Effective Technology Integration in Secondary Education Georgia Southern University FRER 7130 Fall 2011 Debra J.

. Scott Instructor - Dr. Sabrina Ross

Introduction Though technology use in education is increasing, integration of technology for instructional use seems to be occurring at a relatively slow pace in the secondary education classroom. Is it plausible that resistance to the acquisition of technology may be due to the lack of clearly defined implementation plans that provide sufficient professional development for the classroom teacher? Armed with research data, a well-defined plan, and support from instructional specialists, administrators would meet with much less resistance from the classroom teacher. The objective of this review is to consider research studies whose results have practical implications for the integration of diverse types of technology in the secondary classroom setting. The effective integration of technology into instruction should be based on curriculum requirements, students learning preferences, and available technologies (Harris & Hofer, 2011). Due to time constraints, the classroom teacher should not be additionally burdened with the responsibility of evaluating the effectiveness of new software & hardware, technology instruction, or alignment of software objectives to national and local performance standards. The goal should be to introduce technology options but at the same time make the integration of technology less about the technology and more about creative options for the communication of subject matter concepts. Some educators have a legitimate concern that the need for instruction on how to use a new technology will distract from instruction of the subject matter content. Consequently, it is important that technology implementation focus on the unique options provided by a particular

multimedia platform to creatively convey ideas, with the technology clearly in a secondary role (Harris & Hofer, 2011). In our zeal for technology, we must be careful not to misrepresent its contribution to the learning process. How technology can be used effectively to reinforce teaching and learning in K-12 classrooms is a research question that many have attempted to address. This review summarizes several research articles that addressed 2 major issues impacting the implementation of technology as an instructional tool in the secondary classroom: evaluating the effectiveness of new software & hardware and alignment of software objectives to education performance standards. Due to the rapid changes in technology, the search for research articles was limited to articles published within the past 5 years. The primary objective was to review research that studied the use of software applications designed to reinforce conceptual understanding in secondary math & reading students, 2 core curriculum subjects. Determining whether or not the goals and objectives of the educational software were met was the primary focus of the majority of the research.

Review of Literature Handheld Technology vs. Computer Based Instruction Researchers tested the following hypothesis: cooperative learning activities that encourage group members to ask each other questions and explain reasoning combined with the use of technology will increase conceptual learning of fractions (Roschelle, et al., 2010). Fractions was the chosen topic because research shows that fractions are a difficult topic for students from 4th to 8th grade to conceptualize because of the multiple types of representations and models presented as problem solving options. The sample included average performing students (based on the CA Academic Performance Index) from 3 elementary schools. Two 4th grade classes were selected from each school and students were randomly assigned to the experimental condition(s). The researchers used a quantitative research design to provide the structure for the study. During the observation period, the experimental group of 4th grade students used a custom designed software package called TechPALS to deliver cooperative learning activities using wireless handheld technology. Daily, the software was used to randomly assign individuals to unique cooperative groups. Each group member was required to independently complete a part or all of a task but only group feedback was provided so ultimately group consensus was required. If one or more of the agreed upon answers was incorrect, the students had to discuss their answers to determine exactly what part was incorrect. A main objective of the software was to encourage the active participation of students in the learning process through questioning and explaining concepts and ideas to each other.

In the control group, students worked at their own pace completing individual learning activities on a desktop computer which delivered computer based instruction (CBI) with immediate feedback. The software presented a lesson with audio/video demonstrations, practice problems to reinforce particular skills, followed by a problem solving section which must be successfully completed in order to proceed to the next learning module. The Data Collection consisted of the analysis of pre-test and post-test scores assessing the student knowledge of fractions as well as the results of systematic observations of student behavior (i.e. calculating, reading a problem aloud, asking a question, explaining thinking aloud, raising a hand) throughout both conditions. Information processing behaviors were observed more frequently in the experimental group. The Researchers concluded that integration of technology and cooperative learning activities impacted conceptual mathematics learning in a more cognitive meaningful way because of the group interaction. In all three school settings, students in the experimental condition had higher post-test gains than in the control condition. Two independent variables were presented in each condition: handheld technology and cooperative learning activities compared to desktop technology and individualized instruction therefore the difference in results cannot clearly be attributed to either the role of the technology or the role of the instructional strategy. Because of the cost, its important to note if the greatest impact on learning comes from the software or the strategy. It would be interesting to see how students would perform with one group completing an assignment as a structured activity receiving feedback from their peers in a cooperative group compared to an alternative group completing the same assignment independently with only the teacher as a resource for feedback, without the use of any technology. In order to include a component of immediate feedback, the

