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Chapter 6—Performance Management and Appraisal
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. _____ is a series of activities designed to ensure that the organization gets the performance it needs
from its employees.
a. Performance management
b. Performance appraisal
c. Performance planning
d. Performance improvement
ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Easy
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: The Nature of Performance Management
KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge PAGE: 118
2. Which of the following is true of performance appraisal?

a. Performance management is a part of performance appraisal.
b. Performance appraisal is the process of determining how well employees do their jobs
relative to a standard and communicating that information to them.
c. Performance appraisal is the same as performance management.
d. Performance appraisal refers to the entire series of activities designed to ensure that the
organization gets the performance it needs from its employees.
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Easy
3. Which of the following statements is true of organizations that practice the entitlement approach?
a. Employee rewards vary little from person to person and are based on individual
performance differences.
b. Employee rewards vary significantly from person to person and are not much based on
individual performance differences.
c. Employee rewards vary little from person to person and are not much based on individual
d. Employee rewards vary significantly from person to person and are based on individual
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate
4. Which of the following is true of organizations that practice a performance-driven approach?

a. Employee rewards vary significantly from person to person and are not based on
individual performance.
b. Performance appraisal activities are seen as being primarily a “bureaucratic exercise.”
c. Employee rewards vary little from person to person and are not based on individual
performance.
d. Performance evaluations link results to employee compensation and development.
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate
5. Which of the following is trait-based information?

a. Verbal persuasion
b. Dispositions
c. Units produced
d. Customer satisfaction
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Identifying and Measuring Employee Performance
KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension PAGE: 121
6. Which of the following is behavior-based information?

a. Improved quality
b. Effective communication
c. Timeliness of response
d. Cost reduction
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Easy
7. Which of the following is an example of results-based information?

a. Teamwork
b. Initiative
c. Customer satisfaction
d. Sales volume
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Easy
8. Which of the following is true of performance standards?

a. Only numerical performance standards can be established.
b. Performance standards should be established while the work is being performed.
c. Only nonnumerical performance standards can be established.
d. Performance standards should be established before the work is performed.
9. Which of the following is true of the administrative and developmental roles of performance
appraisals?
a. The rater plays the role of a judge in an administrative role and plays the role of a coach in
a developmental role.
b. The rater plays the role of a coach in an administrative role and plays the role of a judge in
a developmental role.
c. The rater plays the role of a coach in both the administrative role and the developmental
role of performance appraisals.
d. The rater plays the role of a judge in both the administrative role and the developmental
role of performance appraisals.
ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Performance Appraisals
10. Which of the following is typically a responsibility of managers in performance appraisals?

a. Reviewing completed appraisals for consistency
b. Tracking timely receipt of appraisals
c. Identifying development areas
d. Designing and maintaining appraisal systems

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge PAGE: 124-125
11. _____ is the most widely used means of rating employees.

a. Outsider rating of employees
b. Self-rating
c. Peer rating
d. Supervisory rating of subordinates
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Who Conducts Appraisals?
12. _____ can help make a manager more responsive toward employees.
a. Rating of supervisors by subordinates
b. Self-rating
c. Peer rating
d. Rating of subordinates by supervisors
13. _____ is especially useful when supervisors do not have the opportunity to observe each employee’s
performance but other work group members do.
a. Outsider rating
b. Self-rating
c. Peer rating
d. Employees rating managers
14. Employees working in isolation or possessing unique skills may be particularly suited to _____.
a. outsider rating
b. self-rating
c. peer rating
d. multisource rating
15. A panel of division managers evaluating a supervisor’s potential for advancement in an organization is
an example of _____.
a. outsider rating
b. self-rating
c. peer rating
d. multisource rating
KEY: Bloom's: Comprehension PAGE: 128–129
16. _____ recognizes that for many jobs, employee performance is multidimensional and crosses
departmental, organizational, and even national boundaries.
a. Outsider rating
b. Self-rating
c. Peer rating
d. 360-degree rating
17. The simplest methods for appraising performance are _____, which require a manager to mark an
employee’s level of performance on a specific form divided into categories of performance.
a. graphic rating scales
b. category scaling methods
c. comparative methods
d. narrative methods
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Tools for Appraising Performance
18. The _____ allows the rater to mark an employee’s performance on a continuum indicating low to high
levels of a particular characteristic.
a. graphic rating scale
b. category scaling method
c. comparative method
d. narrative method
ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate
19. Which of the following belongs to the descriptive category in graphic rating scales?
a. Decision making
b. Employee development
c. Quantity of work
d. Communication effectiveness
20. Which of the following belongs to the behavioral dimensions in graphic rating scales?
a. Attendance
b. Dependability
c. Quantity of work
d. Communication effectiveness
21. The use of _____ can cause rater error because the form might not accurately reflect the relative
importance of certain job characteristics, and some factors might need to be added to the ratings for
one employee, while others might need to be dropped.
a. graphic rating scales
b. category scaling methods
c. comparative methods
d. narrative methods
22. _____ require that managers directly evaluate the performance levels of their employees against one
another, and these evaluations can provide useful information for performance management.
a. Graphic rating scales
b. Category scaling methods
c. Comparative methods
d. Narrative methods
23.The _____ method lists the individuals being rated from highest to lowest based on their performance
levels and relative contributions.
a. ranking
b. critical incident
c. essay
d. forced distribution
24. Which of the following is a comparative method of performance appraisals?

