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Earth Materials Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology 2nd
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Description
This concise, accessible, market-leading textbook brings together the wide-
ranging fundamentals students need to understand rocks and minerals, and
shows them how they relate to the broader Earth, materials and environmental
sciences. Designed specifically for one-semester courses, it is beautifully
illustrated to explain the key concepts in mineralogy and petrology. This edition
has been fully updated based on classroom experience, and new features include
a completely new chapter providing an elementary introduction to
thermodynamics, kinetics, radioactive decay and absolute dating; new mineral
descriptions and many new stunning color photographs; and a new section on
hydraulic fracturing and discussion of some of its most serious potential
environmental consequences. The book uses stunning photos of mineral
specimens and rock thin sections to help students build a core understanding. It
also creates a highly effective learning experience through close integration of
clear illustrations with engaging text, and helps students to easily visualize crystal
structures through the CrystalViewer's 3D software, available online.

About the Author

Cornelis ('Kase') Klein is Emeritus Professor in the Department of Earth and
Planetary Sciences at the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. He received his
BSc and MSc in geology from McGill University, Canada, and his PhD from Harvard
University, Massachusetts, also in geology. He has been a member of the geology
faculty at Harvard University, Indiana University, Bloomington, and the University
of New Mexico, and has taught courses in mineralogy at all these universities. His
published books include Manual of Mineralogy (19th-21st editions), Manual of
Mineral Science (22nd-23rd editions) and Minerals and Rocks: Exercises in Crystal
and Mineral Chemistry, Crystallography, X-Ray Powder Diffraction, Mineral and
Rock Identification, and Ore Mineralogy, 3rd edition (2007). He has received two
awards for excellence in teaching from the University of New Mexico.

Anthony R. Philpotts is Emeritus Professor of Geology and Geophysics at the

University of Connecticut, a Visiting Fellow in the Department of Geology and
Geophysics at Yale University, Connecticut and Adjunct Professor in the
Department of Geosciences at the University of Massachusetts. He received his
BSc and MSc in geology from McGill University, Canada, and his PhD from the
University of Cambridge. He has taught igneous and metamorphic petrology
courses at McGill University and the University of Connecticut for more than forty
years. His published books include Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology, 2nd edition (Cambridge, 2009) and Petrography of Igneous and
Metamorphic Rocks (1989, 2003).

Product details
 Publisher : Cambridge University Press; 2nd edition (December 24, 2016)
 Language : English
 Paperback : 616 pages
 ISBN-10 : 1316608859
 ISBN-13 : 978-1316608852
 Item Weight : 3.81 pounds
 Dimensions : 8.5 x 1.25 x 11 inches
 Best Sellers Rank: #479,674 in Books
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 Fig. 278.—Well-developed tuberculosis of the
mediastinal lymphatic glands. PG, Left lung; PD,
right lung; Œ, œsophagus; A, posterior aorta; T,
tuberculous lymphatic glands.

If, as often happens, the glands of the posterior mediastinum are

affected and greatly enlarged, they may involve the œsophagus and
the œsophageal nerves, interfere with deglutition and rumination,
and thus produce marked disturbance. The animals only swallow
with difficulty, and later rumination becomes impossible, the
antiperistaltic movement not being powerful enough to overcome the
resistance. Soon after eating, the patients exhibit tympanites,
certainly only to a moderate extent, but the swelling is long in
disappearing. This tympanites is due to the difficulty in eructation
and to the impossibility of rumination. The contents of the rumen
pass slowly towards the intestine until the onset of a fresh attack.
 On account of digestive difficulties, the animals rapidly lose flesh,
just as though they were suffering from extensive visceral lesions.

TUBERCULOSIS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT.