assignment would need to be structured in such a way that it was divided into steps with each step dependent upon verification by the teacher of the successful completion of the previous step. Educational software generally provides feedback to the teacher giving them an opportunity to quickly identify individuals & groups that appear to be having problems understanding particular concepts. It can provide immediate feedback but it cannot assess the students thought process. The group dynamics or social learning may be far more impactful than the impact of any software. Consequently, the greatest value of both types of technology utilized during the research included facilitating the learning process due largely to its ability to provide immediate feedback. Wu & Zhang (2010) explored the effect of using handheld technology on English students vocabulary learning ability as well as the test taking performance of math students. The researchers asked the following question: Can the utilization of mobile devices actually improve students academic achievement? For both the spelling and the math experiments, utilizing a quasi-experimental research design, students were randomly assigned to 2 groups. In the experimental condition students used handheld technology and in the control condition students used paper & pencil. The sample included forty-seven 4th grade English/Spelling students and ninety-seven 5th grade math students. In the experimental spelling condition, students worked in pairs, both with a mobile device. One student called out the spelling word(s) and the other was required to text the correct spelling to their partner. After a while the students switched roles. This was done over a two-day period. In the control condition, students were advised to study the spelling list for homework but no class time was spent on drill or practice. In the experimental math condition, students used

notepad & the calculator on the mobile device to take a test on dividing fractions. The control group used pencil and paper to take the test. The same teacher taught the instructional unit to both the control and experimental group. The data collection consisted of test scores. The test scores were statistically analyzed to determine the mean and standard deviation. The researchers also conducted an online survey to assess the students general attitudes towards using mobile devices in the classroom. The comments referenced by the researchers supported the research that students find using mobile devices very fun and that they made learning easier. The results indicated that the students in the experimental group(s) using the handheld devices had significantly higher test scores. A weakness of the study is that the students using the handheld device to study vocabulary involved a collaborative learning activity which may have contributed to better recall independent of the technology effect. The results would have been more revealing if the control group also worked in pairs, drilling each other on the spelling list using pencil & paper or note cards instead of handheld devices. Though the procedure stated that the classroom teacher taught the same vocabulary words for an equal amount of time to both groups, its not clear exactly what the students in the control condition were doing during the time period that the students in the experimental condition were working cooperatively. Also the amount of time practicing cooperatively was not specified. The qualitative data responses also referenced handheld computers made learning more interactive and collaborative. A great deal of researched has compared the results of individual and cooperative instruction and many support the idea that cooperative learning activities

encourage more in-depth thought processing as students share their thinking with each other. In its current format, the research procedure does not answer the proposed research question. Computer Based Instruction and Education The study performed by Hannafin & Foshay (2008) considered an evaluation of a remediation program with a particular emphasis on the effectiveness of the use of computerbased instruction (CBI) offered to students at risk of failing the Math section of the states graduation competency exam. The case study used both quantitative statistical analysis of current and previous test scores & qualitative analysis of interview transcripts. The CBI program, Plato Learning Systems is based on a mastery approach to learning similar to the program used by the individualized instruction group in the Roschelle, et al., (2010) study. In a similar fashion students worked independently at their own pace through instructional modules only allowed to proceed after achieving 80% mastery on the module exam. Students participated in CBI 4 days a week and 1 day a week worked on study and test taking skills with the classroom teacher. Students were encouraged to get one on one help from the classroom teacher as needed. Parent and community volunteers also assisted students in the CBI lab. Ninety-nine 10th grade students identified as at risk for failing the Math section of the high school competency test were enrolled in the remediation program, the experimental condition. Sophomores whose 8th grade scores were near or below passing were classified as at risk. The data collection consisted of 8th grade Math end of the year competency test scores, 10th grade test scores, and the CBI mastery test scores. An interview with the classroom teacher

revealed his perception that students using CBI had more opportunities to experience success which improved motivation. The researchers concluded that CBI played a critical role in the level of success of the remediation efforts as evidenced by a significantly increased passing rate. The passing rate of the high school improved from 40% to 84%. However, without the use of CBI, the statewide passing rate also increased significantly from 47% to 75%. The remediation program included professional development, standards based lesson planning (aligning the curriculum to the state standards), increased teacher release time for instructional planning, and helping at risk students improve study and organizational skills. With so many factors being changed at the same time, it is difficult to assess the impact CBI made. Isolating each of the variables would more accurately assess the impact of each. Mobile Devices in Education The research question asked by Baird and Henninger (2011): Can iPad technology be effectively used to support the development of reading, writing, and digital literacy, by providing universal access to people with a variety of disabilities resulted in the identification of additional variables impacting the effective use of technology in the classroom. The research design utilized qualitative analysis of questionnaires designed to describe the testers experience using the applications as well as analysis of notes from informal interviews with primary school educators. The experimental sample included 10 interactive ebook applications from the iTune database with a star rating of 3.5 or above and a high probability that it would be used in primary school classrooms. The data collection consisted of usability ratings from the testers. Testers were tasked with rating four principles: perceivability,

