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Probability and Statistics for Engineers, 5th

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PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS FOR ENGINEERS provides a one-semester,
calculus-based introduction to engineering statistics that focuses on making
intelligent sense of real engineering data and interpreting results. Traditional topics
are presented thorough an accessible modern framework that emphasizes the
statistical thinking, data collection and analysis, decision-making, and process
improvement skills that engineers need on a daily basis to solve real problems. The
text continues to be driven by its hallmark array of engineering applications--
thoroughly expanded and modernized for the 5th edition--which tackle timely,
interesting, and illuminating scenarios that show students the rich context behind the
concepts. Within the presentation of topics and applications the authors continually
develop students' intuition for collecting their own real data, analyzing it with the
latest graphical tools, and interpreting the results with a goal of improving quality
control and problem-solving process. Students will not only gain solid understanding
of concepts and their real-life practicality, but will learn to become active statistical
practitioners for their own future careers.

About the Author

Richard L. Scheaffer, Professor Emeritus of Statistics, University of Florida,
received his Ph.D. in statistics from Florida State University. Accompanying a career
of teaching, research and administration, Dr. Scheaffer has led efforts on the
improvement of statistics education throughout the school and college curriculum.
Co-author of five textbooks, he was one of the developers of the Quantitative
Literacy Project that formed the basis of the data analysis strand in the curriculum
standards of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. He also led the task
force that developed the AP Statistics Program, for which he served as Chief Faculty
Consultant. Dr. Scheaffer is a Fellow and past president of the American Statistical
Association, a past chair of the Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences, and
an advisor on numerous statistics education projects.

Madhuri S. Mulekar, Professor of Statistics, University of South Alabama, received

her Ph.D. from Oklahoma State University. She is involved in teaching, research,
and consulting activities with the faculty from the college of medicine, University
of South Alabama hospitals, and Mitchell Cancer Institute. She has authored an
exam-preparation book for Advanced Placement (AP) Statistics and has been
involved with the AP Statistics exam since it was first administered, serving on the
test development committee. She is actively involved in the American Statistical
Association�s efforts for improving statistics education by serving on various
national committees such as Advisory Committee on Continuing Education and
ASA-MAA joint committee on undergraduate statistics. Prof. Mulekar has published
many research as well as teaching related articles. Recipient of many grants, she
directed undergraduate research program in statistics that was funded by NSF. Dr.
Mulekar is a Fellow of American Statistical Association and a recipient of
outstanding scholar award by Phi Kappa Phi, the national honor society.

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 Publisher : Duxbury Press; 5th edition (June 22, 2010)
 Language : English
 Hardcover : 848 pages
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the form of long and narrow strobili, with Calamocladus is referred to
in the sequel.
The specimens described by Grand’Eury are in the École des
Mines Museum, Paris; some of the shoots which are well preserved
bear a resemblance in habit of growth to the genus
Archaeocalamites.

