Tuhaf Bir Kad■n 3rd Edition Leyla Erbil

Visit to download the full and correct content document:

https://ebookstep.com/product/tuhaf-bir-kadin-3rd-edition-leyla-erbil/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Tuhaf Bir Erkek 1st Edition Leyla Erbil

https://ebookstep.com/product/tuhaf-bir-erkek-1st-edition-leyla-
erbil/

Mektup A■klar■ 5th Edition Leyla Erbil

https://ebookstep.com/product/mektup-asklari-5th-edition-leyla-
erbil/

Ki■isel Bir Sorun 3rd Edition Kenzaburo Oe

https://ebookstep.com/product/kisisel-bir-sorun-3rd-edition-
kenzaburo-oe/

Hitchcock Bir Filmi Yeniden Çekmenin Özel Bir Yolu Var

M■ 3rd Edition Slavoj Zizek

https://ebookstep.com/product/hitchcock-bir-filmi-yeniden-
cekmenin-ozel-bir-yolu-var-mi-3rd-edition-slavoj-zizek/
Haysiyet Tuhaf Zamanlarda Cesurca Ya■amak 25th Edition
Ece Üner

https://ebookstep.com/product/haysiyet-tuhaf-zamanlarda-cesurca-
yasamak-25th-edition-ece-uner/

Gündelik Hayatta Fizik Ola■an Bir Günün Ard■ndaki

Ola■anüstü Bilim 3rd Edition James Kakalios

https://ebookstep.com/product/gundelik-hayatta-fizik-olagan-bir-
gunun-ardindaki-olaganustu-bilim-3rd-edition-james-kakalios/

Benjamin Button ■n Tuhaf Hikayesi 1st Edition Francis

Scott Fitzgerald

https://ebookstep.com/product/benjamin-button-in-tuhaf-
hikayesi-1st-edition-francis-scott-fitzgerald/

Bir Kedi Bir Adam ■ki Kad■n 1st Edition Jun Ichir■
Tanizaki

https://ebookstep.com/product/bir-kedi-bir-adam-iki-kadin-1st-
edition-jun-ichiro-tanizaki/

S eylerin Tuhaf Du zeni Ya■am Hisler ve Kültürlerin

Do■u■u 1st Edition Antonio Damasio

https://ebookstep.com/product/s-eylerin-tuhaf-du-zeni-yasam-
hisler-ve-kulturlerin-dogusu-1st-edition-antonio-damasio/
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Fig. 366.—Three-banded Armadillo (Tolypeutes tricinctus).

Insect Eaters.—The soft interior and crusty covering of insects

makes it unnecessary for animals that prey upon them to have flat-
topped teeth for grinding them to powder, or long cusps for tearing
them to pieces. The teeth of insect eaters, even the molars (Fig. 368),
have many sharp tubercles, or points, for holding insects and
piercing the crusty outer skeleton and reducing it to bits. As most
insects dig in the ground or fly in the air, we are not surprised to
learn that some insect-eating mammals (the bats) fly and others (the
moles) burrow. Are the members of this order friends or competitors
of man?
 Fig. 367.—The Mole.

Fig. 368.—Skeleton of Mole. (Shoulder blade is turned upward.)

Why does the mole have very small eyes? Small ears? Compare the
shape of the body of a mole and a rat. What difference? Why?
Compare the front and the hind legs of a mole. Why are the hind legs
so small and weak? Bearing in mind that the body must be arranged
for digging and using narrow tunnels, study the skeleton (Fig. 368)
in respect to the following: Bones of arm (length and shape), fingers,
claws, shoulder bones, breastbone (why with ridge like a bird?),
vertebræ (why are the first two so large?), skull (shape). There are no
eye sockets, but there is a snout gristle; for the long, sensitive snout
must serve in place of the small and almost useless eyes hidden deep
in the fur. Is the fur sleek or rough? Why? Close or thin? It serves to
keep the mole clean. The muscles of neck, breast, and shoulders are
very strong. Why? The mole eats earthworms as well as insects. It
injures plants by breaking and drying out their roots. Experiments
show that the Western mole will eat moist grain, though it prefers
insects. If a mole is caught, repeat the experiment, making a careful
record of the food placed within its reach.

Fig. 369.—Skeleton of Bat.

