Vitamins

VITAMINS

Definition:
The naturally occurring micronutrients present in food and are required for normal
functioning and growth of the living organisms are called as a “vitamins”.

Classification

Fat soluble vitamins:

These are soluble in fat and are stored in liver. Their absorption requires
presence of bile salts and fats. Ex. Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K

Water soluble vitamins:

These are soluble in water and are not stored in body. Water soluble
vitamin includes B-complex group and vitamin C. Ex

B complex Non B- complex: Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)

a) Vitamin B1- Thiamine

b) Vitamin B2- Riboflavin

c) Vitamin B3- Niacin

d) Vitamin B5- Pantothenic acid

e) Vitamin B6- Pyridoxine

f) Vitamin B7- Biotin

g) Vitamin B9- Folic acid

h) Vitamin B12- Cyanocobalamine

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Fat soluble Vitamins

These are soluble in fat and are stored in liver. Their absorption requires presence of bile
salts and fats. Ex. Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K.

Vitamin A

Chemical Name: Retinol

Biological active form: Vitamin A1 ( Retinol) and Vitamin A2 (Dehydroretinol)

PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE
OF VIT A IN VISION:

(VERY IMPORTANT)

The retina of the eye contains two types of receptor cells, Rod cells which are responsible for
dim light vision & the cones, responsible for bright light vision .Cones are also responsible for
colour perception. The deficiency of cone pigments makes the individual colour blind.
In retinal pigments, the rod cells contain rhodopsin. Under the influence of light,
rhodopsin is converted to lumino rhodopsin which is further converted into metarhodopsin. Then
hydrolysed to protein opsin & trans retinal. Trans-Retinal (trans- retinene) is inactive in the
synthesis of rhodopsin, it must be coverted to the active cis- isomer.
In the eye, the trans-retinal is isomerised to 11-cis-retinal by the enzyme retinal
Isomerase. This reaction is taking place in retinal pigment epithelium. The 11-cis retinal can
recombine with opsin to regenerate rhodopsin. Alternatively, the trans retinol which is too
inactive in rhodopsin synthesis is passed into blood stream, then all-trans-retinal is transported
to liver and then reduced to all-trans-retinol by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), an NADH

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dependent enzyme. The all-trans-retinol is isomerized to 11-cis-retinol and then oxidised to 11-
cis-retinal in liver. This is then transported to retina. This completes the Wald's visual cycle.

The individual having vitamin A deficiency are unable to resynthesise rhodopsin and
thus unable to see in the dim light and the condition is called night blindness.

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Physiological role of Vit A:

Vitamin A in Vision:
 Helps to maintain the cornea
 Conversion of light energy into nerve impulses at the retina
 Rhodopsin is a light-sensitive pigment of the retina that contains a protein
called opsin.

Vitamin A in Protein Synthesis and Cell Differentiation:

Through cell differentiation, vitamin A allows cells to perform specific functions i.e
Epithelium of skin and mucus membrane (outside of the body form the skin and on the inside of
the body form the mucous membrane).

Vitamin A in Reproduction and Growth

 Sperm development in men

 Normal fetal development in women
 Growth in children
 Remodeling of the bone involves osteclasts, osteoblasts, and lysosomes.

Vitamin A in Immunity

Vita A has been shown to induce production of regulatory T cells that help dampen the immune
response to self and foreign antigen.

Beta-Carotene as an Antioxidant

Beta-carotene helps protect the body from diseases, including cancer.

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Deficiency Manifestations of Vitamin A…

 Poor adaptation to darkness - night blindness

 Keratomalacia (thinning and ultimately ulceration of the cornea - colliquative necrosis).
 Conjunctival dryness, corneal dryness, xerophthalmia
 Bitot's spots (areas of abnormal squamous cell proliferation and keratinisation of the
conjunctiva, causing oval, triangular or irregular foamy patches on the white of the eye).
 Blindness due to structural damage to the retina.
 Vit A Deficiency may leads to histological changes in taste buds and may leads to
change in taste perception.
 Vit A Deficiency may leads to decrease production of steroids, growth fail/ retardation.

Vitamin A Toxicity

Birth Defects

• Teratogenic risk is possible, resulting in abnormal fetal development and

birth defects.
• Vitamin A supplements are not recommended the first trimester of
pregnancy.

Vitamin D

Chemical Name: Chole calciferol

Biological active form: Vit D3（Cholecalciferol ）

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Chole calciferol (Vitamin D3)

Physiological role of Vit D :

 Helps to maintain blood levels of calcium and phosphorus from intestine.

 It stimulates calcification of bones; it is necesssary for the development of
teeth and bones.
 It producess hydrolysis of Phytate and thus prevents it from Rickets.
 It decreases the PH level of small intestine which helps in increasing the
absorption of calcium and phosphorus.