β. Annularia.
In 1820 this generic name was applied by Sternberg[656] to some
specimens of branches bearing verticils of linear leaves. In 1828
Brongniart[657] thus defined the genus Annularia:—“Slender stem,
articulated, with opposite branches arising above the leaves. Leaves
verticillate, flat, frequently obtuse, traversed by a single vein, fused
basally and of unequal length.”
In the works of earlier writers we find frequent illustrations of
specimens of Annularia, which are compared with Asters and other
recent flowering plants. Lehmann[658] contributed a paper to the
Royal Academy of Berlin in 1756, in which he referred to certain
fossil plants as probable examples of flowers, among them being a
specimen of Annularia. He refers to the occurrence of fossil ferns
and other plants, and asks why we do not find flowers of the rose or
tulip; his object being “not to acquire vain glory, but to give occasion
for others to look into the matter more clearly.”
The general habit of the fossils which are now included under
Annularia agrees closely with that of Calamocladus. There is the
same spreading form and a similar foliage in the two genera, but in
Annularia the members of a whorl are always fused into a basal
sheath, and the segments are not of equal length. We may thus
summarise the characteristic features of the genus:—
Opposite branches are given off in one plane from the nodes of a
main axis; the leaves are in the form of narrow sheaths divided into
numerous and unequal linear or narrow lanceolate segments, each
with a median vein. The segments in each whorl appear to be
spread out in one plane very oblique to the axis of a branch, instead
of spreading radially in all directions; the lateral segments are usually
longer than the upper and lower members of a whorl. The vegetative
branches possess the same type of structure as Calamites.
A comparison of Annularia and Phyllotheca has already been
made in Chapter IX. (p. 282). Potonié[659] has recently given a
detailed account of Annularian leaves; he compares them with those
of Equisetum, and describes the occurrence on the lamina of each
leaf-segment of a broad central band or midrib, with a groove,
probably containing stomata, on either side. He shows that in well-
preserved specimens of Annularia, it is possible to recognise certain
minute surface-features, such as the presence of hairs and stomata,
which enable one to detect a close resemblance between the leaves
of Calamite stems and those of Annularian shoots.
It is not always easy to distinguish between Annularia and
Calamocladus; the collar-like basal sheath in the leaves of the
former is a characteristic feature, but that cannot always be
recognised. On the other hand, the leaves of Calamocladus may
sometimes be flattened out on the surface of the rock and simulate
the deeply cut sheaths of Annularia. It is difficult to decide how far
the manner of occurrence of Annularian leaves in one plane, which
is commonly insisted on as a generic character, is an original
feature, or how far it is the result of compression in fossilisation.
Probably the leaves of a living Annularia were spread out at right
angles to the axis, as in the ‘verticils’ of such a plant as Galium.
Dawson[660] has described some fossils from the Devonian rocks of
Canada as species of Asterophyllites; the figures bear a closer
resemblance to the genus Annularia. The same author figures some
irregularly whorled impressions as Protannularia, which appear to be
identical with a fossil described by Nicholson[661] from the Skiddaw
slates (Ordovician) of Cumberland as Buthotrephis radiata, but the
specimens are too imperfect to admit of accurate determination.

Annularia stellata (Schloth.). Fig. 88.

1820. Casuarinites stellatus, Schlotheim[662].
1826. Bornia stellata, Sternberg[663].
1828. Annularia longifolia, Brongniart[664].
 1834. Asterophyllites equisetiformis, Lindley and Hutton[665].
1868. Asterophyllites longifolius, Binney[666].
1887. Annularia Geinitzi, Stur[667].
1887. Annularia westphalica, Stur.

This species was figured by Scheuchzer[668] in his Herbarium

Diluvianum, and compared by him with a species of Galium
(Bedstraw). Brongniart first made use of the generic name Annularia
for this common Coal-Measure species, which may be defined as
follows:—
Stem reaching a diameter of about 6–8 cm., with internodes 6–12
cm. in length, the surface either smooth or faintly ribbed. Primary
branches given off in opposite pairs from the nodes, the lateral
branches giving off smaller branches disposed in the same manner.
The smaller branches bear verticils of leaves at each node; both
leaves and ultimate branches being in one plane. The leaves are
narrow, lanceolate-spathulate in form, broadest about the middle, 1–
5 cm. in length and 1–3 mm. broad, hairy on the upper surface[669];
each leaf is traversed by a single vein.
 Fig. 88. Branch of Annularia stellata (Schloth.). ⅘ nat. size.
From a specimen in the Collection of Mr R. Kidston. Upper Coal-
Measures, Radstock.
Each whorl contains 16–32 segments, which are connected
basally into a collar or narrow sheath; the lateral segments are
usually longer than the upper and lower. The branches are about 6–
20 mm. broad, with finely ribbed internodes 3–7 cm. long, bearing
verticils of leaves; the ultimate branches arise in pairs in the axils of
the lateral segments of the verticils.
The strobili are of the Calamostachys[670] type and are borne on
the main branches or possibly on the stem; they have a long and
narrow form and are attached in verticils at the nodes. Each strobilus
consists of a central axis bearing alternate whorls of linear lanceolate
sterile bracts and sporangiophores, about half as numerous as the
sterile bracts; each sporangiophore bears four ovoid sporangia.
The anatomical structure of a specimen referred to Annularia
stellata has been described by Renault[671]. The cortex consists of
parenchyma traversed by lacunae and limited peripherally by a
denser hypodermal tissue. In the stele Renault describes 14 xylem
strands, each with a large carinal canal. The pith was apparently
large and hollow. The same author describes an Annularia strobilus
in which the lower sporangiophores bear macrosporangia, and the
upper microsporangia.