As with the mole, the skeletal adaptations of the bat are most
remarkable in the hand. How many fingers? (Fig. 369.) How many
nails on the hand? Use of nail when at rest? When creeping? (Fig.
369.) Instead of feathers, the flying organs are made of a pair of
extended folds of the skin supported by elongated bones, which form
a framework like the ribs of an umbrella or a fan. How many digits
are prolonged? Does the fold of the skin extend to the hind legs? The
tail? Are the finger bones or the palm bones more prolonged to form
the wing skeleton?
 Fig. 370.—Vampire (Phyllostoma spectrum) of South America. × ⅙.

The skin of the wing is rich in blood vessels and nerves, and serves,
by its sensitiveness to the slightest current of air, to guide the bat in
the thickest darkness. Would you judge that the bat has sharp sight?
Acute hearing?
The moles do not hibernate; the bats do. Give the reason for the
difference. If bats are aroused out of a trance-like condition in
winter, they may die of starvation. Why? The mother bat carries the
young about with her, since, unlike birds, she has no nest. How are
the young nourished? Order ________. Why? ________. (Key, p.
193.)
 Fig. 371.—Pouched Gopher (Geomys bursarius) × ¼, a large,
burrowing field rat, with cheek pouches for carrying grain.

The
Gnawing
Mammals.
—These
animals
form the
most
numerous
Fig. 373.—Beaver.
Fig. 372.—Hind foot a, fore foot
order of
b, tail c, of Beaver. mammals.
They lack canine teeth. Inference? The
incisors are four in number in all
species except the rabbits, which have six (see Fig. 345). They are
readily recognized by their large incisors. These teeth grow
throughout life, and if they are not constantly worn away by gnawing
upon hard food, they become inconveniently long, and may prevent
closing of the mouth and cause starvation. The hard enamel is all on
the front surface, the dentine in the rear being softer; hence the
incisors sharpen themselves by use to a chisel-like edge. The molars
are set close together and have their upper surfaces level with each
other. The ridges on them run crosswise so as to form a continuous
filelike surface for reducing the food still finer after it has been
gnawed off (Fig. 345). The lower jaw fits into grooves in place of
sockets. This allows the jaw to work back and forth instead of
sidewise. The rabbits and some squirrels have a hare lip; i.e. the
upper lip is split. What advantage is this in eating? In England the
species that burrow are called rabbits; those that do not are called
hares.
Name six enemies of rabbits. Why does
a rabbit usually sit motionless unless
approached very close? Do you usually
see one before it dashes off? A rabbit has
from three to five litters of from three to
six young each year. Squirrels have fewer
and smaller litters. Why must the rabbit
multiply more rapidly than the squirrel in
Fig. 374.—Position of Limbs
in Rabbit.
order to survive? English rabbits have
increased in Australia until they are a
plague. Sheep raising is interfered with
by the loss of grass. The Australians now ship them to England in
cold storage for food. Rabbits and most rodents lead a watchful,
timid, and alert life. An exception is the porcupine, which, because of
the defence of its barbed quills, is dull and sluggish.
The common rodents are:—

squirrels
rabbits
rats
mice
beavers
muskrats
porcupines
guinea pig
pouched gopher
prairie dog
prairie squirrel
chipmunk
ground hog
field mouse
Which of the above rodents are commercially important? Which are
injurious to an important degree? Which have long tails? Why? Short
tails? Why? Long ears? Why? Short ears? Why? Which are aquatic?
Which dig or burrow? Which are largely nocturnal in habits? Which
are arboreal? Which are protected by coloration? Which escape by
running? By seeking holes?

Fig. 375.—Flying Squirrel (Pteromys volucella). × ¼.