a. Behavioral rating scales
b. Critical incident
c. Essay
d. Forced distribution
25. _____ is a technique for distributing ratings that are generated with any of the other appraisal methods
and comparing the ratings of people in a work group.
b. Forced distribution
c. Essay method
d. Critical incident
26. If employers do not require a(n) _____, performance appraisal ratings often do not match the normal
distribution of a bell-shaped curve.
a. ranking method
b. critical incident
c. forced distribution
d. essay method
27. Which of the following is a narrative method of performance appraisals?

b. Critical incident
c. Ranking
d. Forced distribution
28. In the _____ method, the manager keeps a written record of both highly favorable and unfavorable
actions performed by an employee during the entire rating period.
a. forced distribution
b. ranking
c. essay
d. critical incident
29. The _____ method requires a manager to write a short write-up describing each employee’s
performance during the rating period.
a. forced distribution
b. ranking
c. essay
d. critical incident
30. Which of the following is typically the first stage in implementing a guided self-appraisal system using
MBO?
a. Continuing performance discussions
b. Development of performance standards
c. Setting of objectives
d. Job review and agreement
31. Which of the following is typically the last stage in implementing a guided self-appraisal system using
MBO?
32. Josh, an HR manager at RoxCom LLC, is responsible for implementing a guided self-appraisal system
using management by objectives in his organization. He has reviewed the job description and the key
activities that constitute the employee’s job. Which of the following is typically the next step for Josh?
d. Implementation of the standards
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging
NAT: BUSPROG: Reflective Thinking TOP: Tools for Appraising Performance
KEY: Bloom's: Application PAGE: 134
33. Zara, an HR manager at Fluxin LLC, is responsible for implementing a guided self-appraisal system
using management by objectives in her organization. She has developed specific standards for
performance. Which of the following is typically the next step for Zara?
b. Implementation of the performance standards
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging
34. Luke, an HR manager at Rexi LLC, is responsible for implementing a guided self-appraisal system
using management by objectives in his organization. He has established objectives that are realistically
attainable. Which of the following is typically the next step for Luke?
c. Determining a satisfactory level of performance
ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging
35. The _____ occurs when a rater gives greater weight to the latest events when appraising an
individual’s performance.
a. leniency error
b. recency effect
c. primacy effect
d. central tendency error
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Training Managers and Employees in Performance
Appraisal
36. The _____ occurs when a rater gives greater weight to information received first when appraising an
a. leniency error
b. recency effect
c. primacy effect
Appraisal
37. The _____ occurs when a rater gives all employees an average rating.
a. leniency error
b. recency effect
c. primacy effect
Appraisal
38. The _____ occurs when ratings of all employees fall at the high end of the scale.
a. leniency error
b. recency effect
c. primacy effect
Appraisal
39. The _____ occurs when a manager uses only the lower part of the scale to rate employees.
a. leniency error
b. recency effect
c. primacy effect
d. strictness error
Appraisal
40. The _____ occurs when a rater scores an employee high on all job criteria because of performance in
one area.
a. halo effect
b. horns effect
c. contrast error
d. similar-to-me error
Appraisal
41. The _____ occurs when a low rating on one characteristic leads to an overall low rating.
a. halo effect
b. horns effect
c. contrast error
Appraisal
42. The _____ is the tendency to rate people relative to one another rather than against performance
standards.
a. halo effect
b. horns effect
c. contrast error
Appraisal
43. If the rater has seen only a small specimen of the person’s work, an appraisal may be subject to _____.
a. halo effect
b. horns effect
c. contrast error
d. sampling error
Appraisal
44. Which of the following is true of appraisal interviews?

a. Managers must communicate both praise and constructive criticism.
b. Managers must communicate only praise and not constructive criticism.
c. Managers must communicate only constructive criticism and not praise.
d. Managers must not communicate praise or constructive criticism.
NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Appraisal Feedback
TRUE/FALSE
1. The performance management process starts by identifying the strategic goals an organization needs to
accomplish to remain competitive and profitable.
ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

2. Performance appraisal is the entire series of activities designed to ensure that the organization gets the
performance it needs from its employees.
ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

3. In the performance-driven organizational culture, employee rewards vary little from person to person
and are not much based on individual performance differences.
ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

4. The entitlement approach of organizational culture links performance evaluations to employee

compensation and development.