Fig. 89. Annularia sphenophylloides (Zenk.).

A. Strobilus (Stachannularia calathifera, Weiss). ⅔ nat. size. B.
Vegetative shoot. ⅘ nat. size.
From specimens in the Collection of Mr R. Kidston. Upper Coal-
Measures, Radstock.
The references in the footnote should be consulted for figures of
this species of Annularia; it is from the examination of such
specimens as are referred to in the note that the above diagnosis
has been compiled[672].

Annularia sphenophylloides (Zenk.). Fig. 89.

 1833. Galium sphenophylloides, Zenker[673].
1865. Annularia brevifolia, Heer[674], Strobilus.
1876. Calamostachys (Stachannularia) calathifera, Weiss[675].

Principal branches 8–12 mm. wide, with internodes 8–10 cm. in

length, giving off two opposite branches at the nodes; from the
secondary branches arise smaller branches in opposite pairs. The
leaf-verticils and branches are all in one plane. Each verticil consists
of 12–18 spathulate segments, 3–10 mm. long, cuneiform at the
base and broader above, with an acuminate tip; the lateral segments
are slightly longer than the upper and lower members of a whorl.
The small and crowded leaf-whorls give to this species a
characteristic appearance, which readily distinguishes it from the
larger-leaved forms such as Annularia stellata. A fossil figured by
Lhwyd[676] in 1699 as Rubeola mineralis is no doubt an example of
Annularia sphenophylloides.
Annularian branches are occasionally found with cones given off
from the axils of some of the leaf-whorls. An interesting specimen,
which is now in the Leipzig Museum, was described by Sterzel in
1882[677], showing cones attached to a vegetative shoot of Annularia
sphenophylloides. The long and narrow strobili—2·5 cm. long and
about 6 mm. broad—appear very large in proportion to the size of
the vegetative branches. A fertile shoot consists of a central axis
bearing whorls of bracts alternating with sporangiophores, to each of
which are attached four sporangia. The specimen in fig. 89, A, does
not show the details clearly; each transverse constriction represents
the attachment of a whorl of linear bracts; the whole cone appears to
consist of a series of short broad segments. The divisions in the
lower half of each segment mark the position of the sterile bracts,
while those of the upper half represent the outlines of the upper
sporangia of each whorl of sporangiophores, the lower sporangia
being hidden by the ring of linear bracts[678]. On some portions of the
specimen of fig. 89, A, it is possible to recognise the outlines of cells
on the coaly surface-film; these probably belong to the sporangium
wall. This type of cone is included under the genus Calamostachys,
a name applied to Calamitean strobili with certain morphological
characters, as described on p. 351.
 c. Roots.
In 1871 Williamson[679] described some sections of what he
considered to be a distinct variety of a Calamite stem. The chief
peculiarity which he noticed lay in the absence of carinal canals, and
in the solid pith. Some years later the same observer[680] came to the
conclusion that the specimens were probably those of a plant
generically distinct from Calamites; he accordingly proposed a new
name Astromyelon. Subsequently Cash and Hick[681] gave an
account of some examples of apparently another form of plant, to
which they gave the name Myriophylloides Williamsonis; and
Williamson[682] suggested the term Helophyton as a more suitable
generic designation. It was, however, demonstrated by Spencer[683]
that the plant described by Cash and Hick was identical with
Williamson’s Astromyelon. Williamson[684] then gave an account of
several specimens of this type illustrating various stages in the
growth and development of the Astromyelon ‘stems,’ which he
compared with the rhizome of the recent genus Marsilia.
In 1885 Renault[685] published an account of Astromyelon in which
he brought forward good evidence in favour of regarding it as a
Calamitean root. The same author has recently given some excellent
figures and a detailed description of certain specific types of these
Calamite roots, and Williamson and Scott’s memoir on the roots of
Calamites has rendered our knowledge of Astromyelon almost
complete. Some of the finest specimens, in which the organic
connection between typical Calamite stems and Astromyelon roots is
clearly demonstrated, are in the Natural History Museum, Paris.
There are several sections also from English material which show
the connection between root and stem very clearly.
