Abstract Prevalence of Drug

Objective: Drug and alcohol consumption Use and Alcohol

is known as a social harm that inflicts
considerable damage on society. The aim Consumption among
of this study was to investigate the Students of Urmia
prevalence of drug use and alcohol
consumption among university students in Universities
Urmia. Method: The present study was a
descriptive cross-sectional one. A total of
450 students were selected as the sample
units from Azad, State, and Payame Noor
universities in the city of Urmia through
random cluster sampling in the academic Hamidian-Rard, M., Zeinali, A.
year of 2017-18. All of them responded to
screening tests for the consumption of
tobacco, alcohol, and addictive drugs; and
the analysis was carried out on 436
participants after removing incomplete
questionnaires. Results: The results
showed that the prevalence rates of Hamidian-Rard, M.
smoking, alcohol consumption, and drug M.A. in General Psychology,
use were 35.55%, 15.82%, and 16.28%, Department of Psychology, Islamic
respectively. The prevalence rates of Azad University, Urmia Branch,
smoking and alcohol consumption among Urmia, Iran
male students were higher than those in
female students, but the prevalence of Zeinali, A.
substance use was not different. In Associate Professor, Department of
addition, the prevalence rates of smoking, Psychology, Islamic Azad University,
alcohol consumption, and drug use were Urmia Branch, Urmia, Iran, Email:
not different in students of different ages, [email protected]
education levels, and marital status. Also,
the prevalence rates of smoking, alcohol
consumption, and substance use among
students in academic majors of Arts and
Urban development were higher than
those in other groups (p <0.05).
Conclusion: The findings showed that
gender and educational groups are Research on Addiction
affected by the common patterns of drug Quarterly Journal of Drug
use and, thereby, they are placed at risk. Abuse
Therefore, the need for reviewing strategic Presidency of the I. R. of Iran
solutions by authorities and planners is Drug Control Headquarters
strongly felt. Department for Research and Education
Keywords: prevalence, drug use, alcohol,
Vol. 12, No. 50, Winter 2019
university students, Urmia
http://www.etiadpajohi.ir
128 Research on Addiction Quarterly Journal of Drug Abuse

Introduction
Addiction is now recognized as a global dilemma, with which all countries are
faced (Razali & Madon, 2016). The phenomenon of drug use and its dependence
are among the critical problems of the world. Addiction has occupied experts'
mind after the nuclear crisis, the population explosion, and environmental
pollution (Kendler, Ohlsson, Edwards, Sundquist, & Sundquist, 2017). Drug use
and alcohol drinking, as known social trauma, impose a lot of damage on the
society. Drug use is a chronic and relapsive disorder whose onset and continuity
are affected by the interaction of genetic, psychological, social, and
environmental factors (Riley, Hempel, & Clasen, 2018). The development and
growth of narcotics has increased dramatically in recent years in such a way that
the number of narcotic drugs from 260 in 2012 has reached 483 ones in 2015
(Bluth, & Pincus, 2016). In recent years, university students' tendency towards
smoking, alcohol drinking, and drug use has increased (Mardani, Sheikhifini, &
Kavousian, 2012). Drug use and alcohol consumption in students are of
importance because of their dependence on drugs in adulthood, and the freshers
are more likely to experience alcohol use (Mbuthia, Wanzala, Ngugi, &
Nyamogoba, 2017).
Currently, the use of traditional drugs, such as opium, hashish, and heroin to
industrial substances has shifted to the use of chemical substances, such as
psychoactive pills, and the use of these types of drugs is a serious threat to
children, adolescents, and young people (Roy, & Goswami, 2016). Over the past
decade, the rate of industrial drug use has risen from 3% to 25%, and women's
tendency to use these substances has doubled. This suggests that the world is
being faced with the huge challenge and crisis of addiction. The statistics of
addicts in Iran are higher than the global average and Iran is geographically the
gateway of narcotics to the world (McHugh, Nielsen, & Weiss, 2015). The
prevalence of addiction among the 15-to-64-year-old population equals 39.5%,
it is 2.1% among high school students, and it is about 5.6% among state
university students. In the working community and industrial environments, the
prevalence of drug use is 22.3% where marijuana is the most commonly used
drug with the rate of 53.2%, marijuana derivatives, including hashish and grass
constitute 11.9% of the drugs, and crystal, heroin, and crack constitute 8.1%,
7.1%, and 3.5%, respectively (Fakhouri, 2018). Among young drug users in the
UK, 35% are addicted smokers and 82% are alcoholics. In this country, it has
been reported that 52% had experienced drug use in the last year and 31% have
reported drug use in the last month (Takano, Kawakami, Miyamoto, &
Matsumoto, 2015). Among students from South African universities, the
prevalence rates of smoking, alcoholic drinking, hashish use, and other drugs are
equal to 13.2%, 11%, 6%, and 10%, respectively (Jia, Jin, Zhang, Wang, & Lu,
2018). In American university students, the prevalence of smoking is 11%, that
of marijuana use is 8.5%, and that of alcoholic drinking equals 35%, and about
 Masomeh Hamidian-Rard & Ali Zeinali 129