5. Employee attitude is classified as trait-based information.

6. Menu up-selling by a waitperson is classified as behavior-based information.

7. The number of cars sold by a car salesman is classified as a subjective measure of performance.

8. Both numerical and nonnumerical performance standards can be established.
ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

10. The administrative role of performance appraisals often creates stress for managers doing the
appraisals and the employees being evaluated because the rater is placed in the role of judge.

11. The developmental function of performance appraisals can identify areas in which the employee might
wish to grow.

12. An informal appraisal is used when a system is in place to report managerial impressions and
observations on employee performance and feature a regular time interval.

13. Peer and team ratings are especially useful only when supervisors have the opportunity to observe each
employee’s performance.

14. A disadvantage of the outsider rating approach is that outsiders may not know the important demands
within the work group or organization.

15. The major purpose of 360-degree feedback is to increase uniformity by soliciting like-minded views.
ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging

16. One concern of multisource rating is that those peers who rate poor-performing coworkers tend to
inflate the ratings so that the peers themselves can get higher overall evaluation results in return.

17. Companies must only use multisource feedback primarily as an administrative tool.

18. The category scaling method allows the rater to mark an employee’s performance on a continuum
indicating low to high levels of a particular characteristic.

19. When creating a BARS system, identifying important job dimensions, which are the most important
performance factors in a job description, is done first.

20. With the ranking method, the ratings of employees’ performance are distributed along a bell-shaped
curve.

21. The forced distribution method lists the individuals being rated from highest to lowest based on their
performance levels and relative contributions.

22. In the critical incident method, the manager keeps a written record of both highly favorable and
unfavorable actions performed by an employee during the entire rating period.

23. Development of performance standards is typically the first stage of management by objectives.

24. The recency effect occurs when a rater gives greater weight to information received first when
appraising an individual’s performance.

Appraisal
25. The leniency error occurs when ratings of all employees fall at the high end of the scale.
ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging

Appraisal
26. The contrast error occurs when a rater scores an employee high on all job criteria because of
performance in one area.

Appraisal
27. The halo effect is the tendency to rate people relative to one another rather than against performance
standards.

Appraisal
28. A major concern for managers in performance management is how to emphasize the positive aspects
of the employee’s performance while still discussing ways to make needed improvements.

SHORT ANSWER
1. Define performance management. What should a performance management system do?
ANS:
Performance management is a series of activities designed to ensure that the organization gets the
performance it needs from its employees. At a minimum, a performance management system should
do the following:
• Make clear what the organization expects.

• Provide performance information to employees.
• Identify areas of success and needed development.
• Document performance for personnel records.
PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

KEY: Bloom's: Knowledge PAGE: 118–119
2. Describe the entitlement approach and the performance-driven approach.
ANS:
Some corporate cultures are based on an entitlement approach, meaning that adequate performance and
stability dominate the organization. Employee rewards vary little from person to person and are not
much based on individual performance differences. As a result, performance appraisal activities are
seen as having few ties to performance and being primarily a “bureaucratic exercise.”
At the other end of the spectrum is a performance-driven organizational culture focused on results and
contributions. In this context, performance evaluations link results to employee compensation and
development.

3. What are the common employee performance measures?
ANS:
Performance criteria vary from job to job, but common employee performance measures include the
following:
• Quantity of output
• Quality of output
• Timeliness of output
• Presence/attendance on the job
• Efficiency of work completed
• Effectiveness of work completed

NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Identifying and Measuring Employee
Performance
4. Define performance standards.
ANS:
Performance standards define the expected levels of employee performance. Sometimes they are
labeled benchmarks, goals, or targets—depending on the approach taken. Realistic, measurable, clearly
understood performance standards benefit both organizations and employees.

Performance
6. Discuss the administrative and developmental uses of performance appraisals.
ANS:
Organizations generally use performance appraisals in two potentially conflicting ways. One use is to
provide a measure of performance for consideration in making pay or other administrative decisions
about employees. This administrative role often creates stress for managers doing the appraisals and
the employees being evaluated because the rater is placed in the role of judge. The other use focuses
on the development of individuals. In this role, the manager acts more as a counselor and coach than as
a judge. The developmental performance appraisal emphasizes current training and development
needs, as well as planning employees’ future opportunities and career directions.