Tuberculosis of the digestive tract is rarer than tuberculosis of the

lungs or lymphatic glands, and occurs in two well-differentiated
clinical forms, that is to say, tuberculosis of the buccal and
pharyngeal membrane and tuberculosis of the intestines.
Tuberculosis of the liver, which is less easily recognised, is indicated
by signs of dyspepsia.
Bucco-Pharyngeal Tuberculosis.—This may be primary or
secondary, and occurs in the form of local or general glossitis or
superficial ulcerative stomatitis.
In the former case the glossitis may be regarded as due to
actinomycosis; in the latter it can only be mistaken for simple
ulcerative stomatitis.
It is accompanied by difficulty in mastication, and still more,
where the pharynx is invaded, in deglutition; abundant frothy
salivation in feeding; sometimes by true spasm of the pharynx and
rejection of masticated balls of food.
Locally the buccal mucous membrane (cheeks, tongue, pillars of
the fauces, etc.) exhibit ulcerations, with festooned borders, in size
something between a florin and a five-shilling piece, covered with a
greyish-yellow, earthy-coloured exudation adhering firmly to the
subjacent parts. The margin of the ulceration is but slightly
indurated, and the tongue preserves its mobility, except in cases of
general deep-seated glossitis.
The condition may continue for weeks and months without
improvement.
Intestinal Tuberculosis.—Tuberculous enteritis is always
accompanied by tuberculosis of the mesenteric glands and of the
sublumbar lymphatic chain. It is indicated at first by chronic
tympanites and peritonism, unaccompanied, however, by atony of
the rumen; at a later period by intermittent diarrhœa, which attains
a maximum and is followed by constipation. Finally, when there exist
numerous intestinal ulcers, the diarrhœa is profuse and intractable,
the animals rapidly grow exhausted, and the disease spreads to other
organs with startling rapidity.
The food is ill-digested and the fæces have a repulsive odour, as
has also the gas which escapes from the rumen when it is punctured.

TUBERCULOSIS OF THE GENITAL ORGANS.

In males, tuberculosis may attack the testicle and neighbouring

organs and tissues; in females, the ovary, uterus, vagina, or udder.
Tuberculosis of the testicle is rare. Moussu appears only to have
seen one case, namely, in the boar. The disease produces specific
vaginitis and specific orchitis, the serous surfaces of the vaginal tunic
becoming adherent, and tubercles forming in the depths of the
testicle, whilst in time the testicle becomes the seat of fungoid
growths.
Tuberculosis of neighbouring glands has only been observed in the
case of the prostate. Clinically it is distinguished by symptoms which
suggest difficulty in urination, and comprise frequent straining,
efforts to micturate, dysuria, etc. Examination by the rectum reveals
changes in the prostate, but affords no exact information as to their
nature.
Tuberculosis of the genital tract in the female is usually a delayed
complication of a preceding visceral tuberculosis, though it may
occur as a primary disease, in which case the lesions are localised
about the vulva or the vagina. Tuberculosis of the ovaries, Fallopian
tubes, and uterus is much more common than that of the two organs
just mentioned. It seems certain that the disease may be transmitted
directly from the male to the female by copulation, in cases where the
male animal has a lesion on the penis.
Tuberculosis of the vulva is rarer, and is indicated by swelling,
sclerotic changes, and the presence of tuberculous nodules, varying
in size between a lentil and a hazel-nut; after ulceration of these
growths, a thick yellowish pus containing the specific bacilli is
discharged.
 Tuberculosis of the vagina is also indicated by hardening of the
walls, sclerous infiltration, and the presence of deep-seated
tuberculous nodules, which may or may not become ulcerated. It
may follow uterine tuberculosis, the discharge from the uterus
continually soiling and at length infecting the floor of the vagina. In
such cases the lower wall of the vagina is thickened and infiltrated to
a greater extent than the roof, and is sometimes intersected by
transverse ulcerated suppurating folds. Bacteriological examination
reveals the presence of bacilli.
Tuberculous invasion of the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, and uterus is
externally indicated by signs of chronic metritis accompanied by a
purulent discharge, which may or may not be fœtid, but always
possesses special characteristics. The neck of the uterus is half open,
and the discharge is continuous. The pus is of a greyish-yellow
colour, ill-formed, grumous, or more frequently granular, and it
sometimes accumulates in large quantities in the depressions of the
vagina. Examination by means of the speculum is of great value in
diagnosing such lesions. On examining the parts through the rectum,
the walls of the uterus are found to be greatly thickened, sometimes
indurated, bosselated or totally deformed.
The Fallopian tubes and ovaries may have attained enormous
dimensions, and the normal anatomy of the parts is greatly altered
both as regards dimensions and relations.
The almost inevitable consequences of tuberculosis of the genital
organs are hypertrophy, induration or caseation of the subsacral and
sublumbar lymphatic glands.
Udder.—Tuberculosis of the udder may be primary or secondary.
When the infection is slight the results may escape notice for weeks
or even months, the patients appearing to suffer only from subacute
or chronic mammitis, while at the same time the milk preserves its
ordinary appearance. In time, however, the mammitis becomes
aggravated, the infected regions are enlarged, and the secretion
becomes grumous, serous, curdled, and of a yellowish colour,
afterwards ceasing altogether. In some cases one quarter only is
attacked, though total mammitis is more common.
These forms of tuberculous mammitis tend towards hypertrophy,
local hardening, and the formation of deeply-seated cavities
containing pus, the gland itself sometimes acquiring enormous
dimen
sions.
The
retro-
mam
mary
lymph
atic
glands
are
invade
d even
before
the
gland
itself
is
seriou
sly
attack
ed.
For a
longer Fig. 279.—Hypertrophic tuberculous mammitis.
or
shorte
r time the udder may externally appear healthy, although on manual
examination these lymphatic glands are found to be indurated and
bosselated.