10 percent of them use at least one hallucinogenic substance. In this regard, 62%
hallucinogenic users were male, mostly single, in the age range of 26 to 34 years
(Nanavati, & Herlitz, 2017).
The prevalence of drug use has been reported to be 16.3% in art students,
8.85% in humanities students, 6% in technology and engineering students, and
5% in medical students (Kordmirza, Azad, & Eskandari, 2003). The prevalence
rates of cigarette smoking, tobacco use, alcohol drinking, hashish, opium,
ecstasy, heroin and crack, and crystal have been reported equal to 21.44%,
36.89%, 12.51%, 1.32%, 2.29%, 0.44%, 0.08%, and 0.26%, respectively. In
addition, the sensitive age for cigarette smoking in boys and girls is younger than
15 years of age and older than 18 years of age. The age of the first experience of
smoking, tobacco use, and alcohol drinking relates more to the years before
entering university. University students experience more smoking and drinking
in social conditions than in their solitude. Smoking and alcohol drinking in non-
local and dormitory students are more than those in local and non-dormitory
students. Smoking, alcohol drinking, and tobacco use in engineering students are
more prevalent than in basic science and agricultural students (Gorji, & Bakrani,
2006). Dehghani, Zare, Dehghani, Sedghi, & Pourmovahed (2010) investigated
the prevalence and factors associated with substance abuse in the students and
concluded that 21.5% of them had a history of substance abuse. The prevalence
of addictive drugs was respectively as follows: 15.9% tobacco use, 14.4%
smoking, 2.8% opium, 2.8% alcohol drinking, 1.2% psychoactive pills, 1.1%
hashish, and 0.8% heroin. The main motive for drug use in most cases was
reported to be fun and recreation (47.4%) and another important factor was
unemployment (42.98%). Also, the prevalence of drug use was higher in single
men, non-local, and dormitory residents. Taromian, Bolhari, Pairavi, & Asgari
(2013) surveyed the prevalence of drug use among students of medical
universities of Tehran and reported that tobacco use was ranked first among the
various types of drugs and it was followed by smoking and alcoholic drinking.
The consumption of crystal, crack, and heroin also took up the lowest levels of
consumption. Drugs, such as morphine, Ritalin, and tramadol were ranked fourth
to sixth among the medical students, respectively. In all types of substances, the
dose of drug use in boys was more than that in girls. Ahmadi, Soltani, &
Behboodi (2014) stated that the percentages of students who had experienced
smoking, tobacco use, alcohol drinking, and opium at least once during life were
28.1, 46.8, 11.6, and 5.6, respectively, and the rates of consumption in them were
11%, 36.6%, 6.8%, and 3.2% in the last 12 months. In addition, the age of taking
the majority of drugs was between 10 and 16 years old and the prevalence of
drug use among boys was more than that of female students. Ansari, Ansari
Moghaddam, & Mohammadi (2016) investigated the prevalence of substance
abuse and its related factors in tobacco smokers and concluded that 53% of
tobacco users smoked it in groups. The ages of the first tobacco experience in
boys and girls were 17.1 and 21.2 years, respectively. The prevalence of general
130 Research on Addiction Quarterly Journal of Drug Abuse