Economic Importance.—Rabbits and squirrels destroy the eggs

and young of birds. Are rabbits useful? Do they destroy useful food?
The use of beaver and muskrat skins as furs will probably soon lead
to their extinction. Millions of rabbits’ skins are used annually, the
hair being made into felt hats. There are also millions of squirrel
skins used in the fur trade. The hairs of the tail are made into fine
paint brushes. The skins of common rats are used for the thumbs of
kid gloves. Order ________. Why? ________.
Elephants.—Elephants, strange to say, have several noteworthy
resemblances to rodents. Like them, elephants have no canine teeth;
their molar teeth are few, and marked by transverse ridges and the
incisors present are prominently developed (Figs. 376, 377). Instead
of four incisors, however, they have only two, the enormous tusks,
for there are no incisors in the lower jaw. Elephants and rodents both
subsist upon plant food. Both have peaceful dispositions, but one
order has found safety and ability to survive by attaining enormous
size and strength; the other (e.g. rats, squirrels) has found safety in
small size. Explain.
Suppose you were to observe
an elephant for the first time,
without knowing any of its
habits. How would you know
that it does not eat meat? That
it does eat plant food? That it
can defend itself? Why would
you make the mistake of
thinking that it is very clumsy
and stupid? Why is its skin Fig. 376.—Head of African Elephant.
naked? Thick? Why must its
legs be so straight? Why must it
have either a very long neck or a substitute for one? (Fig. 376.) Are
the eyes large or small? The ears? The brain cavity? What anatomical
feature correlates with the long proboscis? Is the proboscis a new
organ not found in other animals, or is it a specialization of one or
more old ones? Reasons? What senses are especially active in the
proboscis? How is it used in drinking? In grasping? What evidence
that it is a development of the nose? The upper lip?
The tusks are of use in uprooting
trees for their foliage and in digging soft
roots for food. Can the elephant graze?
Why, or why not? There is a finger-like
projection on the end of the snout
Fig. 377.—Molar Tooth of which is useful in delicate
African Elephant. manipulations. The feet have pads to
prevent jarring; the nails are short and
hardly touch the ground. Order ________. Why? ________. Key,
page 193.
Whales, Porpoises, Dolphins.—As the absurd mistake is
sometimes made of confusing whales with fish, the pupil may
compare them in the following respects: eggs, nourishment of young,
fins, skin, eyes, size, breathing, temperature, skeleton (Figs. 209,
379, and 397).
 Fig. 378.—Harpooning Greenland Whale (see Fig. 351).

Porpoises and dolphins, which are smaller species of whales, live

near the shore and eat fish. Explain the expression “blow like a
porpoise.” They do not exceed five or eight feet in length, while the
deep-sea whales are from thirty to seventy-five feet in length, being
by far the largest animals in the world. The size of the elephant is
limited by the weight that the bones and muscles support and move.
The whale’s size is not so limited.
The whale bears one young (rarely twins) at a time. The mother
carefully attends the young for a long time. The blubber, or thick
layer of fat beneath the skin, serves to retain heat and to keep the
body up to the usual temperature of mammals in spite of the cold
water. It also serves, along with the immense lungs, to give lightness
to the body. Why does a whale need large lungs? The tail of a whale
is horizontal instead of vertical, that it may steer upward rapidly
from the depths when needing to breathe. The teeth of some whales
do not cut the gum, but are reabsorbed and are replaced by horny
plates of “whalebone,” which act as strainers. Give evidence from the
flippers, lungs, and other organs, that the whale is descended from a
land mammal (Fig. 397). Compare the whale with a typical land
mammal, as the dog, and enumerate the specializations of the whale
for living in water. What change took place in the general form of the
body? It is believed that on account of scarcity of food the land
ancestors of the whale, hundreds of thousands of years ago, took to
living upon fish, etc., and, gradually becoming swimmers and divers,
lost the power of locomotion on land. Order____. Why?____.
Elephants are rapidly
becoming extinct because of
the value of their ivory tusks.
Whales also furnish valuable
products, but they will
probably exist much longer.
Why?
Fig. 379.—Dolphin. The manatees and
dugongs (sea cows) are a
closely related
order living upon
water plants, and
hence living close
to shore and in the
mouths of rivers.
Order____. Why?
____.
Hoofed
Fig. 380.—Manatee, or sea cow; it lives near the shore
Mammals.—All and eats seaweed. (Florida to Brazil.)
the animals in this
order walk on the
tips of their toes, which have been adapted to this use by the claws
having developed into hoofs. The order is subdivided into the odd-
toed (such as the horse with one toe and the rhinoceros with three)
and the even-toed (as the ox with two toes and the pig with four). All
the even-toed forms except the pig and hippopotamus chew the cud
and are given the name of ruminants.
Horse and Man Compared.—To which finger and toe on man’s
hand and foot does a horse’s foot correspond? (Figs. 381, 383, 399.)
Has the horse kneecaps? Is its heel bone large or small? Is the fetlock
on toe, instep, or ankle? Does the part of a horse’s hind leg that is
most elongated correspond to the thigh, calf, or foot in man? On the
fore leg, is the elongated part the upper arm, forearm, or hand?
(Figs. 395, 399.) Does the most elongated part of the fore foot
 correspond to the finger, the
palm, or the wrist? (Fig. 382.)
On the hind foot is it toe, instep,
or ankle? Is the fore fetlock on
the finger, the palm, or the wrist?
(Figs. 382, 385, 399.) Is the hock
at the toe, the instep, the heel, or
the knee?
Specializations of the
Mammals.—The early
mammals, of which the present
marsupials are believed to be
typical, had five toes provided
with claws. They were not very
Fig. 381.—Left leg of man, left hind leg rapid in motion nor dangerous in
of dog and horse; homologous parts fight, and probably ate both
lettered alike. animal and vegetable food.
According to the usual rule,
they tended to increase faster
than the food supply, and there were continual contests for food.
Those whose claws and teeth were sharper drove the others from the
food, or preyed upon them. Thus the specialization into the bold
flesh eating beasts of prey and the timid vegetable feeders began.
Which of the flesh eaters has already been studied at length? The
insectivora escaped their enemies and found food by learning to
burrow or fly. The rodents accomplished the same result either by
acquiring great agility in climbing, or by living in holes, or by
running. The proboscidians acquired enormous size and strength.
The hoofed animals found safety in flight.
 Fig. 382.—Skeletons of Feet of Mammals.