TUBERCULOSIS OF BONES AND ARTICULATIONS.

Tuberculosis of the bones is seen only in young animals, and

chiefly affects the vertebral column and the bones of the head. The
limb bones are attacked as a rule only in the vicinity of diseased
articulations.
The vertebral lesions corresponding to those in Pott’s disease in
human beings are very difficult to discover before they produce
complications, such as depression of the spine, compression of the
spinal cord, paralysis, etc.
Lesions of the bones of the head or of the limbs are characterised
by local deformity, destruction of osseous tissue, invasion of
surrounding tissues, and by local symptoms peculiar to tumours
originating in the periosteum.

Fig. 280.—Perforating tuberculosis of the right frontal region.

Tuberculosis of joints produces special symptoms resembling

those seen in the “white swellings” of man, that is, diffuse,
œdematous, warm and moderately painful swelling of adjacent parts,
accompanied by lameness of varying intensity. According to
Guillebeau and Hess, many conditions described as strain or
rheumatic arthritis are really tuberculous in character. They may
remain stationary for a long time, or even recede under treatment. As
a rule, however, these forms of tuberculous arthritis assume the
fungoid type and prove incurable.
 They are clinically distinguished from ordinary arthritis by the
enormous swelling, which involves the extremities and a portion of
the shafts of the bones. The adjacent muscles are chronically
contracted, and the diseased joint is held semi-flexed. In course of
time, if the patients are kept alive, abscess formation may occur, but
this is seldom seen in practice, because the animals are slaughtered.

TUBERCULOSIS OF THE BRAIN.

Tuberculosis of the nervous centres, localised either in the

meninges or the brain proper, may attack both young and old
animals, not as a primary condition, but as a sequel to visceral
disease, which, however, may have produced no outward indications,
a fact that renders the diagnosis extremely difficult.
When localised in the meninges, the disease produces the
symptoms of ordinary meningitis, general weakness, vacillating,
staggering or irregular gait, disturbed vision, variation in the size of
the pupils, difficulty in swallowing, muscular twitching, cramp of the
muscles along the upper margin of the neck, etc.
Tuberculosis of the brain proper seems more commonly to affect
the anterior convolutions and the depths of the frontal and temporal
lobes. It produces some of the symptoms of meningitis or symptoms
suggestive of the existence of cœnurosis, as, for instance, walking in
circles, lameness of central origin, without appreciable lesions of the
limbs, prolonged kneeling, disturbed vision, generalised attacks of
epilepsy or of Jackson’s epilepsy, spasm of the pharynx, general signs
of compression of the brain or cerebral dropsy, dulness, coma, etc.
Fig. 281.—Tuberculosis of the brain. 1, 2 and 3, Tuberculous centres.