drug use was 70.4%. The use of tobacco in groups was 2.03%, was 2.27% for
those living in a single house, and was 3.7% in university students. Moreover,
boys smoked tobacco 3 times as much as other substances.
Nowadays, the identification of the factors related to substance dependency
and planning on the control of addiction and reduction of the number of addicts
and increased awareness of these patients are among the priorities of each
country. Considering the significant growth in the number and variety of drugs
over the past years, the availability of new and up-to-date information on the
epidemiology of addictive disorder can help to plan targeted and effective
strategies to reduce this global disaster. In addition, few studies have focused on
the prevalence of drug use and alcohol consumption among university students.
By studying the prevalence of drug use, it is possible to become aware of its
possible causes and design the programs that can maintain and improve the
health of students and the health of the community. Therefore, the present study
was conducted to investigate the prevalence of drug use and alcohol drinking in
students of Urmia University.
Method
Population, Sample, and Sampling Method
The present study was a descriptive cross-sectional one. A total of 37,500
students of Azad (13,000 students), State (16,000 students), and Payame Noor
universities (8,500 students) in the city of Urmia constituted the statistical
population of this study in the academic year of 2017-18. To determine the
sample size, the Cochran formula was used, based on which the sample size was
estimated to be 380 people. In this research, 450 sample units were selected by
cluster random sampling method since it was attempted to ensure an adequate
final sample size due to possible losses of participants over time. In this method,
firstly, a number of faculties were selected randomly from the Azad, State, and
Payame Noor universities via simple random method. Then, a number of
disciplines in different levels of education were selected from each faculty via
simple random sampling method. However, only some disciplines were
randomly selected from Payame Noor University because of the lack of any
faculties. Given the varying number of disciplines in different universities, the
disciplines were generally combined and divided into four groups, including
humanities and physical education, basic sciences, agricultural and paramedics,
engineering, and art and urban planning. Prior to the data collection, the
participants were assured about observing the principles of confidentiality of
personal information and group analysis.
Instrument
The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST):
This test was developed by the World Health Organization (1998) and contains
eight phases, each of which consists of a number of columns. The substance that
 Masomeh Hamidian-Rard & Ali Zeinali 131

this question evaluates include tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine,

amphetamines, tranquillizers, hallucinogenics, inhalants, and opiates. The
scoring of eight phase is different. Some phases are scored as yes/no formats,
while others are scored one three-point or five-point Likert scales. The ones
obtaining a score from 0 to 3 do not need any treatment, those obtaining a score
from 4 to 26 need short-term interventions, and the ones receiving a score above
26 need specialized assessment and treatment. The concurrent validity of the risk
continuum was 0.76, that of lifetime consumption was 0.93, that of tobacco
products equaled 0.88, and that of alcohol drinking equaled 0.82. The reliability
of the test in different countries has been reported higher than 80% and the
reliability coefficients of specific substances were as follows: tobacco: 0.80,
alcohol: 0.84, marijuana: 0.86, cocaine: 0.93, amphetamines: 0.84,
tranquillizers: 0.89, hallucinogenics: 0.77, inhalants: 0.93, and opioids: 0.94
(Humeniuk, & Holmwood, 2011). Hooshyari, Sadrosadat, & Sadrosadat (2013)
reported a desired criterion validity for the continuum of risk for drug use and
pattern of consumption, and the severity of dependency and also a desired
diagnostic validity for separating the high-risk group from the low-risk. They
also reported the total reliability Cronbach's alpha and those of the subscales to
range from 0.95 to 0.99. In this study, the total reliability was obtained equal to
0.86 using Cronbach's alpha.
Results
In this research, 450 questionnaires were distributed among students of Azad,
State, and Payame Noor universities, out of which 5 incomplete questionnaires
were returned and 9 questionnaires were not returned even after follow-up. Thus,
the participation rate in research was 96.89% and analysis was done on 436
questionnaires. The descriptive statistics of demographic characteristics are
presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Demographic Variables of the Sample Group
Variable Category Frequency Percentage
Gender Male 276 63.30
Female 160 36.70
Age range (year) 18-21 141 32.24
22-25 204 46.79
26-29 40 9.17
30-33 35 8.03
Above 33 16 3.67
Academic program Associate's 6 1.38
Bachelor's 317 72.71
Master's 87 19.95
Ph.D. 26 5.96
132 Research on Addiction Quarterly Journal of Drug Abuse