P, horse; D, dolphin; E, elephant; A, monkey; T, tiger; O,

aurochs;
F, sloth; M, mole.

Question: Explain how each is adapted to its specialized

function.
Fig. 383.—
Feet of the
ancestors of
the horse.
 Fig. 384.—Tapir of South America (Tapirus americanus).
× ¹⁄₂₅.

Questions: How does it resemble an elephant? (Fig. 376.) A

horse? (p. 210.)

Ungulates, as the horse,

need no other protection than
their great speed, which is
due to lengthening the bones
of the legs and rising upon
the very tip of the largest toe,
which, to support the weight,
developed an enormous toe-
nail called a hoof. The cattle,
not having developed such
speed as the horse, usually
have horns for defence. If a
calf or cow bellows with Fig. 385.—Horse, descended from a small
distress, all the cattle in the wild species still found in Western Asia.
neighbourhood rush to the
rescue. This unselfish instinct to help others was an aid to the
survival of wild cattle living in regions infested with beasts of prey.
Which of Æsop’s fables is based upon this instinct? The habit of
rapid grazing and the correlated habit of chewing the cud were also
of great value, as it enabled cattle to obtain grass hurriedly and to
retire to a safe place to chew it. Rudiments of the upper incisors are
present in the jaw of the calf, showing the descent from animals
which had a complete set of teeth. The rudiments are absorbed and
the upper jaw of the cow lacks incisors entirely, as they would be
useless because of the cow’s habit of seizing the grass with her rough
tongue and cutting it with the lower incisors as the head is jerked
forward. This is a more rapid way of eating than by biting. Which
leaves the grass shorter after grazing, a cow or a horse? Why? Grass
is very slow of digestion, and the ungulates have an alimentary canal
twenty to thirty times the length of the body. Thorough chewing is
necessary for such coarse food, and the ungulates which chew the
cud (ruminants) are able, by leisurely and thorough chewing, to
make the best use of the woody fibre (cellulose) which is the chief
substance in their food.
Ruminants have
four divisions to the
stomach. Their food is
first swallowed into
the roomy paunch in
which, as in the crop
of a bird, the bulky
food is temporarily
stored. It is not
digested at all in the
paunch, but after
Fig. 386.—Skeleton of Cow. Compare with horse being moistened,
(Fig. 395) as to legs, toes, tail, mane, dewlap, ears, portions of it pass
body. successively into the
honeycomb, which
forms it into balls to be belched up and ground by the large molars as
the animal lies with eyes half closed under the shade of a tree. It is
then swallowed a second time and is acted upon in the third division
(or manyplies) and the fourth division (or reed). Next it passes into
the intestine. Why is the paunch the largest compartment? In the
figure do you recognize the paunch by its size? The honeycomb by its
lining? Why is it round? The last two of the four divisions may be
known by their direct connection with the intestine.
 Fig. 388.—Section of cow’s stomachs.
Identify each. (See text.)
Fig. 387.—Food traced through
stomachs of cow. (Follow The true gastric juice is secreted only
arrows.) in the fourth stomach. Since the cud or
unchewed food is belched up in balls
from the round “honeycomb,”
and since a ball of hair is
sometimes found in the stomach
of ruminants, some ignorant
people make the absurd mistake
of calling the ball of hair the
cud. This ball accumulates in the
paunch because of the friendly
custom cows have of combing
each other’s hair with their
rough tongues, the hair
sometimes being swallowed.
Explain the saying that if a cow
Fig. 389.—Okapi. This will probably
prove to be the last large mammal to be stops chewing the cud she will
discovered by civilized man. It was found die.
in the forests of the Kongo in 1900.