In the absence of pulmonary lesions it is extremely difficult to

arrive at an exact diagnosis except after injection of tuberculin, for
the above symptoms very closely resemble those of cœnurosis, brain
tumours, and even tumours in the frontal sinuses.

TUBERCULOSIS OF THE SKIN.

Cutaneous tuberculosis is one of the rarest forms of the disease. It

is distinguished by the formation beneath the skin of little hardened
swellings varying in size between a hazel-nut and a walnut, and
containing caseous or calcareous material. These swellings have no
connection with the superficial lymphatic glands. They may be found
grouped together within certain areas, or distributed irregularly over
the whole body, particularly towards the base of the tail.
The condition may be mistaken for generalised sarcomatosis, from
which, however, it is readily distinguished by microscopic
examination of the contents of the swellings.
 ACUTE TUBERCULOSIS—TUBERCULOUS SEPTICÆMIA.

However rapidly the above-described forms of tuberculosis may

develop, the disease as a whole is always of long duration, and
continues for months, or even for years. The development of these
chronic forms may, however, be interrupted by various influences
which cause it to assume an acute character, either for a time or
continuously. Each intermittent attack aggravates the condition of
the patient, but gradually subsides, with or without treatment.
Continued attacks, however, rapidly lead to death; they may be seen
in animals previously unsuspected of any grave disorder.

Fig. 282.—General appearance of a case of cutaneous tuberculosis.