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Demographic Variables of the Sample Group

Variable Category Frequency Percentage
University type Azad 141 32.24
State 199 45.64
Payame Noor 96 22.02
Marital status Married 62 14.22
Single 374 85.78
Humanities and Physical
Department 178 40.83
Education
Engineering 133 30.50
Basic Sciences,
Agricultural, and 67 15.37
Paramedics
Art and Urban Planning 58 13.30

Descriptive statistics of the prevalence of cigarette smoking, alcohol

drinking, and drug use among students in Urmia Universities are presented in
Table 2.
Table 2: Prevalence of Smoking, Alcohol Drinking, and Drug Use among Students of
Urmia Universities
Substance Frequency Percentage
Cigarette 155 35.55
Alcohol 69 15.82
Drugs 71 16.28

In order to investigate the prevalence of smoking, alcohol drinking, and drugs

based on gender among students in Urmia Universities, Chi-square test was
used, as presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Chi-square Test Results Examining the Prevalence of Smoking, Alcohol

Drinking, and Drug Use based on Gender
No
Substance Variable Category Consumption Percentage Percentage χ2 Sig.
consumption
M ale 122 44.20 154 55.80 24.57 0.0005
Cigarette Gender
Female 33 19.41 137 80.59
M ale 57 20.65 219 79.35 13.15 0.0005
Alcohol Gender
Female 12 7.50 148 92.50
M ale 52 18.98 224 81.12 2.62 0.14
Drugs Gender
Female 21 13.12 139 66.88

As it has been shown in Table 3, smoking and alcohol drinking were

significantly different between males and females (P <0.001). According to
descriptive statistics, smoking and alcohol consumption in boys are more
 Masomeh Hamidian-Rard & Ali Zeinali 133

prevalent than those in girls. In order to investigate the prevalence of smoking,

alcohol drinking, and drug use based on age among students in Urmia
universities, Chi-square test was used and its results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Chi-square Test Results Examining Prevalence of Smoking, Alcohol

Drinking, and Drug Use based on Age Groups
Substance

Variable

No
Category Consumption Percentage Percentage χ2 Sig.
consumption

18-21 45 39.91 96 68.09

Age range (year)

22-25 74 36.27 130 63.73

Cigarette

26-29 19 47.50 21 52.50 3.46 0.33

30-33 12 34.29 23 65.71
Above
5 31.25 11 68.75
33
18-21 17 12.06 124 87.94
Age range (year)

22-25 35 17.16 169 82.84

Alcohol

26-29 11 27.50 29 72.50 6.50 0.09

30-33 13 37.14 22 62.86
Above
4 25.00 12 75.00
33
18-21 20 14.18 121 85.82
Age range (year)

22-25 38 18.72 165 81.28

Drugs

26-29 7 17.95 32 82.05 2.17 0.53

30-33 4 11.43 31 88.57
Above
2 12.50 14 87.50
33

Different age groups were not different from each other in terms of smoking,
alcohol drinking, and drug use (P> 0.05). In order to investigate the prevalence
of smoking, alcohol drinking, and drug use among students in Urmia
Universities, Chi-square test was run and its results are presented in Table 5.
134 Research on Addiction Quarterly Journal of Drug Abuse

Table 5: Chi-square Test Results Examining the Prevalence of Smoking, Alcohol

Drinking, and Drug Use based on Academic Program
No
Substance Variable Category Consumption Percentage Percentage χ2 Sig.
consumption
Associate's
and 121 37.46 202 62.54 1.58 0.25
Cigarette Academic Bachelor's
Program
M aster's
34 30.09 79 69.91
and Ph.D.
Associate's
and 57 17.65 266 82.35 2.26 0.18
Alcohol Academic Bachelor's
Program
M aster's
12 10.62 101 89.38
and Ph.D.
Associate's
and 58 17.96 265 82.04 1.06 0.37
Academic
Drugs Bachelor's
Program
M aster's
15 13.27 98 86.73
and Ph.D.