 Fig. 90. Pith-cast of a Calamite stem, with roots; embedded in sandstone
and shale. (After Grand’Eury.) Much reduced.
Casts of the hollow pith of Calamite rhizomes or aerial branches
are occasionally found in which slender appendages are given off
either singly or in tufts from the nodal regions. Many examples of
such casts have been figured by Lindley and Hutton[686], Binney[687],
Grand’Eury[688], Weiss[689], Stur, and other writers[690]. The large stem-
cast of fig. 90 illustrates the manner of occurrence of long branched
roots on the nodes of a Calamite growing in sandy or clay soil. The
lower and more darkly shaded portion of the specimen is covered by
a layer of coal representing the carbonised wood and cortex, which
has been moulded on to the sandstone pith-cast. In fig. 77 (p. 316) a
fairly thick root is seen, in organic connection with one of the nodes,
N 3, and on N 2 there is a scar of another root.
There are certain external characters by which one may often
recognise a Calamitean root. There is no division into nodes and
internodes as in stems, and as the pith of the root was usually solid
the parallel ribs and grooves of stem-casts are not present. In
smaller flattened roots there may sometimes be seen a central or
excentric black line representing the stele, and the surface of the
root presents a curious wrinkled or shagreen texture, probably due to
the shrinkage of the loose lacunar cortex. The occasional excentric
position of the stele is no doubt due to the displacement of the
vascular cylinder as a result of the rapid decay of the cortical tissues.
In the Bergakademie of Berlin there are some unusually good
examples of Calamite casts bearing well-preserved root-
impressions; these include the original specimens figured by
Weiss[691].
No doubt some of the roots figured by various writers under the
names Pinnularia[692] and Hydatica[693] belong to Calamites, but it is
often impossible to identify detached specimens with any certainty.
The section figured diagrammatically in fig. 91 A shows the
characteristic single series of large lacunae, l, in the middle cortical
region. In the centre there is a wide solid pith surrounded by a ring of
vascular tissue, x. The appearance of the middle cortex is very like
that of the stem of a water-plant such as Myriophyllum, the Water
Milfoil; it shows that the Calamite roots grew either in water or
swampy ground. In fig. 91 B, the root characters are clearly seen;
the centre of the stele is occupied by large parenchymatous cells
which are rather longer than broad in longitudinal view; at the
periphery there are four protoxylem groups px, alternating with four
groups of phloem, ph, the latter being situated a little further from the
centre of the stele. The structure is therefore that of a typical tetrarch
root. In the example represented in the figure secondary thickening
has begun, and the cambial cells internal to each phloem group have
given rise to a few radially disposed tracheids, x2. Beyond the
phloem there are two layers of parenchyma representing, as regards
position, a pericycle and an endodermis. In the ordinary pericycle
and endodermis of the roots of most plants the cells of the two layers
are on alternate radii, but in the Calamite root, as in Equisetum roots,
the cells of these layers are placed on the same radii, as seen in the
neighbourhood of x2 in the figure. This correspondence of the radial
walls of the endodermal and pericyclic cells points to the
development of both layers from one mother-layer, and suggests the
‘double endodermis’ or phloeoterma of Equisetum (p. 254). The cells
in the outer of these two layers have slight thickenings on the radial
walls recalling the usual character of endodermal cells. The
phloeoterma is succeeded by a few layers of parenchyma,
constituting the inner cortex, and beyond this we have the large
lacunae separated from one another by slender trabeculae of cells.
The outer cortex is limited by a well-defined layer of thick-walled
cells, which may be spoken of as the epidermoidal[694] layer. Roots
possessing this superficial layer of thicker cells have no doubt lost
the original surface-layer which produced the absorptive root-hairs.
 Fig. 91.
A. Diagrammatic sketch of a transverse section of a young root of
Calamites. x, xylem; l, lacuna. After Hick.
B. Central cylinder (stele) of root, px, protoxylem; ph, phloem; x2,
secondary xylem; l, phloeoterma. × 75. After Williamson and
Scott.