The dominant symptom is continuous fever, accompanied by signs

of disturbance of any or all of the chief bodily functions.
The temperature rises to 102° Fahr. (39° C.), or even to 104° or
105° Fahr. (40° or 41° C.), with morning and evening remissions of
some hours. The respiration is accelerated. On auscultation it is often
difficult to discover signs of chronic tuberculosis. The lung is the site
of repeated congestive changes, resembling those of broncho-
pneumonia or contagious pleuro-pneumonia. The pleura and walls of
the chest become extremely sensitive, as in the last-named disease,
and the abdomen may exhibit signs of peritonism, as at the
beginning of acute peritonitis. The pulse rises to 80, 90, 100, or even
120 beats per minute, and the urine contains albumen in notable
quantities. This condition continues for weeks without apparent
diminution, the patients refuse food, lose flesh with startling
rapidity, and finally die of exhaustion.
It would be impossible from these peculiarities alone to identify
the nature of the disease which causes such progressive organic
wasting, as the continued presence of fever prevents the use of
tuberculin, but fortunately the preliminary changes in the lungs,
lymphatic glands, genital tract, etc., are sufficient in most cases for
the purposes of diagnosis.
Sheep, Goats, and Pigs.—In the other domestic animals
tuberculosis is only of secondary importance to the practitioner.
It has been seen in the sheep and goat, but almost exclusively as
the result of experiment. It must be understood, however, that
prolonged cohabitation with diseased oxen or lengthened sojourn in
contaminated places may easily produce tuberculosis in the goat,
though the sheep continues to resist for a somewhat longer period.
Clinically such tuberculosis presents little interest on account of its
rarity.
The same remark applies to pigs; nevertheless, an entire herd may
become infected, and it may be necessary, after making a preliminary
post-mortem, to examine the other patients. All forms of the disease
occur in pigs, the lung being most frequently affected, but
tuberculosis also attacks the intestine, udder, lymphatic glands,
joints, etc. The pig, in fact, is extremely susceptible to this disease,
whilst the sheep is only subject to it in a comparatively trifling
degree.
Diagnosis. The clinical manifestations of tuberculosis are so
numerous and so various that it is often an extremely hard task to
form a diagnosis. Without doubt detection is relatively easy in well-
marked forms, such as tuberculosis of the lungs, lymphatic glands
and genital apparatus, but even in such cases the symptoms must be
reasonably well-marked.
 At first, unless the lesions produce externally visible signs,
diagnosis is impossible, and in the case of hidden forms, such as
tuberculosis of the serous membranes, mediastinum, intestine,
testicle, etc., all that can be done is to take into account the
probabilities.
Clinical diagnosis is therefore possible, but only in exceptional
cases can it be absolutely relied upon. Fortunately, methods of
investigation increase and become more exact every day, so that the
points which clinical examination is incapable of deciding are often
cleared up in the laboratory. Bacteriological examination of morbid
products, such as the nasal discharge, the products of suppuration,
the milk or the diseased tissues, is a valuable means in many cases of
determining the presence of the organism which causes the
disturbance. In all cases, in fact, the tubercle bacillus should be
sought for in order to confirm the diagnosis.
If this method cannot
be employed, as for
example in tuberculosis
of the liver, brain, etc.,
and the diagnosis is
uncertain, the use of
tuberculin constitutes the
surest and easiest method
of coming to a conclusion.
Nocard’s researches have
shown the precautions to
be observed. A minimum
febrile reaction of 2°
Fahr. (1·5° C.) is,
however, necessary
before the existence of
the disease can be
affirmed.
Lastly, there remains a
less rapid method, which
aims at transmitting the
disease to specially
susceptible animals by
Fig. 283.—Tuberculosis of the posterior inoculating with
mediastinal lymphatic glands in a sheep suspected materials, such
which had been kept for two years in as the nasal discharge,
company with some tuberculous cows. pus, milk or pulp of
PG, Left lung; PD, right lung; T, trachea; internal organs. This
La, anterior lobes; L, middle cardiac method is most valuable
lobes; Lp, posterior lobes; Gm, when bacteriological
tuberculous and enlarged posterior examination has failed
mediastinal lymphatic glands. and tuberculin has
produced only doubtful
results. The guinea-pig is
the subject usually chosen, but some weeks, or even months, may
elapse before definite results are obtained.
In those forms where ordinary methods of investigation prove
sufficient it is well to bear in mind the symptoms which differentiate