Questions: It shows affinities (find

them) with giraffe, deer, and zebra. It is a
ruminant ungulate (explain meaning—
see text).
 Fig. 390.—African Camel (Camelus dromedarius).

Does a cow’s lower jaw move sidewise or back and forth? Do the
ridges on the molars run sidewise or lengthwise? Is a cow’s horn
hollow? Does it have a bony core? (Fig. 344.)
The permanent hollow horns of the cow and the solid deciduous
horns of the deer are typical of the two kinds of horns possessed by
ruminants. The prong-horned antelope (Fig. 391) of the United
States, however, is an intermediate form, as its horns are hollow, but
are shed each year. The hollow horns are a modification of hair. Do
solid or hollow horns branch? Which are possessed by both sexes?
Which are pointed? Which are better suited for fighting? Why would
the deer have less need to fight than the cattle? Deer are polygamous,
and the males use their horns mostly for fighting one another. The
sharp hoofs of deer are also dangerous weapons. The white-tail deer
(probably the same species as the Virginian red deer) is the most
widely distributed of the American deer. It keeps to the lowlands,
while the black-tailed deer prefers a hilly country. The moose, like
the deer, browses on twigs and leaves. The elk, like cattle, eats grass.
Fig. 391.—Prong-horned Antelope
(Antelocarpa Americana).
 Fig. 392.—Rocky Mountain Sheep (Ovis montana). × ¹⁄₂₄.

The native sheep of America is the big horn, or Rocky Mountain

sheep (Fig. 392). The belief is false that they alight upon their horns
when jumping down precipices. They post sentinels and are very
wary. There is also a native goat, a white species, living high on the
Rocky Mountains near the snow. They are rather stupid animals. The
bison once roamed in herds of countless thousands, but, with the
exception of a few protected in parks, it is now extinct. Its shaggy
hide was useful to man in winter, so it has been well-nigh destroyed.
For gain man is led to exterminate elephants, seals, rodents,
armadillos, whales, birds, deer, mussels, lobsters, forests, etc.
 Fig. 393.—Peccary (Dicotyles torquatus) of Texas and Mexico. × ¹⁄₁₂.

Our only native hog is the peccary, found in Texas (Fig. 393). In
contrast with the heavy domestic hog, it is slender and active. It is
fearless, and its great tusks are dangerous weapons. The swine are
the only ungulates that are not strictly vegetable feeders. The habit of
fattening in summer was useful to wild hogs, since snow hid most of
their food in winter. The habit has been preserved under
domestication. Are the small toes of the hog useless? Are the “dew
claws” of cattle useless? Will they probably become larger or smaller?
Order?
Illustrated Study of Vertebrate Skeletons: Taking man’s skeleton as
complete, which of these seven skeletons is most incomplete?
Regarding the fish skeleton as the original vertebrate skeleton, how has it been
modified for (1) walking, (2) walking on two legs, (3) flying?
Which skeleton is probably a degenerate reversion to original type? (p. 209.)
How is the horse specialized for speed?
Do all have tail vertebræ, or vertebræ beyond the hip bones? Does each have
shoulder blades?
Compare (1) fore limbs, (2) hind limbs, (3) jaws of the seven skeletons. Which
has relatively the shortest jaws? Why? What seems to be the typical number of
ribs? limbs? digits?
Does flipper of a dolphin have same bones as arm of a man?