As it has been shown in table 5, students in different academic programs were

not different from each other in terms of smoking, alcohol drinking, and drug
use (P> 0.05). In order to investigate the prevalence of smoking, alcohol
drinking, and drug use in married and single students of Urmia universities, Chi-
square test was used and its results are presented in Table 6.
Table 6: Chi-square Test Results Examining the Prevalence of Smoking, Alcohol
Drinking, and Drug Use based on Marital Status
No
SubstanceVariableCategoryConsumptionPercentage Percentage χ2 Sig.
consumption
19 30.64 43 69.36 0.75 0.47
Marital Married
Cigarette
status Single 136 36.36 238 63.64

Marital Married 8 12.90 54 87.10 0.46 0.57

Alcohol
status Single 61 16.31 313 83.69

Marital Married 10 16.13 52 83.87 0.003 1.00

Drugs
status Single 63 16.84 311 83.16

As it has been shown in table 6, married and single students were not different
from each other in terms of smoking, alcohol drinking, and drug use (P> 0.05).
In order to investigate the prevalence of smoking, alcohol drinking, and drug use
among students of Urmia universities based on academic faculties, Chi-square
test was used and its results are presented in Table 7.
 Masomeh Hamidian-Rard & Ali Zeinali 135

Table 7: Chi-square Test Results Examining the Prevalence of Smoking, Alcohol

Drinking, and Drug Use based on Academic Faculties

No consumption
Consumption

Percentage

Percentage
Substance

Variable

Category χ2 Sig.

Humanities and Physical

Academic faculties Academic faculties Academic faculties

43 24.16 135 75.84

Education
Cigarette

Engineering 65 48.87 68 51.13 32.47 0.001

Basic Sciences,
Agricultural, and 16 23.88 51 76.12
Paramedics
Art and Urban Planning 31 53.45 27 46.55
Humanities and Physical
20 11.24 158 88.76
Education
Engineering 25 18.80 108 81.20 13.06 0.004
Alcohol

Basic Sciences,
Agricultural, and 7 10.45 60 89.55
Paramedics
Art and Urban Planning 17 29.31 41 70.69
Humanities and Physical
22 12.36 156 87.64
Education
Engineering 25 18.80 108 81.20 24.36 0.001
Drugs

Basic Sciences,
Agricultural, and 5 7.46 62 92.54
Paramedics
Art and Urban Planning 21 36.21 37 63.79

As it has been shown in table 7, there was a significant difference between

students of different academic faculties (P<0.001). According to the descriptive
statistics, it can be stated that the prevalence of smoking, alcohol drinking, and
drug use among students of the Art and Urban Development is more than that of
students in other faculties of Urmia universities.
Discussion and Conclusion
The results showed that the prevalence rates of smoking, alcohol drinking, and
drug use were 35.55%, 15.82%, and 16.28%, respectively. The prevalence of
smoking was higher than that of alcohol drinking and drug use. In line with these
research findings, Jia et al. (2018) reported that the incidence of smoking in
South African university students was 13.2% higher than other drugs. Nanavati,
& Herlitz (2017) reported that the prevalence of smoking in American university
students was 13%, which was higher than other drugs. Gorji, & Bakrani (2006)
reported that the prevalence of smoking and tobacco use was much higher than
that of alcohol drinking, hashish use, opium use, ecstasy pills, heroin, and
136 Research on Addiction Quarterly Journal of Drug Abuse