The xylem elements have the form of spiral, reticulate and

scalariform tracheids.
 In roots or rootlets smaller than that shown in fig. 91 B, the primary
xylem may extend to the centre of the stele, and form a continuous
axial strand; in such examples the structure may be diarch, triarch or
tetrarch. The origin of the cambium agrees with that in recent roots,
the cells immediately external to the protoxylem tracheids become
meristematic, as also those internal to the phloem. Another root-
character is seen in the endogenous origin of lateral members. Good
examples of branching roots are figured by Williamson[695] and by
Williamson and Scott[696].
Older roots[697] are usually found in a decorticated condition. A
transverse section of root in which secondary thickening has been
active for some time presents on a superficial view a close
resemblance to a stem of Calamites, but a careful comparison at
once reveals important points of difference. The specimen
diagrammatically sketched in fig. 92 illustrates very clearly the origin
of a root from the node of a Calamite stem. The section has passed
through a stem in a tangential direction, showing the characteristic
arrangement of the vascular bundles x, and principal medullary rays
m. The small leaf-traces, t, t, afford another feature characteristic of
a Calamite stem. The portion of stem to the right of the figure has
been slightly displaced, and between this piece and the root R, one
of the ubiquitous Stigmarian appendages, s, has inserted itself. At R
a fairly thick and decorticated root is seen in oblique transverse
section; at the upper end the root tracheids are seen in direct
continuity with the xylem of the stem. In the centre of the root is the
large solid pith surrounded by twelve bluntly pointed xylem groups,
composed in the main of radially disposed scalariform elements with
narrow secondary medullary rays like those in a stem. Between each
xylem group there is a broad medullary ray, which tapers rapidly
towards the outside, and is soon obliterated by the formation of
interfascicular secondary xylem. At R′ a portion of another root is
seen in transverse section, and R″ the inner part of a single xylem
group is shown more clearly. The solid pith and the absence of
carinal canals are the two most obvious distinguishing features of the
roots.
 Fig. 92. Tangential section through a node of Calamites, showing a root in
organic connection with the stem.
R, R′. Root (Astromyelon) in transverse and oblique section, x, xylem;
m, primary medullary ray; t, leaf-trace; s, Stigmarian appendage.
R″, the inner portion of one of the xylem wedges of R′ more highly
magnified. Sketched from a section in the Cambridge Botanical
Laboratory Collection.
As Renault points out, roots of Calamites have been figured by
some writers[698] as examples of stems, but it is usually
comparatively easy to distinguish between roots and stems. On
examining the xylem groups more closely, one notices that the apex
of each is occupied by a triangular group of centripetally-developed
primary tracheids, the narrow spiral protoxylem elements occupying
the outwardly directed apex. The protoxylem apex is usually followed
externally by a ray of one or two radially disposed series of
parenchymatous cells. This ray is not distinguished in fig. 92 R″ from
the rows of xylem tracheids. Each xylem group is thus formed partly
of centripetal xylem and in part of secondary centrifugal xylem; the
latter is associated with secondary medullary rays, as in stems, and
contains a broader ray (fascicular ray of Williamson and Scott[699])
immediately opposite each protoxylem strand. In the roots of recent
plants (e.g. Cucurbita, Phaseolus, &c.) a broad medullary ray is often
found opposite the protoxylem, and such an arrangement is a
perfectly normal structure in roots[700].
Renault has recently described several species of Calamite roots
which he designates by specific names, some of them belonging to
stems with the Arthropitys structure, and others to Calamodendron.
Some of the roots figured by the French author have an axial strand
of xylem with 7–15 projecting angles of protoxylem[701]. These he
considers true roots, but the larger specimens with a wide pith he
prefers to regard as stolons. In the latter he mentions the union of
the primary centripetal with the secondary centrifugal wood as a
distinguishing feature. It has been shown, however, that each group
of secondary xylem includes a median ray of parenchyma, and that
the whole structure is essentially that of a root, and not that of a
modified stem or stolon. The organs described by Renault as true
roots are probably rootlets, and as Williamson and Scott have
demonstrated, there is every gradation between the smaller
specimens with a solid xylem axis and those with a large central pith.
It is interesting to note that Renault’s figures of Calamodendron
roots show the closest resemblance to those of the subgenus
Arthropitys.

