whom I met and discussed a lot
to understand the issue historically and scientifically, and the present project is a
fruitful outcome in this regard. During an international workshop on History of
Science at Cambridge, the issues of forensic anthropology and fingerprint identi-
fication were raised by an overseas scholar from the United States. The backdrop
of the discussion was the international perspective of forensic science. Being an
overseas participant and specifically from India I pondered over the issue and in
the course of time it became a research concern. However, it is not the lack of a
substantive historical research tradition that urged me to think over the present
research. Rather, it was the dearth of suitable historical material which provided
me with the impetus to conduct my own study and the present research is a fruitful
outcome of it.
The history of forensic science in India encompasses a broad spectrum of sci-
ences to answer questions of interest to the legal system. The term includes the
Preface xiii
application of all sciences, such as physics, chemistry, and biology, and such
other related disciplines. Almost all branches of science can help in the admin-
istration of justice and finally its application for understanding the truth. Though
its application was not known by our ancestors in the present scientific form, its
detailed reference can be seen from our ancient literatures. Scientific methods in
one way or the other seem to have been followed in the investigation of crime.
History of forensic science in India comprises a vast and multifaceted story which
had different developmental consequences in different civilizations. The present
research attempts a new kind of challenge to explore the rich historical account
of the development of forensic science in colonial India. The word “forensic”
has been derived from the Latin word forensis, meaning “belonging to the mar-
ket place or forum”. In ancient Rome the “forum” or public meeting place was
where legal cases were tried and pleaded. The term “forensic science” means the
application of the knowledge of science for the purposes of law and justice. The
present study tries to explore the two-way interaction between science and colo-
nialism and the development of forensic science in colonial India and to highlight
the growth and development of the different forensic institutions in colonial India
and their interrelationship with the sociohistorical contexts of crime identifica-
tion. The broader canvas tries to unravel how a new field of science produced an
obvious, consistent, and authoritative message in the courtroom and grounded
the colonial superiority in a more convincing manner. In such an endeavour, the
institutionalization of crime investigation came as a new colonial discourse and
the establishment of different forensic institutions in different presidencies can be
placed at this juncture.
Since the end of the 1857 rebellion, British India felt an impulse to reform
the whole penal law and establish a new Indian Penal Code to demonstrate colo-
nial supremacy in a more convincing manner. The present author has attempted
to investigate the sociohistorical consequences and interconnectedness which
have enabled him to discuss the total gamut in its entirety. The entire perspective
creates a broader canvas within colonial supremacy. The history of magnificent
and specialized scientific discipline, i.e. forensic science, is itself a longstanding
historical science. Questions regarding what constituted an illegal act and what
is right and what is wrong have plagued human history since the beginning of
humankind. Keeping this philosophy in mind, the present attempt has visualized
the present project from a science and technology studies (STs) and criminology
studies perspective, particularly the history of crime detection and specifically
the history of scientific witness. The basic aim of this study is to understand the
historical roots of crime detection from ancient times to the end of British rule in
India. Within this broader framework, the present study tries to understand how
different socio historical and socio political consequences enables to establish
forensic as a scientific endeavour.
However, the essence of the study centres around the historical emergence
of forensic science within the broader canvas of mid-19th-century sociopolitical
climax. One must understand this sociopolitical interconnectivity before trying to
understand this historical emergence. The historical moment of the 19th century
xiv Preface
witnessed the amendment of three criminal laws, namely the Indian Penal Code,
Criminal Procedure Code, and the New Police Regulation. The first two laws gave
the colonial administration a new shape. The last one was very significant, consid-
ering the earlier experience of colonial rulers who had witnessed the utter failure
of the police force in controlling dreadful crimes and establishing an effective
order as desired by the Company Raj. In such an endeavour, institutionalization of
crime investigation came as a new colonial discourse and establishment of differ-
ent forensic institutions in different Presidencies can be placed at this juncture. In
such a context, enactments of different legal acts were of great importance, which
not only created a new vista in the measure of true criminal identification for
scientific certainty but also drastically altered the concept of crime. After taking
over the Crown permanently and to control the colonial subjects more systemati-
cally and vigorously, along with legal reforms and regulations, the imperial rulers
introduced forensic science as a new scientific tool of supremacy in the Indian
subcontinent. There were also other factors which provided inspiration for the
establishment of different forensic science institutions in colonial Calcutta vis-à-
vis India. These were the different social reformatory and anti-British movements.