this disease from others closely resembling it.
Pulmonary tuberculosis, for example, should always be suspected
whenever there exists frequent coughing, nasal discharge and poor
bodily condition; if in addition to this respiration is found on
auscultation to be rough, inspiration interrupted or rasping,
expiration prolonged or blowing and the vesicular murmur non-
existent, suspicion becomes almost a certainty. The diagnosis is even
more assured if the respiration is of a blowing character at certain
points, accompanied by snoring and sibilant râles and gurgling or
cavernous souffles.
The distinction between pulmonary tuberculosis and chronic
bronchitis or simple pulmonary emphysema is based on the
increased resonance revealed by percussion in the latter case; the
different character of expiration; the existence of a double breathing
movement; the external appearance of the animal; the absence of
bacilli from the nasal discharge, and the failure to react to tuberculin.
The condition cannot be mistaken for verminous broncho-
pneumonia if the information furnished by auscultation and the
results of microscopical examination of the discharge are taken into
account, the eggs or embryos of strongyles being extremely easy to
detect.
Tuberculosis of the pleura may be mistaken for peripneumonia if
the observer trusts to percussion alone, but the auscultation sounds
are then different, and an injection of tuberculin will remove any
doubt.
Tuberculosis of the peritoneum is often suggested by the
indications afforded by careful palpation (thickening of the walls of
the abdomen, rigidity and sensitiveness), and is distinguished from
ordinary acute peritonitis by the difference in the appearance of the
animals and the absence of much fluid. Chronic exudative peritonitis
and ascites also exhibit sufficiently well-marked characteristics to
enable them to be differentiated from tuberculosis of the
peritoneum, but this is certainly not true of adhesive peritonitis, and
in cases of the latter kind tuberculin is the only means of confirming
the diagnosis.
External tuberculosis of the retro-pharyngeal and cervical
lymphatic glands resembles, at a first glance, simple inflammation of
lymphatic glands, but in the last-mentioned disease the lesions are
symmetrical and the glands still retain a certain amount of elasticity,
whilst in tuberculosis they are bosselated, hard, and sometimes
fluctuating.
Tuberculosis of the mediastinum is suggested by difficulty in
swallowing, especially if tympanites follows soon after eating,
eructation is absent, and rumination is arrested.
A careful study of the development of the ulcerations will also in
most instances make clear the difference between tuberculous
stomatitis and simple stomatitis or stomatitis due to actinomycosis.
Intestinal tuberculosis and tuberculous enteritis are sufficiently
characterised by persistent intractable diarrhœa accompanied by
tympanites, by the fœtid character of the fæces, and by moderate but
continued fever. Chronic diarrhœa, which alone presents some
analogy with this condition, is never accompanied by permanent
tympanites.
Tuberculosis of the genital organs in male animals is always liable
to be mistaken for simple orchitis and the development of tumours in
the testicle; an injection of tuberculin will, however, indicate the
nature of the lesion.
When the symptoms of genital disease or chronic mammitis in
female animals suggest that the disease is of a specific character, the
diagnosis can frequently be confirmed by a microscopical
examination of the pus or milk.
Finally, should the practitioner hesitate as to the nature of the
lesions which are the cause of arthritis, deformity of bones, cerebral
symptoms, etc., tuberculin again will in most cases settle the
question.
The prognosis in cases of tuberculosis is extremely
unfavourable, whatever the form of the disease or its manifestations.
Clinically the disease should be regarded as incurable in the strict
sense of the word, however limited may be the lesions. The affected
animals are not all doomed to immediate death: some may be kept
alive, and may even serve an economic purpose without necessarily
endangering others; it is sometimes possible to fatten them, though
the risks probably far outweigh the advantages, but one can never
rely on recovery in any particular case.
The gravity of this disease is the greater inasmuch as it assumes so
many forms, any one of which may result in the infection of other
animals.
All those forms of the disease, such as tuberculosis of the
respiratory, digestive and genital tracts, in which virulent material
containing bacilli is discharged realise these conditions. The patient
becomes a source of infection to others of its kind, a fact which more
than anything else renders the disease so dangerous to the farmer
and breeder.
Only in cases where the lesions are closed (as in tuberculosis of the