Deficiency Manifestations of Vita D …

1) Rickets :
1. Inadequate calcification of bones
2. Growth retardation
3. Misshapen bones- bowing of the legs
4. Enlargement of the ends of long bones.

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2) Osteoporosis
3) Osteomalacia

Vitamin E

Chemical Name: Tocopherol (Anti- sterility)

Biological active form: d-alpha tocopherols

Physiological role of Vit E:

1) Anti-oxidant action: It protects Vita A and carotene from destruction by oxidation in the
body.

2) Anti- Sterility: It is necessary for the growth and maintenance of seminiferous tubules and
ovary. Thus prevents sterility.

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3) It protects enzymes in muscles, nerves or gonads from destruction.

4) It prevents formation of peroxides by polyunsaturated fatty acids and also pigmentation of

adipose tissue And also acts as co-factor in steroid metabolism.

5) The free radicals would attack bio-membranes.Vitamin E protects RBC from hemolysis. By
preventing the peroxidation, it keeps the structural and functional integrity of all cells.

Deficiency Manifestations of Vita E …

1) Sterility and intrauterine death of fetus has been shown in rats

2) Muscle dystrophy
3) Hepatic Necrosis

4) Increased oxygen consumption by skeletal muscle.

5) Neuromuscular problems-such as spinocerebellar ataxia and myopathies.

6) Anemia-due to oxidative damage to red blood cells.

Vitamin K

Chemical Name: Menadione (Anti- Haemorrhagic factor)

Biological active form: Menaquinone

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Physiological role of Vit K :

1) It is necessary for blood coagulation , clotting factors such as 2,7 ,9, 10 are activated by
Vit K through liver.
2) It acts as a co-factor in oxidative phosphorylation.
3) It shortens prothrombin time.
4) It is used as antidote to the anti coagulants like Warfarin.

Deficiency Manifestations of Vita K …

1) Lowering of prothrombin level in which blood coagulation time is increased.

2) Uncontrolled bleeding and haemorrhage may occur. Bleeding of the gums or nose in

both sexes, and heavy menstrual bleeding in women.

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Water soluble Vitamins

These are soluble in water and are not stored in body. Water soluble vitamin includes B-complex
group and vitamin C.

Vitamin B 1

Chemical Name: Thiamine

Physiological Role of Thiamine :

1) The co-enzyme form is thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP). It is used in oxidative decarboxylation
of alpha keto acids.

2) Transketolase: The second group of enzymes that use TPP as co-enzyme are the
transketolases, in the hexose monophosphate shunt pathway of glucose.

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Deficiency Manifestations of Vita B 1…

1. Beriberi
2. Wet beriberi
3. Dry beriberi
4. Infantile beriberi

Vitamin B 2

Chemical Name: Riboflavin.

Physiological Role of RIBOFLAVIN

1) Riboflavin exists in tissues tightly bound (but not covalently) with enzymes. Enzymes
containing riboflavin are called flavoproteins. The two coenzymes are FMN (flavin mono
nucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide).

2) FMN is the constituent of various enzymes like Cyto C reductase and L- Amino acid
dehydrogenase.

3) FAD is the constituent of various enzymes Xanthine oxidase.

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Deficiency Manifestations of Vita B 2…

1) Symptoms are confined to skin and mucous membranes.

i. Glossitis (Greek, glossa = tongue).

ii. Magenta colored tongue

iii. Cheilosis (Greek, cheilos = lip)

iv. Angular stomatitis (inflammation at the corners of mouth).

Vitamin B 3

Chemical Name: Niacin.

Physiological Role of NIACIN

1) Niacin is converted to its co-enzyme forms, viz. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD+) and Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+)
2) It helps in the formation of fats from carbohydrates.
3) It is used therapeutically for lowering plasma cholesterol.
4) NADH produced is oxidized in the electron transport chain to generate ATP. NADPH is
also important for many biosynthetic reactions as it donates reducing equivalents

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Deficiency Manifestations of Vita B 3…

1) Pellagra

Symptoms are confined to skin and mucous membranes.

Deficiency of niacin leads to the clinical condition called pellagra. Pellagra is an Italian word,
meaning "rough skin". Pellagra is caused by the deficiency of Tryptophan as well as Niacin.
Pellagra is seen more in women;

The symptoms of pellagra are:

Dermatitis

Dementia

Diarrhea

Vitamin B 5

Chemical Name: Pantothenic acid

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Physiological Role of Pantothenic acid:

1) The functions of pantothenic acid are exerted through coenzyme A or CoA (A for acetylation).

Coenzyme A is a central molecule involved in all the metabolisms (carbohydrate, lipid and
protein). lt plays a unique role in integrating various metabolic pathways. More than 70 enzymes
that depend on coenzyme A are known.

2) The important CoA derivatives are:

a. Acetyl CoA

b. Succinyl CoA

c. HMG CoA

d. Acyl CoA.