In such a sociopolitical situation, the ideology behind this scientific supremacy
was nothing but a colonial mission to mark the footsteps of Western scientific
thoughts of criminal identification more rigidly in the colonial state. To under-
stand this whole perspective in a comprehensive manner, the present author has
interwoven all the necessary sociohistorical and sociopolitical events in such a
fashion that the ways of ancient Indian and medieval Indian criminal identifica-
tion and crime detection, Western forensic science and crime detection, historical
consequence and the beginning of forensic science in the Indian subcontinent, and
subsequently the establishment of different forensic science institutions in British
India, historical origin and scientific beginning of finger print science in colonial
India and the development of forensic science up to the end of the colonial period
have been discussed in detail. It is expected that such a broader perspective will
positively help the readers in understanding the context of the history of forensic
science and the beginning of scientific measures of criminal identification in India
in its totality. The endeavour ends with a theoretical understanding along with a
future research perspective.
However, there is no way to deny the importance of both primary and sec-
ondary sources which ultimately helped to materialize a dream. The archival
sources were of immense help. Personal papers, diaries, letters of correspond-
ence, minutes of meetings, newspaper articles, government reports, proceedings,
micro-films, etc., not only helped the author to think in an in-depth manner but
also helped to understand the perspective with varied connotations. The theo-
retical and conceptual understanding of this attempt was built mostly based on
published books, papers in different national and international journals, personal
interviews, and newspaper articles. To understand this entire effort in a compre-
hensive manner, the whole discussion has been divided into six chapters, includ-
ing observations and conclusion. The treatise ends with a view that the emergence
of forensic science in colonial India not only highlights the then sociopolitical
Preface xv
and sociohistorical milieu but also emphasizes a new vista for scientific certainty
which drastically altered the concept of crime. The present treatise concludes with
futuristic visions of Indian forensic science and its multifaceted scientific role
which will cater to the justice of the teeming millions so far as the challenge of
global crime is concerned.
Saumitra Basu
Abbreviations
Where to start the journey for this criminal investigation, crime identification,
and how to unveil the truth? The beginning lies with the beginning of civilization.
Since the beginning of civilization, the attainment of scientific knowledge has
always been intrinsic to human nature. Man, the Homo sapiens sapiens, always
tries to accumulate knowledge and power, which conjointly lead to the develop-
ment of science for understanding truth in its totality.
in the middle of the 19th century India, the penny press, low-priced news-
papers, which mainly covered news stories of crime and adventure, made
its apparition in the East coast. Penny press papers “revolutionized content
by declaring their independence from political parties and concentrating on
news rather than opinion”. The most important innovation of the penny press
was its price; thus, it provided access to a larger audience of readers, indeed
to the lower class. (Nerone, 1987, p. 378)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003177203-1
2 Introduction
Etymology and meaning of the word “forensic”
Before going to the definition the author feels it is important to explain the
etymology of the word “forensic”. The etymology of the word “forensic” is as
follows:
Origin
LATIN LATIN
forum→forensic
In open court
Public
ENGLISH
forum
mid-17th century: from Latin forensis, “in open court, public,” from forum
Merriam Webster (1659) first used the term “forensic” and defines the mean-
ing of forensic as relating to or dealing with the application of scientific
knowledge to legal problems forensic medicine, forensic science, forensic
pathologist, forensic experts.