lymphatic glands, serous membranes, joints, etc.) can the sufferers
be regarded as innocuous, and—as these lesions are exceptional or at
least, as animals suffering from them are very frequently afflicted
with open lesions from which bacilli are continually being discharged
—every tuberculous animal must be regarded from a clinical
standpoint as a constant danger to its neighbours.
This, however, must not be understood to mean that there are not
different degrees of danger. It is quite certain that a patient with
pulmonary caverns which are constantly throwing off enormous
quantities of material full of bacilli is much more dangerous than
another suffering only from slight bronchial or tracheal lesions,
though the danger in the latter case is none the less always present.
 Treatment. There is no really curative treatment of tuberculosis.
It must not be thought, however, that we are completely helpless
and that the present condition of affairs must be allowed to continue
indefinitely. Nocard and Leclainche have minutely laid down the
lines to be followed as regards prophylaxis, though unfortunately the
measures recommended cannot always be carried out.
Tuberculin having been proved an exact means of detecting
tuberculous lesions in animals even where none were suspected, it is
desirable, firstly, to test all the animals in a given establishment with
tuberculin; and, secondly, to separate into classes (1) all animals
which have reacted, and (2) those which have resisted.
The stables, etc., should then be completely disinfected by
sweeping, washing first with hot water, then with strong antiseptic
solutions, brushing over the walls with quick-lime solution and
fumigating with sulphurous acid or formic aldehyde. The healthy
animals should then be placed in one shed and the diseased animals
in another. In order to render this system of isolation really
efficacious the isolated animals and the healthy animals should have
nothing in common, and the persons tending the two classes of
animals, the buckets and other utensils, the watering places, etc.,
should be kept rigorously apart.
The animals known to be tuberculous should as rapidly as possible
be prepared for slaughter, and if pregnant cows are included in the
number the calves should be removed to the healthy stable
immediately after birth and brought up either on boiled milk or by a
healthy mother, experience having shown that congenital
tuberculosis is of rare occurrence.
After the tuberculous animals have left the shed, this should again
be thoroughly disinfected, in order to make it fit for the reception of
healthy subjects.
Unfortunately such precautions can only be observed in model
establishments. They necessitate expenses and immediate sacrifices
of a very serious character, and breeders too often view only the
sacrifice without regard to the after benefits. For this reason the
above system has only been practised in certain of the best known
and best managed farms.
 To ensure the full benefit of these precautions, and to prevent a
fresh introduction of tuberculosis into the herd, every new animal
introduced should be subjected to the tuberculin test. Unless this
precaution is taken, there is always a risk of introducing a
tuberculous subject, thus nullifying all the precautions previously
taken.
The problem is therefore still very complex, and the system can
only give good results when rigorously observed and followed out.
As, however, in spite of all precautions, animals regarded as
healthy are always, under normal conditions of existence, more or
less exposed to accidental infection, it is desirable to subject the
entire herd to the tuberculin test annually. This would cause the
immediate detection of any animals with latent infection, so that
they could be removed from the herd.
These wise precautions might, if understood and observed,
eliminate the disease from the country, but they depend on
individual initiative, and have not as yet been grasped by the mass of
small breeders, farmers, etc. This class only see the difficulties in the
way of realising the idea, without appreciating the constant benefit
which they would derive from it.
 SWINE FEVER—VERRUCOUS ENDOCARDITIS
AND PNEUMONIA OF THE PIG.
Although it is not contemplated in this work to deal with those
disorders which, on account of their highly contagious or infectious
character, can only be dealt with by legislative action and by
processes of “stamping-out,” it may be permissible to make certain
exceptions. While we have made no reference to contagious pleuro-
pneumonia of cattle, foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, anthrax
and black-quarter we have devoted some space to Texas fever and
tuberculosis, and give herewith a summary of the present state of
knowledge regarding swine fever or hog cholera and a hæmorrhagic
septicæmia of cattle known under various names in different
countries and of very wide distribution.