crystal. In another study, Taromian et al. (2013) concluded that tobacco use was
ranked first among the various types of drugs and it was followed by cigarette
smoking and alcoholic drinking. To interpret these findings based on the study
carried out by Mohammadkhani, & Rezayi Jamalouyi (2016), it can be argued
that many people turn to cigarette smoking and tobacco use to cope with stress
and negative emotions and use tobacco and cigarette as an instrument to alleviate
their negative emotions, such as anxiety. In addition, cigarette and tobacco
smokers cannot tolerate unpleasant conditions in stressful situations, and their
sensitivity to psychological and emotional distress leads to cigarette smoking
and tobacco use for the regulation of their cognitive experiences. Other
explanations for this forbidding are related to the easy access to drugs,
affordability of drugs, and social incentives for drug use among young people
and students. In fact, they have to accept the conditions of the group in order to
have social relationships and effective communication with peers and to be
accepted in the community. In many cases, the use of legal substances, such as
cigarettes is the condition of acceptance in the groups. The important thing is
that cigarette smoking is an input for the use of other illegal substances.
Another finding of this study showed that the prevalence of smoking and
alcohol drinking among male students was more than that in female students of
Urmia universities. However, the prevalence of drug use between them did not
differ. Consistent with this finding, Nanavati, & Herlitz (2017) reported that 62%
of the hallucinogens users were males and 38% were females. Dehghani et al.
(2010) stated that the prevalence of drug use in men was higher than that of
women. In another study, Taromian et al. (2013) reported that the consumption
of all types of drugs in boys was higher than that in girls. Similarly, Ahmadi et
al. reported that the prevalence of drug use among male students was more than
that in female students. Ansari et al. (2016) also concluded that boys have a
chance three times more than girls to tend to different substances. According to
Fajani, Janghorbani, & Khosravi (2015), the higher prevalence of drugs in males
may be due to the greater freedom of men in the family and community, their
dare and easier access to the mentioned drugs, and their higher psychological
pressures. The lower prevalence of drug use in women may be due to families'
precise control of women's communication and behavioral patterns and specific
cultural perceptions of acceptable social behaviors for women in Iran. Another
possible reason for the high the prevalence of smoking and alcohol consumption
in boys is that the society confirms the use of these substances by men than by
women and the use of these substances by women is viewed to be more immoral
than that in men. As a result, men turn to cigarette and alcohol consumption with
less fear of verbal and non-verbal punishment than women. To explain this
finding regarding the non-significant difference in substance use (other than
cigarettes and alcohol) between men and women, it can be argued that women's
social networks have become diverse due to the growth of technology and their
drug use tendency has increased. Unmet expectations, accumulated anger, and
 Masomeh Hamidian-Rard & Ali Zeinali 137

worry about future, which are relatively big problems, put women, like men, at
risk. It can be argued that men and women act differently in coping with
challenges. Men tend to smoke and alcohol in the face of stress and partial
tensions, and women are less likely to use these substances. However, both of
them act similarly in the face of general stresses and tensions and both turn to
other substances (other than cigarettes and alcohol). As a result, there is a
difference between men and women in terms of smoking and alcohol drinking
while there is not such a difference in terms of drug use. However, both of them
act similarly in the face of general stresses and tensions and both turn to other
substances (other than cigarettes and alcohol). As a result, there is a difference
between men and women in terms of smoking and alcohol drinking while there
is not such a difference in terms of drug use.
Other findings of this study showed that the prevalence of smoking, alcohol
drinking, and drug use among students in Urmia universities did not differ from
each other based on age. In other words, the prevalence of smoking, alcohol
drinking, and drug use existed in the students within the age range of 18 to 21
years to the same extent as in other age ranges, i.e. 30 to 300 years old and above
33 years old. A possible explanation for these results is that the likelihood of
consumption at an early age increases the likelihood of continued consumption
and converting it into abuse and dependence. Therefore, there is no difference
between the percentage of smokers, alcohol drinkers, and drug users based on
age. This requires special attention and sensitivity in order to prevent and reduce
drug use by teaching in lower levels and screening from the first and second
grades of high school and before entering the university. One of the strengths of
any drug prevention program is to prevent drug use and stop those taking drugs
for the first time.
Moreover, the results of this study showed that the prevalence of smoking,
alcohol drinking, and drug use is not different among different faculties of Urmia
universities. This finding is consistent with those of the studies conducted by
Ahmadi et al. (2014) where it was revealed that the vast majority of university
students taking drugs have reported the start of drug use in the first or second
periods of high school or elementary school period. The increase in the number
of substance abuse and the decline in the age of consumption has put the society
in a crisis, 15-16-year-old students contain the largest number of industrial drug
users, and about 1.2% of second period high school students take drugs (Zeinali,
Vahdat & Hamednia, 2007). To account for the similarity of the prevalence of
smoking, alcohol drinking, and drug use in different academic programs, one
may refer to the reduced age of drug use and its persistence in the subjects. Most
of the students are likely to experience drug use before entering the university
and during the school year. Based on this finding, attempts should be made to
control drug use before converting to substance abuse, and this should begin
from schools.
138 Research on Addiction Quarterly Journal of Drug Abuse