(Merrian Webster, 1659, pp.445)
The term had been used in medical writings for many years, but until then was not
considered to be an “official” word in the English language. In the present day, the
term “forensic” is very much common in our day-to-day life. With the advance-
ment in years, scientific discoveries became apparent to decide the outcome of
important legal matters and the application of science became essential to solving
legal matters. In this connection, the scientificity of “forensic” becomes obvious
in a court to solve any legal matter. Therefore, forensic science is a conversation
about the application of scientific theories in a judicial setting. It is uncertain
exactly when the concept of “forensic science” originated. Historically, Chinese
text dedicated to forensic medicine was discovered. The book Ming Yuen Shih Lu
by Chich-ts’si was published around the 6th century AD.
the first documented use of forensic science was in 6th century China in
a book titled “Ming Yuen Shih Lu,” which described how to distinguish
drowning from strangulation.
(Tshai, 2008)
Introduction 3
The concept of utilizing fingerprint and handprint pattern as a means of personal
identification dates back to thousands of years.
At the outset, the discussion reveals that the term “forensic science”2 denotes that
it is the application of natural sciences to matters of the law. Practically, forensic
science applies the scientific knowledge of physics, chemistry, biology, and other
scientific principles and methods to solve legal problems. This specific science
is mainly concerned with the appreciation, recognition, individualization, and
assessment of physical evidence. Forensic experts resolve scientific facts from
the proof they assess and may authenticate as expert witnesses in civil or crimi-
nal courts or other legal contexts. It is the responsibility of the lawyers, judges,
and juries to prosecute, defend, and judge the guilt or innocence of an individual
accused of wrongdoing. It is the responsibility of the forensic scientist to pre-
sent the scientific facts in a fair, objective manner, based on accepted scientific
methods, to facilitate the decision (Williams, 2015). Therefore the terms “foren-
sic” and “science” both relate to the common theme of truth, either speaking it
or seeking it. Thus “forensic science” thrives by embracing the human intrigue
and frailties, great mysteries and tragedies, and scientific triumphs and disgraces.
Thus the definition briefly narrates that the word “forensic” has been derived from
the Latin word forensis, meaning “belonging to the market place or forum”. In
ancient Rome, public meetings were held and legal cases tried and pleaded in the
“forum”.
The history of the term itself originated from the Roman times during which
criminal charges was used to refer to presenting the case before a group of
public individuals in the forum. The forum is in relation to the Roman Empire.
It is a rectangular forum surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient
government buildings at the centre of the city of Rome where citizens go to
carry out some public matters. For example; triumphal processions, elections,
public speeches, criminal trials and gladiatorial matches. (Chroust, 1954)
The term “forensic science” means the application of the knowledge of science
for purposes of law and justice (Agarwal, 2001). Forensics as a science is devoted
to or targeted at the methodical gathering and analysis of evidences to establish
facts that can be referred to in a legal proceeding. It is multidisciplinary, that is,
it is a subject that has a lot of disciplines which are embedded in, and stem from,
biology, chemistry, physics, geology, psychology, and so on. In modern parlance,
4 Introduction
an accurate forensic science definition extends beyond the traditional concept of
science. It can include the areas of accounting, psychological testing, and inter-
pretation of data and other services. In modern scientific parlance, forensics can
embrace toxicology, autopsies, pathology, fingerprinting, and DNA analysis
to determine the cause of death and scientifically connect a suspect to a crime.
Both law enforcement officials and forensic experts use cutting-edge scientific
techniques to preserve and scrutinize evidence in a systematic manner, known as
“chain of evidence”, which confirms that the evidence is pure and has not been
mishandled. Modern forensics can also interpret erased information and records
and can evaluate if someone was involved in a crime (www.the balancecareers.c
om). So from the discussion it is evident that since the beginning of humankind,
the occurrence of crime is interwoven with society in the realm of its scientific
prosperity.