Deficiency Manifestations of Vita B 5…

Burning Foot Syndrome is manifested as paresthesia (burning, lightning pain) in lower
extremities, staggering gait due to impaired coordination and sleep disturbances.

Vitamin B 6

Chemical Name: Pyridoxine.

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Physiological Role of Pyridoxine:

1) The pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) acts as co-enzyme for many reactions in amino acid
metabolism.

2) Pyridoxal phosphate participates in reactions like transamination,decarboxylation,

deamination, transsulfuration,condensation etc.

3) transamination:

Alanine + Alpha keto glutarate → Pyruvate +

Glutamic acid (Enzyme Alanine transaminase).

4) Decarboxylation :

All decarboxylation reactions of amino acids require PLP as co-enzyme.

i. Glutamate → GABA (gamma amino butyric

acid) GABA is an inhibitoryneurotransmitter, and hence in B6 deficiency,especially in children,

convulsions may occur.

Deficiency Manifestations of Vita B 6…

1. Retarded growth
2. Problems in weight gain
3. Anemia
4. Skin lesion
5. Convulsions in Infants.

Vitamin B 7

Chemical Name: Biotin.

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Structure of Biotin

Physiological Role of BIOTIN.

1) Biotin acts as co-enzyme for carboxylation reactions. Biotin captures a molecule of CO2
which is attached to nitrogen of the biotin molecule The energy required for this reaction
is provided by ATP.

2) Biotin Requiring CO2 Fixation Reactions:

1. Acetyl CoA carboxylase

This enzyme adds CO2 to acetyl CoA to form malonyl CoA. This is the rate limiting
reaction in biosynthesis of fatty acid.

2. Pyruvate carboxylase

Pyruvate + CO2 +ATP→Oxaloacetate +ADP +Pi

This is important in two aspects. One, it provides the oxaloacetate, which is the catalyst
for TCA cycle. Second, it is an important enzyme in the gluconeogenic pathway.

Deficiency Manifestations of Vita B 7…

Dermatitis, atrophic glossitis, hyperesthesia, muscle pain, anorexia and

hallucinations.

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Vitamin B 9

Chemical Name: Folic Acid.

Physiological Role of Folic Acid :

1) It is required in one carbon metabolism reaction.
2) It is involved in DNA synthesis.
3) It helps in the formation and maturation of red cells.
4) It is used in treatment of megaloblastic anaemia.

Deficiency Manifestations of Vita B 9…

1. Reduced DNA synthesis

2. Macrocytic Anemia

3. Reticulocytosis

4. Birth Defects

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Vitamin B 12

Chemical Name: Cyanocobalamin

Physiological Role of Vita B 12 :

1. It is required in the formation and maturation of red cells.
2. It is required in the synthesis of nucleic acid.
3. It is required fro normal activity of nervous system.
4. It helps in Synthesis of methionine from homocysteine
5. Formation of lipids from carbohydrates in influenced by Vita B12

Deficiency Manifestations of Vita B 12…

1. Pernicious anemia and decreased bilirubin level in body.

2. Abnormal homocysteine level
3. Demyelination
4. Achlorhydria

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Vitamin C

Chemical Name: Ascorbic Acid.

Physiological Role of Vita C:

1) It regulates redox potential inside the cell.

2) It is involved in the Tyrosine metabolism.
3) It helps in the wound repair.
4) It is required in the formation and maturation of red cells.
5) It helps in absorption of iron from intestine.

Deficiency Manifestations of Vita C….

Vita C deficiency leads to Scurvy and symptoms are
1) Internal Hemorrhage
2) Gums swollen and bleeding
3) Malformation of bones
4) Poor wound healing

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Coenzymes

These are organic molecules, often derived from the B-complex group vitamins
that participate directly in enzymatic reactions.
OR

Co-enzymes may be defined as substance necessary for the activity of certain

enzymes. Many enzymes catalyze the reactions only in presence of specific non protein
organic molecules called the “co enzyme”
Vitamins Deficiency disease Co-enzymes
Vita A / Retinol Nightblindness, ------------
Xeropthalmia
Vita D / Calciferol Rickets, osteoporosis ------------
Vita E / Tocopherol Sterility ------------
Vita K / Menadione Blood clotting disorder ------------

Vita B 1/ Thiamine Beri-beri Thiamine Pyrophosphate.

Vita B 2 / Riboflavin Dermatitis FMN and FAD
Vita B 3/ Niacin /nicotinic Pellagra FAD and NADP
acid
Vita B 5 / Pantothenic acid Burning Foot Syndrome Co- A
Vita B 6 / Pyridoxine Anemia Pyridoxal phosphate
Vita B 7 / Biotin Dermatitis Biotin
Vita B 9 / Folic acid Macrocytic Anemia Terahydrofolate

Vita B 12/ Cynocobalamine Pernicious anemia Deoxyadenosine

cobalamine
Vita C /Ascorbic acid Scurvy Ascorbic acid

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