In addition, the results showed that the prevalence of smoking, alcohol

drinking, and drug use was not statistically different between single and married
students of Urmia universities. Inconsistent with this finding, Nanavati, &
Herlitz (2017) reported that 62% of the single subjects were drug users. In
another study, Dehghani et al. (2010) concluded that the prevalence of drug use
in single males was higher than that in married ones. Ansari et al. (2016) also
reported that living in a house with single flatmate(s) increases the chance of
consumption of other substances in tobacco users. To interpret the higher
prevalence of smoking, alcohol drinking, and drug use in single students
compared to married students based on Ansari et al.'s findings (2016), it can be
argued that single persons tend to have more freedom than married ones. Most
single individuals tend to smoke cigarette and tobacco after becoming
independent and living in a single house or student dormitory and, consequently,
they turn to other substances, as well. This doubles the need to justify and
educate students who are to live far away from the family.
Other findings showed that the prevalence of smoking, alcohol drinking, and
drug use among Urmia University students differs according to academic
faculties. In other words, the prevalence of smoking, alcohol drinking, and drug
use in students from the Faculty of Art and Urban Development was greater than
that of other faculties in Urmia universities. In line with this finding, Kordmirza
et al. (2003) reported that the prevalence of drug use among students in arts is
higher than that among students of humanities, engineering, and medical
sciences. Also, Gorji, & Bakrani (2006) reported that smoking, alcohol drinking,
and tobacco use in engineering students were more than those in students of basic
science and agriculture. To explain these findings, it can be argued that in
addition to common factors, such as depression, stress, anxiety, shyness, etc.,
that provide the grounds for drug use; motivations, such as the experience of the
world of trance and the creative expression of emotions, feelings, and affects are
also at play. Taking celebrities in various fields of writing, music, cinema, and
painting as role models can be the backbone of this attitude. The wrong belief in
this regard is that the creation of art works is the result of the trance occurring in
the latent layers of the inner body and this increases art and urban planning
students' tendency towards drug use.
Overall, the current findings showed that the prevalence of smoking, alcohol
drinking, and drug use is relatively high. Moreover, the prevalence of smoking
and alcohol consumption among male students and the prevalence of smoking,
alcohol drinking, and drug use among students in the faculty of art and urban
planning were higher. In this line, there was no difference between married and
single students in terms of the prevalence of smoking, alcohol drinking, and drug
use. Therefore, the results indicate that gender and academic faculty are affected
by common patterns of drug use and have put students at risk of drug use. These
results revealed the need to review strategic policies by authorities and planners.
Consequently, it is suggested that authorities and planners should pay attention
 Masomeh Hamidian-Rard & Ali Zeinali 139

to the role and importance of effective variables in the prevalence of smoking,

alcohol drinking, and drug use and, accordingly, should to design and implement
programs to reduce the prevalence of consumption.
The most important limitation of this research was the limited academic
disciplines and programs in some universities, especially Payame Noor
University, which prevented comparing the results based on academic
disciplines and programs. Moreover, since the present study was conducted on
students from Azad, State, and Payame Noor universities of Urmia, it is
necessary to exercise caution in generalizing the findings. Therefore, it is
suggested that this research be conducted in other universities and students of
other cities and its results be compared with those of this study. Another
suggestion of this research is to conduct comparative studies between different
disciplines and different programs where it is required to select larger
universities with more academic disciplines and programs in order to achieve
this goal. Also, for large-scale decision-making and planning, more research
with larger populations should be carried out. Undoubtedly, counselors can
identify students at risk of substance and alcohol abuse, or drug and alcohol
abusers and provide appropriate strategies to inform them of the consequences
of substances and alcohol. In this way, they can help students solve their
psychological problems or refer to centers of psychological services. Given the
higher prevalence of cigarette smoking than drug use and alcohol drinking in
universities, it is imperative to take preventive measures primarily about
cigarettes in campus environments and then, respectively, to take some measures
on substance use and alcohol drinking. Another suggestion is that authorities and
planners improve the economic and social contexts of students and their families
by providing effective and practical solutions, such as life skills training,
communication skills training, social skills training, etc. in the prevention of
substance use and alcohol drinking or treatment of the abuse of these substances.
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