SWINE FEVER.[9]

9. Report of the Departmental Committee re Swine Fever. (Annual Report of

Board of Agriculture, 1896.)
Swine fever may assume two distinct forms, viz., the acute and
fatal and the non-acute or slowly progressive.
Symptoms. In the acute form all those symptoms which are
indicative of a severe febrile affection are present. The animals are
disinclined to feed; they present evidence of great prostration and lie
about their dwellings in a listless manner sheltering themselves from
cold; their skins are hot, their eyes partially closed, and they are
obviously suffering from some severe constitutional disturbance.
Within a very few hours after these premonitory symptoms have set
in the pigs become rapidly worse; they may or may not have a deep-
red blush on the skin, which is more particularly noticeable on those
parts of the body where there is an absence of hair, such as the inside
of the thighs, the point of the axilla, and over the abdomen. Choleraic
evacuations, having a most offensive odour, succeeding upon
constipation, follow later on, and the animals die perhaps as early as
the third or fourth day after the symptoms have first been observed.
In some instances the disease proceeds with great rapidity through
a herd, the symptoms being of a most aggravated and pronounced
character, and the outbreak attended with great fatality.
Generally speaking, the above description depicts the symptoms of
swine fever in the acute form, more especially when it breaks out in a
herd of young pigs.
In the non-acute form the disease progresses slowly, the clinical
evidence is extremely obscure, the reddening of the skin, formerly
regarded as being invariably present in swine fever, is absent, and
beyond the fact that the animal is unthrifty, develops slowly, and
perhaps has a constantly relaxed condition of the bowels, it may be
asserted that there are no symptoms which could be regarded as
absolutely indicative of swine fever, and nothing short of a post-
mortem examination will enable even an expert to satisfy himself
that the animal was affected with the disease.
As a general rule swine fever assumes this non-acute and slowly
progressive form in pigs which have arrived at an age when their
powers of resistance to disease are materially increased, i.e., in
animals of eight or more months old; on post-mortem examination
they are found to have been extensively diseased, more particularly
in the large intestine, a portion of the digestive apparatus which does
not appear to perform any very important function in connection
with the nutrition of the animal, and so long as the stomach and
small intestines remain healthy, pigs with a considerable amount of
disease in the large intestine may still keep up their condition for a
considerable time.
Etiology. As regards the etiology of the form of swine fever
prevalent in England no question now exists. It has been proved to
demonstration by the bacteriological inquiry conducted by Professor
McFadyean that it is due to a special pathogenic organism, a bacillus,
which, after cultivation in artificial media, will produce in the healthy
pig fed with the pure cultures the typical ulcerations which are found
in the intestines of pigs affected with swine fever contracted in the
ordinary way.
 The observations made by the veterinary officers of the Board of
Agriculture caused them to doubt whether there was any disease of
the lungs of pigs which, in the absence of lesions in the intestinal
tract, could be accepted as evidence of swine fever.
The bacillus which produced swine fever when introduced in the
healthy pig did not induce any special disease of the lungs.
Pathology and morbid anatomy. Swine fever, like typhoid
fever in man, is essentially a disease of the digestive system, its chief
characteristic being certain morbid changes of a well-marked nature
which are found upon the surface of the mucous membrane in some
part of the alimentary canal.
The changes referred to consist of what have been commonly
described as the formation of a series of ulcers, single or confluent,
distributed upon some part of the intestinal tract, varying in size and
shape, of a yellowish-grey to black colour, and assuming as a rule a
circular form. In some instances the lesions consist of diphtheritic
exudations with necrosis of the lining membrane of the bowels.
These ulcers or necrotic patches may be found upon the tongue,
tonsils, epiglottis, stomach, and small intestines, but they are more
constant in the large intestines, especially the cæcum and colon. The
lesions may involve the whole thickness of the mucous membrane,
but seldom penetrate the other coats of the intestine; in fact,
perforation of the peritoneal covering of the bowel is very rare in
even prolonged cases of swine fever.
In cases where swine fever assumes the more acute form and death
supervenes rapidly, it is usual to find that the small intestines are
largely involved.
In the non-acute or slowly progressing form the lesions are more
abundant in the large intestines, and in some instances the walls of
the intestines become so thick as a result of infiltration into their
structure and the excessively thick deposits upon the lining
membrane, that it becomes a matter of surprise that the passage of
the ingesta has been possible and that the animal has lived so long.
Next to the intestinal lesions the congested condition of the
lymphatic glands, especially those of the mesentery, may be
considered as most prominent among the pathological changes
which occur in swine fever. Occasionally centres of necrosis are
observed in the liver, and some writers refer to changes in or upon
the spleen and kidneys.
The only lesions which can be characterised as absolutely typical of
swine fever are those present in the bowels, the absence of which will
justify any observer in declining to accept the case as one of swine
fever without some further evidence or inquiry. It must, however, be
distinctly understood that in the case of very young pigs which have
died shortly after infection, there is often an entire absence of the
lesions described, the only changes present being inflammation of
the stomach or some part of the intestines.
Further, there are instances where older pigs have been
slaughtered in the early stage of the disease in which no definite
lesions have been found, and in such cases inquiry into the condition
of the rest of the herd becomes necessary.
One most important feature in connection with the morbid
anatomy of swine fever is the disposition which many animals have
to recover from the disease; evidence of the reparatory process
having often been detected in the intestines after they had been
carefully washed.
Dr. Klein also maintained that many pigs took the disease in the
mild form, and recovered without presenting any of the marked
symptoms of swine fever.
It was found that, whether infected in the ordinary way or by direct
inoculation, in some pigs killed only a few days after being infected
the ulcers were occasionally seen gradually detaching from the
surface of the intestines, and cicatrisation had already commenced.

VERRUCOUS ENDOCARDITIS OF THE PIG.

In the report of the Board of Agriculture for 1894 reference was

made to the numerous instances in which the heart of the pig had
been found affected with verrucous endocarditis.
This form of disease of the heart was known to veterinarians in
Great Britain as far back as the year 1847. For reasons given in that
report it became obvious that this diseased condition of the valves of
the heart was not produced by swine fever. The question arose