operability, understandability, and robustness (POUR). Perceivability relates to the user interface and how it enables perception through multiple senses. Testers were asked how well the voice over tool and options for setting text preferences were designed. Operability measured how easily users could navigate screen options. Consistency of the interaction is more highly rated. For example, does the app require users to do a variety of actions (i.e. swipe up or left to right, single tap, double tap with multiple fingers, etc)? Understandability measured the ease in which the content could be understood. Robustness addressed how easily the app could be adapted or personalized to individual needs. A major goal was to identify areas in which an application limited or disabled the effectiveness of basic Apple iPad features such as the voice over tool. For many educational apps, users must interact with images on the screen. For example, touching the image of a cow may present the word cow visually on the screen and also present the mooing sound of a cow. A variety of issues were discovered. In one case background music interfered with the voice over tool. Failure of the voice over tool to be enabled would particularly be problematic for visually impaired users. Three out of the ten eBooks froze completely whenever the voice over tool was enabled. In many cases the alternative text provided by the designer for interface buttons was not helpful. In most cases this simply means that the programmer had not considered the possibility that a vision impaired user would need to understand the coded text. In several instances there was not a direct correlation between text, sound, and image. Inconsistencies such as these can lead to confusion which ultimately decreases the overall effectiveness of an application. The researchers concluded that the developers of applications need to be required to adhere to the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) to allow greater accessibility for all.

The qualitative data came from informal interviews with teachers. Because of the increase in the use of technology in the classroom for formal instruction, many education professionals want evidence of its impact on learning. Opinions definitely have a role in research but the structure of the interview questions and process should be defined in order to reduce bias. The characteristics of the people testing the performance of various apps on the iPad were not identified. More research is needed that provides in depth insight into the experience of using particular apps from the perspective of members of the intended audience in the natural school setting. It would have added credibility to the results if the basic characteristics of the tester were identified (i.e. average age, sex, grade level). The selection criteria for the apps included in the study was not ideal. Applications used in education must be designed with educational standards as their guidelines. iTunes download rankings and user ratings should not be the basis of qualifying an application as valuable for instruction. The researchers assert that designers have a responsibility to follow WCAG guidelines. The designers responsibility is no more important than the educators responsibility. Are educators observing clearly established guidelines as they make decisions to include various applications in the classroom? Clear educational guidelines would compel the designers to produce what the marketplace is demanding. Educational Game Software: Can learning & playing be one and the same? Market research has revealed that educational computer games are not being adopted by school systems in large percentages despite research that indicates they have a high potential for improving skills mastery in students (Kebritchi, 2010). The purpose of the study was to identify factors creating resistance to the adoption of Dimenxian, an educational computer game

designed to reinforce algebra concepts to middle school students. A purposeful sample strategy was used to recruit 3 teachers with over 7 years of mathematics teaching experience: 2 female/1 male, 28-38 yrs. old, with advanced computer skills. Two of the teachers played computer games regularly and one did not. Each teacher participated in a 2-hour interview sessions during which they reviewed the game website, viewed a demonstration, and finally played the game. A case study research design used qualitative methods (interviews and questionnaires) for data collection. Audio recordings of the interviews were transcribed, color coded, and categorized to reveal any underlying theories. The open-ended questions asked were designed to identify weaknesses and elicit suggestions for overcoming weaknesses. Grounded Theory methodology was ultimately used as the data was analyzed to develop a theory that would explain the factors impacting adoption of the game software. The case study identified several factors creating resistance to the adoption of educational computer games in K-12 education. The results indicated that the following issues were integral to the teachers adoption decisions: compatibility (alignment with standards and the ability for students to transfer concepts learned in the game setting to typical problem solving situations), relative advantage (ability to engage different learning levels, learning styles, as well as appeal to boys & girls), complexity (delivers content which can be customized to diverse learning levels), and trialability (access to a trial version with technical support as well as teacher resources(i.e. worksheets). A primary objective of the teachers was for students to learn while having fun. Alignment between the games learning objectives and state and national standards was emphasized in this study just as it was in the research performed by Hannafin & Foshay (2008) and Wu & Zhang (2010).

