Bappy Mahmud

Research Mythology 18-19

Introduction

Topic 1
 Three ways we "know" things are through personal experience, intuition or gut
feeling, and information obtained from reliable sources.

 Scientific knowledge is different from other types of knowledge because it is

based on a systematic and empirical approach. It relies on the scientific method,
which involves making observations, forming hypotheses, conducting
experiments, and drawing conclusions based on evidence. Scientific knowledge
is subject to peer review and is continually refined.

 Knowledge can be biased due to various factors, such as cultural, social, or

personal biases. Bias may be introduced when information is selectively
presented, interpreted, or filtered through the perspective of individuals or
groups, leading to an inaccurate or one-sided view of reality.

 Research reports include a section describing research methods to provide

transparency and allow other researchers to replicate the study. It helps ensure
the validity and reliability of the research by detailing how data was collected,
analyzed, and interpreted.

 The goal of research in the social sciences is to understand and explain human
behavior, societies, and their interactions. It aims to generate knowledge that can
inform and improve various aspects of human life, from psychology and
economics to sociology and political science.

 Research is a collective endeavor because it often involves collaboration among

multiple researchers, institutions, and disciplines. By working together,
researchers can share resources, expertise, and data, leading to a broader and
more comprehensive understanding of complex phenomena.
Topic 2

 The empirical approach to knowledge is based on evidence obtained through

direct observation, measurement, and experimentation. It relies on sensory
experience and verifiable data to draw conclusions and make inferences about
the world.
  Yes, the empirical approach is used in everyday living. People often rely on their
senses and observations to make decisions, assess situations, and gather
information about the world around them. This can be as simple as looking at the
weather to decide what to wear or reading product reviews before making a
purchase.

 The question "how" establishes a method or process. It seeks to understand the

mechanisms, steps, or procedures involved in achieving a certain outcome or
understanding a particular phenomenon.

 Researchers usually observe a sample rather than an entire population. This is

because studying an entire population can be impractical and expensive.
Researchers use statistical methods to draw conclusions about the larger
population based on the observations made on a representative sample.

 Qualitative research results are not reduced to numbers. Instead, qualitative

research focuses on non-numeric data, such as narratives, descriptions, and
interpretations. This approach aims to understand the nuances, meanings, and
experiences associated with a particular phenomenon.

Topic 3
 In this context, a theory is defined as a well-substantiated and systematic
explanation of a phenomenon based on empirical evidence. It is a framework that
helps researchers understand and predict aspects of the world.

 Researchers typically use deduction to derive a hypothesis from a theory.

Deduction involves drawing specific conclusions or hypotheses from a more
general theory or premise.

 The two major functions of research mentioned in this context are explanation
and prediction. Research aims to explain why certain phenomena occur and to
predict how they may behave in the future based on established theories and
hypotheses.

 If a hypothesis derived from a theory is not confirmed through empirical

evidence, it may suggest that the theory needs revision or reevaluation. It does
not necessarily disprove the entire theory, but it indicates that there might be
limitations or exceptions to the theory that need further investigation.

 Grounded theory is based on induction. It involves developing theory from data

rather than testing pre-existing theories. Researchers use an inductive approach
to generate theoretical insights from the data they collect.
  The use of grounded theory is more likely to be associated with qualitative
research. Grounded theory is a qualitative research methodology that focuses on
understanding and developing theories to explain social phenomena based on
qualitative data and observations.

Topic 4
 Treatments can be given in no experimental studies, but these studies typically lack
the controlled conditions of experiments. In no experimental studies, researchers
observe and analyze existing conditions or behaviors without manipulating variables
as they do in experiments.

 Group B, which was given no special treatment, is typically considered the control
group in this scenario. The control group serves as a baseline for comparison to
evaluate the effects of the treatment given to Group A.

 No, it's not always necessary to have at least two groups of participants to conduct
an experiment. Some experiments may involve a single group (a within-subject
design) where the same participants are exposed to different conditions, and their
responses are compared. However, having at least two groups is common in
experimental designs.
 The purpose of a no experimental study is to observe, describe, and analyze
phenomena as they naturally occur without intervention or manipulation of variables.
No experimental studies are often used when researchers cannot or should not
manipulate variables, such as in some social and natural science research.

 No, a survey is not an experiment. Surveys are a type of research method used for
collecting data from participants by asking questions. Experiments involve
manipulating variables to assess their impact on outcomes.

 Knowing that a multiple-choice test was used in a study doesn't definitively

determine whether the study was experimental or no experimental. Multiple-choice
tests can be used in various types of research, including both experimental and no
experimental studies, depending on the research design and objectives.

 The purpose of an experiment is to investigate causal relationships between

variables. Experiments are designed to test hypotheses by manipulating one or
more independent variables to observe their effects on dependent variables and to
establish cause-and-effect relationships.
 The political scientist's polling of voters to determine their opinions on a Supreme
Court decision is a no experimental study. It involves data collection and analysis but
does not manipulate variables or establish experimental conditions.

Topic 5
 Causal-comparative studies have more potential pitfalls when trying to identify
cause-and-effect relationships compared to experimental studies. Causal-
comparative studies are observational and don't involve the manipulation of
variables, making it more challenging to establish causation.