d. Cones.
The occurrence of fossil plants in the form of isolated fragments is
a constant source of difficulty, and is well illustrated by the numerous
examples of strobili which cannot be connected with their parent
stems. We are, however, usually able to recognise Calamitean
cones if the impressions or petrified specimens are fairly well
preserved, but it is seldom possible to correlate particular types of
cones with the corresponding species of foliage-shoots or stems.
Palaeobotanical literature contains numerous illustrations and
descriptions of long and narrow strobili designated by different
generic terms such as Volkmannia, Brukmannia, Calamostachys,
Macrostachya and others; many of these have since been
recognised as the cones of Calamites, while some species of
Volkmannia have been identified with Sphenophyllum stems. Before
further considering the general question of Calamite cones, a few
examples may be described in detail as types of fructification which
are known to have been borne by Calamites. The examples selected
are species of the two provisional genera Calamostachys and
Palaeostachya.
The usual form of a Calamite cone is illustrated in fig. 93, which
represents a fertile shoot bearing a few narrow linear leaves of the
Calamocladus type; in the axils of some of these are borne the long
strobili.
 Fig. 93. Calamostachys sp. A fertile Calamitean shoot. From a specimen
in the Geological Survey Museum, Jermyn Street, London. From the
Upper Coal-Measures of Monmouthshire (No. 5539).

Calamostachys Binneyana (Carr.). Figs. 94 and 95.