Kebritchis (2010) study was based on the teachers perspective, more revealing studies could be based on student perspectives. High quality educational applications should not be developed in a vacuum. Considerations from both students and teachers should be a part of the development process. A better research design may have allowed teachers to rate and consequently rank various educational games. If educators are waiting to find the perfect educational game in order to adopt it, they will be waiting forever. The study identifies adoption criteria but it does not rank the criteria in any particular order to identify a single criterion that creates the greatest amount of resistance to the adoption of computer games. The conceptual framework for the research was the technology adoption model proposed by Rogers Diffusion of Innovation Theory. Rogers considered the following attributes to be most influential as it relates to adoption of an innovative product: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability (Sahin, 2006). The literature review within the article provided substantial support for narrowing the focus to these factors. However, several of the interview questions were somewhat biased in that they used terminology such as compatibility and complexity. Consequently, the interview questions may have focused attention on certain factors that may not have surfaced had the questions been more general. Summary Ideally, the effective integration of technology as an instructional tool should be based on established curriculum requirements, students learning preferences, instructional strategy, as well as creatively utilizing any unique options provided by the particular technology platform. The majority of the research in this review emphasized the necessity of first and foremost

aligning software objectives to performance standards. Selection of the appropriate technology must be based not only on the learning objectives but also determination of the appropriate teaching strategy. CBI instruction typically reinforces acquired concepts in contrast to software designed to facilitate constructivist learning such as that used in the studies by Wu & Zhang (2010) and Roschelle, et al. (2010). Both recognized the critical role of the instructional strategy, cooperative/social learning, in strengthening cognitive connections. Educators need clearly defined guidelines for the selection of the most cost effective software and hardware. The results of Baird & Henninger (2011) and Kebritchi (2010) provided valuable information that can make application designers more aware of educational requirements. The eBook applications research emphasized the importance of consistency of design within and among applications (Baird & Henninger, 2011). Further study is needed of the use of mobile devices in a variety of subject areas to determine what type of activities or subjects particularly lend themselves to the mobile context. It is also important that educators promote the issues related to accessibility. If they dont compromise their standards, the marketplace will be compelled to rise to meet them. Research clearly supports the notion that technology can be effectively used to facilitate instruction. It can reduce the organizational, class coordinating, and assessment burden on the teacher to allow them time to provide more individualized instruction as needed. Having access to software such as TechPALS software can reduce the classroom teachers burden of coordinating effective cooperative learning activities (Roschelle et al., 2010).

Conclusions In a discussion considering the impact of technology on education, it is important that technology does not drive the discussion. Successful communication of specific subject matter concepts must be the driving force. Research involving mobile technology is as new as the technology itself and therefore much more research is needed. The use of education apps on mobile devices such as Apples iPod and iPad has the added benefit of removing the classroom walls. Additional research could explore the question: What is the impact on learning given the additional benefit of students having the opportunity to access an educational app anytime and anyplace? The use of technology in and of itself will not educate students. It is the responsibility of educators to exploit every available tool to get ideas across to students. Technology such as desktop and laptop computers as well as mobile devices such as iPods, iPads, and cell phones provide additional platforms for presenting ideas. Because of the cost of technology, it is important that we keep its relative impact in perspective. Significant costs are related to building renovations required for wireless accessibility. The question is: Is there an urgency to infrastructure redesign or can educators simply more fully exploit the educational benefits already provided by computer labs and mobile laptop carts. More research needs to consider the comparative value of various technologies. Additional research would enable administrators to make purchases that are cost effective and result in the highest return on investment.

References Baird, C., & Henninger, M. (2011). Serious Play, Serious Problems: issues with eBook applications. Cosmopolitan Civil Societies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 3(2), 1-17. Retrieved from http://proxygsugso1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a 9h&AN=63992021&site=ehost-live Hannafin, R. D., & Foshay, W. R. (2008). Computer-Based Instruction's (CBI) Rediscovered Role in K-12: An Evaluation Case Study of One High School's Use of CBI to Improve Pass Rates on High-Stakes Tests. Educational Technology Research and Development, 56(2), 147-160. Retrieved from http://proxygsugso1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e ric&AN=EJ786768&site=ehost-live Harris, J. B., & Hofer, M. J. (2011). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) in Action: A Descriptive Study of Secondary Teachers' Curriculum-Based, TechnologyRelated Instructional Planning. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 43(3), 211-229. Retrieved from EBSCOhost Kebritchi, M. (2010). Factors Affecting Teachers' Adoption of Educational Computer Games: A Case Study. British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(2), 256-270. Retrieved from http://proxygsugso1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e ric&AN=EJ872745&site=ehost-live Roschelle, J., Rafanan, K., Bhanot, R., Estrella, G., Penuel, B., Nussbaum, M., & Claro, S. (2010). Scaffolding group explanation and feedback with handheld technology: impact

on students mathematics learning. Educational Technology Research & Development, 58(4), 399-419. doi:10.1007/s11423-009-9142-9 Sahin, I. (2006). Detailed Review of Rogers Diffusion of Innovations Theory and Educational Technology-Related Studies Based on Rogers Theory. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, ISSN: 1303-6521 volume 5 Issue 2 Article 3 Wu, J., & Zhang, Y. (2010). Examining Potentialities of Handheld Technology in Students' Academic Attainments. Educational Media International, 47(1), 57-67. Retrieved from http://proxygsugso1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e ric&AN=EJ880253&site=ehost-live