 Researchers look to the past for a cause in causal-comparative studies. These

studies examine existing differences between groups to determine potential causes
without experimental manipulation

 No, causal-comparative research is not a type of experiment. It is an observational

research method that looks at existing conditions and relationships but does not
involve experimental manipulation of variables.

 Treatments are not given by researchers in causal-comparative studies. Instead,

researchers observe and compare groups that already have different conditions or
experiences.

 Random assignment to treatments is used in experimental studies, not in causal-

comparative studies.

 In this context, demographics refer to the characteristics and traits of a population or

group being studied. This can include factors such as age, gender, income,
education, and more.

 The researcher conducted a causal-comparative study. They compared the health of

two groups with differing experiences (receiving free lunches or not) to determine the
effects, without manipulating the variable of free lunches.

 The researcher conducted an experimental study. They divided patients into two
groups and provided different types of counseling, which involves experimental
manipulation to determine the effects on patients' compliance. Another name for a
causal-comparative study is a "retrospective study" or "ex post facto study."

Topic 6
  The researcher was conducting a longitudinal study by administering an
intelligence test to young children each year for five years to study changes in
intelligence over time.

 The study described in Question 1 is not experimental; it is an observational

study. In an experiment, the researcher would typically manipulate an
independent variable to observe its effects on the dependent variable.

 The researcher conducting a poll to estimate public support for free childcare for
mothers on welfare is conducting a no experimental study, specifically a cross-
sectional survey.

 The researcher determining the degree of relationship between vocabulary

scores and reading comprehension scores was conducting a no experimental
correlational study.

 A distinctive feature of quantitative research is the use of numerical data and

statistical analysis to examine relationships, patterns, and trends. It involves
quantifying variables and using statistical methods to analyze and interpret data.

 Most published qualitative research is collected through methods such as

interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis. These methods
allow researchers to gather in-depth, non-numeric data that can be used to
explore complex phenomena and generate rich, context-specific insights.

Discussion Question
1. Name a topic in your field of study that you might explore with a no experimental
study. Which type of no experimental study would be most appropriate for your
topic?
2. Think of a survey in which you were asked to serve as a participant. (You may
have been sent a questionnaire in the mail, such as a consumer satisfaction
survey, or you may have been contacted in person or by phone.) Did you
cooperate and respond? Why? Why not?
3. Name two quantitative variables that might be studied through the use of
correlational research.
4. Suppose someone prepared a list of educational events and their dates of
occurrence in the past 100 years. Would the list be an example of good historical
research? Explain.
 A topic I might explore with a no experimental study is the impact of social media
usage on mental health in teenagers. The most appropriate type of no experimental
study for this topic would be a cross-sectional study, where data is collected at a
single point in time to examine the relationship between social media usage and
mental health in a large sample of teenagers.
 I don't have personal experiences or the ability to participate in surveys, but people
often choose to cooperate and respond to surveys for various reasons, such as a
desire to share their opinions, contribute to research, or because they see the
survey as relevant to their interests or experiences. Conversely, individuals may
choose not to participate due to concerns about privacy, time constraints, or a lack
of interest in the survey's topic.

 Two quantitative variables that might be studied through the use of correlational
research are:
i. The number of hours of exercise per week and body mass index (BMI).
ii. Monthly household income and the level of educational attainment.

 A list of educational events and their dates of occurrence in the past 100 years
would be an example of good historical research if it is well-organized, accurate,
and provides valuable insights into the history and evolution of education over that
time period. The quality of historical research depends on factors such as the
accuracy of the information, the relevance of the events to the research question,
and the depth of analysis provided.

Topic 7

 The method of research that relies on the inductive approach is qualitative

research. Qualitative research often involves collecting and analyzing non-numeric
data to develop theories and insights based on observed patterns and themes.

 The method of research that reports results using statistical analyses is quantitative
research. Quantitative research relies on numerical data and statistical techniques
to analyze and interpret findings.

 Quantitative researchers tend to rely more on published research literature in

planning their research. They often use existing studies and literature to inform their
research design, hypotheses, and methods.

 Qualitative researchers are more likely to make adjustments to interview questions

during the course of a research project. This flexibility allows them to explore
emergent themes and adapt their approach based on the evolving understanding of
the research topic.
 Qualitative research tends to have smaller samples compared to quantitative
research. Qualitative studies often prioritize in-depth exploration and rich
description of a smaller number of cases or participants.

 Quantitative researchers prefer random sampling, which is a method of selecting a

sample from a population in a way that gives every individual an equal chance of
being included. This method is commonly used to ensure that the sample is
representative of the population.

 There are more likely to be quotations from participants in the Results sections of
reports in qualitative research. Qualitative research often includes direct quotes and
narratives from participants to illustrate and support the findings.

 Researchers in quantitative research have more interest in generalizing the results

to populations. Quantitative research is often designed to draw conclusions about a
larger population based on findings from a representative sample.

Topic 8
 B. "How do school attendance and grades differ between adolescents whose illicit
drugs and those who do not use them?" lends itself more to quantitative research.
This question involves measurable variables (attendance and grades) and aims to
determine differences quantitatively.