In 1867 Carruthers[702] gave an account of the structural features of
the species of cones named by him Volkmannia Ludwigi and V.
Binneyi, the generic term having been originally used by
Sternberg[703] for some impressions of Carboniferous strobili.
Brongniart[704] in 1849 referred to the various forms of Volkmannia as
cones of Asterophyllitean branches, and the latter he regarded as
the foliage-shoots of a Calamite stem. In 1868 Binney[705] published a
description, with several illustrations, of the cones named by
Carruthers Volkmannia Binneyi, and referred to them as the
fructification of that type of Calamite stem spoken of in a previous
section of this chapter (p. 311) as Calamites (Arthropitys) communis
(Binney). This cone is now usually spoken of as Calamostachys
Binneyana; the specific name Binneyana being suggested by
Schimper[706] in 1869 as more euphonious than that proposed by
Carruthers. In recent years our knowledge of both C. Binneyana and
C. Ludwigi has been considerably extended. We shall confine our
attention in the following account to the former species[707]. Some
excellent figures of the latter species may be found in Weiss’
Memoir[708] on Calamarieae.
One of the largest examples of Calamostachys Binneyana so far
recorded has a length of 3–4 cm. and a maximum diameter of about
7·5 mm. The axis of the cone bears whorls of sterile leaves or bracts
at equal distances; the linear bracts of each whorl are coherent
basally as a disc or plate of tissue attached at right angles to the
central axis of the cone. The periphery of each of these discs divides
up into twelve linear segments, which curve upwards in a direction
more or less parallel to the strobilus axis, and at right angles to the
coherent portion of each whorl. The manner of occurrence of the
whorls is shown in fig. 94, which has been sketched from a large
section in the Williamson collection. The segments of the successive
sterile verticils alternate with one another, so that in the surface-view
of a cone the long and narrow free bracts appear spirally disposed.
Midway between these alternating sterile verticils there is a series of
fertile appendages, also given off in regular whorls. Each fertile whorl
consists of about half as many members as the segments of a sterile
whorl, and the members of the several fertile whorls are superposed
and not alternate. Each member has the form of a stalk or
sporangiophore given off at right angles from the cone axis; this is
expanded distally into a peltate disc bearing four sporangia attached
to its inner face. In fig. 94 we can only see the basal portions of the
sporangiophores, which are shown in the upper part of the sketch as
pointed projections, Sp, from the cone axis. Each sporangiophore is
traversed by a vascular strand which sends off a branch to the base
of a sporangium (fig. 95, A, t).
 Fig. 94. Calamostachys Binneyana (Carr.) in longitudinal (radial and
tangential) section.
Sp, sporangiophores; S, sporangia.
(From specimen no. 1022 in the Williamson Collection, British
Museum.)
The axis of the cone is occupied by a single stele, usually
triangular in section; the stele consists of a solid pith of elongated
cells surrounded by six vascular bundles, two at each corner. A
somewhat irregular gap marks the position of the protoxylem of each
strand, and portions of spiral or annular tracheids may occasionally
be seen in the cavity. These cavities, which may be spoken of as the
carinal canals, disappear at the nodes, where there is a mass of
short reticulately pitted tracheids, as in a Calamite stem. Vascular
bundles pass upwards in an oblique direction from the central stele
to supply the bracts, each of which is traversed by a single strand of
tracheids. The coherent portion, or disc, of each sterile whorl
consists of sclerenchymatous elements towards the upper surface,
and of parenchyma below. The pedicel of the sporangiophores
consists of fairly thick-walled cells traversed by a single vascular
strand, and the peltate distal portions are made up of
parenchymatous cells arranged in a palisade-like form at right angles
to the free surface of the sporangiophores. The vascular strand of
the pedicel forks into two halves just below the peltate head, and
these branches again bifurcate to send a branch to each
sporangium. The four sporangia of each sporangiophore are
attached by a narrow band of tissue to the shield-shaped distal
expansion (fig. 95, A).
In a tangential section of a cone, such as the lower portion of fig.
94 and in fig. 95, B, the sporangiophores present the appearance of
narrow stalks (fig. 95, B, a) in the middle of a cluster of sporangia,
and the latter appear more or less square in outline. The wall of a
sporangium is made of a single layer of cells (fig. 95, B) which
present a characteristic appearance in surface-view (fig. 95, C), the
thin walls being crossed at right angles by small vertical plates. In
the tangential section of the coherent sterile whorls (fig. 95, B, b and
b) the vascular strands are occasionally seen in transverse section
(fig. 95, B, t), as they pass outwards to the several free bracts.
 Fig. 95. Calamostachys Binneyana (Carr.).
A. A sporangiophore and one sporangium. t, vascular bundle. × 45.
B. Tangential section showing portions of two sterile discs, b, b; a
sporangiophore, a, with its four sporangia, in two of which are
seen the spores; t, vascular bundle. × 35.
C. Surface-view of cells of a sporangium wall. × 130.
D. Spores and remains of mother-cells. × 130.
(After Williamson and Scott.)
The spores in Calamostachys Binneyana are all of the same size,
and no macrospores have ever been seen. In well preserved
specimens tetrads of spores may be seen, still enclosed by the wall
of the spore-mother-cell (fig. 95, A and D); and the torn remnants of
the mother-cell sometimes simulate in appearance the elaters of an
Equisetum spore. In surface-view a spore often shows clearly the
three-rayed marking, which is a characteristic feature of daughter-
cells formed in a tetrad from a mother-cell. The spores of a tetrad are
in some cases of unequal size, some having developed more
vigorously than others. This unequal growth and nourishment of
spores is clearly shown in fig. 96, which represents a sporangium of
a heterosporous Calamitean strobilus, C. Casheana. Williamson and
Scott[709] have described striking examples of spores in different
stages of abortion, and these authors draw attention to the