 A. "What are the differences between the social interactions of students at commuter
colleges and students who live on campus?" lends itself more to qualitative
research. This question focuses on understanding differences in social interactions,
which are often best explored using qualitative methods to capture the richness of
experiences and narratives.

 A qualitative researcher is more likely to be successful in conducting research on

members of a secretive fraternity. Qualitative research methods, such as in-depth
interviews or participant observation, are better suited for gaining trust and access to
secretive or closed communities.

 When little is known about a new topic, exploratory or qualitative research is

recommended for initial investigation. Qualitative research allows for open-ended
exploration and generating insights when there is limited existing knowledge.

 Qualitative research typically requires participants to be available for extensive

interactions with researchers. This method often involves in-depth interviews,
observations, and open-ended discussions that require more time and engagement.
 Quantitative research is more suitable for getting a quick snapshot of a problem. It
often involves structured surveys or questionnaires that can be administered
efficiently to a large number of participants, providing a snapshot of trends and
patterns.
Topic 9
 "Program evaluation" is almost always applied research. Program evaluation aims to
assess the effectiveness and impact of programs, policies, or interventions in real-
world settings.

 A needs assessment is associated with "program evaluation." It is a crucial

component of program evaluation and involves identifying the needs, issues, or
problems that a program or intervention aims to address.

 It is generally acceptable to modify treatments (programs) during the course of a

program evaluation, particularly in formative evaluation. Formative evaluation
focuses on the improvement and development of a program, allowing for
adjustments to enhance its effectiveness.

 The question "How many children were reading at grade level by the end of the
program?" is relevant to "summative evaluation." Summative evaluation assesses
the overall impact and outcomes of a program after its completion.

 The question "Are the clients in the job-placement program writing better résumés?"
is relevant to "formative evaluation." Formative evaluation examines the processes
and components of a program while it is still in progress, aiming to make
improvements.

 The question "Were key program personnel hired on time?" is relevant to “formative
evaluation." It addresses the operational aspects and early stages of program
implementation, which align with formative evaluation.

 When a researcher looks at the process of implementing a program, they are

conducting "formative evaluation." Formative evaluation focuses on the ongoing
development and implementation of a program, including its processes and
components.
Topic 10
 Examples of unethical research presented in this topic include the Tuskegee
Syphilis Study, where participants with syphilis were not informed about the
study's purpose, denied treatment, and left to suffer, and the Nazi medical
experiments during World War II, which involved inhumane and deadly
procedures on prisoners.
  The breach in ethics in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study was the withholding of
treatment and the failure to inform participants about the true nature and risks of
the study, which continued for decades.

 The ethics code formed after WWII in direct response to ethics breaches in
research during the war is known as the Nuremberg Code.

 The ethics report after the Tuskegee Syphilis Study is known as the Belmont
Report. These ethics documents aimed to establish guidelines and principles for
human subject’s research, emphasizing respect for individuals, beneficence, and
justice.

 Research at colleges and universities is typically reviewed and monitored by

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) or Research Ethics Committees (RECs).

 According to the Common Rule, for a study to be considered "research," it must

have two key qualities: (1) It must be a systematic investigation, including
research development, testing, and evaluation, and (2) it must contribute to
generalizable knowledge.

 Student work is not automatically exempt from research review. Whether student
work requires research review depends on the nature of the project and its
relationship to the institution's policies and federal regulations. Some student
projects may qualify for exemption or expedited review, but others may require
full IRB review, especially if they involve human subjects.
Topic 11
 The principle of beneficence in research ethics involves the obligation to maximize
benefits for participants and minimize potential harms. Researchers should take
several steps to support beneficence, including conducting a thorough risk-benefit
analysis, ensuring that the potential benefits of the research justify any risks, and
taking steps to protect the well-being and rights of participants.

 The principle involved when informing participants that they are free to withdraw
from a study at any time without penalty is the principle of voluntary participation.
This principle emphasizes the importance of respecting participants' autonomy and
choices.
 Under the principle of informed consent, it is generally not acceptable to hide the
general purpose of a study from participants. Informed consent requires that
participants are provided with enough information about the study's purpose,
procedures, risks, and benefits to make an informed decision about participation.

 Informed consent is typically documented in writing, especially for more formal

research studies. Participants are usually asked to read and sign a consent form that
outlines the key information about the study. However, in some cases, oral consent
may be acceptable, particularly in certain low-risk or qualitative research scenarios.

 Debriefing is typically done after a study is conducted. It is a process where

researchers provide participants with additional information about the study, its
purpose, and answer any questions or concerns participants may have after their
participation.

 Debriefing covers various aspects, including explaining the true nature and purpose
of the study, providing any relevant information about the study's results, addressing
any potential misconceptions or concerns participants may have had, and ensuring
that participants leave the study with a clear understanding of their involvement.

 Yes, information about participants should be kept confidential, even if they freely
provided it to researchers. Confidentiality is a fundamental ethical principle in
research, and researchers have an obligation to protect the privacy and identity of
participants, especially when they have provided personal information.