7. Discuss supervisory rating of subordinates.

ANS:
The most widely used means of rating employees is based on the assumption that the immediate
supervisor is the person most qualified to evaluate an employee’s performance realistically and fairly.
To help provide accurate evaluations, some supervisors keep performance logs of employees’
accomplishments so that they can reference these notes when rating performance. For instance, a sales
manager might periodically observe a salesperson’s interactions with clients and make notes so that
constructive performance feedback can be provided at a later date.

8. What is multisource rating?
ANS:
Multi-source feedback recognizes that for many jobs, employee performance is multidimensional and
crosses departmental, organizational, and even national boundaries. Therefore, it is designed to capture
evaluations of the employee’s different roles from different raters to provide richer feedback during an
evaluation.

9. Define behaviorally anchored rating scales.
ANS:
Behaviorally anchored rating scales describe specific examples of job behaviors that are then measured
against a scale of performance levels.

10. Describe the features required in an effective performance management system.
ANS:
To be effective, a performance management system, including the performance appraisal processes,
should be:
• beneficial as a development tool;
• useful as an administrative tool;
• legal and job related;
• viewed as generally fair by employees;
• effective in documenting employee performance;
• clear about who are high, average, and low performers.

ESSAY
1. Describe performance-focused organizational cultures.
ANS:
Organizational cultures can vary on many dimensions, and one of these differences involves the degree
to which performance is emphasized. Some corporate cultures are based on an entitlement approach,
meaning that adequate performance and stability dominate the organization. Employee rewards vary
little from person to person and are not much based on individual performance differences. As a result,
performance appraisal activities are seen as having few ties to performance and being primarily a
“bureaucratic exercise.” At the other end of the spectrum is a performance-driven organizational
culture focused on results and contributions. However, a pay-for-performance approach can present
several challenges to organizations. Despite these issues, it appears that where possible, a
performance-based-pay culture is desirable. It is sometimes argued that companies are not doing
enough about poor performers, and that failure to deal with poor performance is unfair to those who
work hard.
PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging

2. Describe the different types of performance information.
ANS:
Managers can use three different types of information about employee performance. Trait-based
information identifies a character trait of the employee, such as attitude, initiative, or creativity, and
may or may not be job related. For example, conscientiousness is often found to be a trait that is an
important determinant of job performance. But traits tend to be ambiguous, and favoritism of raters
can affect how traits are viewed, so court decisions generally have held that trait-based performance
appraisals are too vague to use when making performance-based HR decisions such as promotions or
terminations. Also, focusing too much on trait characteristics such as “potential” can lead managers to
ignore important behaviors and outcomes. Behavior-based information focuses on specific behaviors
that lead to job success. For a waitperson, the behavior “menu up-selling” can be observed and used as
performance information. Additionally, an HR Director who institutes an “open-door policy” behaves
in a manner that likely increases communication with employees. Behavioral information can specify
the behaviors management wants to see. A potential problem arises when any of several behaviors can
lead to successful performance, and employees rely on different behaviors to complete work. For
example, one salesperson might successfully use one verbal persuasion strategy with customers, while
another salesperson might use another successfully because no one approach can be utilized effectively
by all individuals. Results-based information considers employee accomplishments. For jobs in which
measurement is easy and obvious, a results-based approach works well. For instance, a professor might
receive extra compensation for securing grants or publishing papers in certain academic journals, or a
salesperson in a retail outlet might receive extra commission pay based on how many products are
sold.

Performance
3. Describe the administrative uses of performance appraisals.
ANS:
Three administrative uses of appraisal impact managers and employees the most: (1) determining pay
adjustments; (2) making job placement decisions on promotions, transfers, and demotions; and (3)
choosing employee disciplinary actions up to and including termination of employment. A
performance appraisal system is often the link between employee job performance and the additional
pay and rewards that they can receive. Performance-based compensation affirms the idea that pay
raises are given for performance accomplishments rather than based on length of service (seniority), or
granted automatically to all employees at the same percentage levels. In pay-for-performance
compensation systems, managers have evaluated the performance of individuals and have made
compensation recommendations. If any part of the appraisal process fails, better-performing
employees may not receive larger pay increases, and the result is perceived inequity in compensation.
Many U.S. workers say that they see little connection between their performance and the size of their
pay increases due to flaws in performance appraisals. Consequently, many people argue that
performance appraisals and pay discussions should be done separately. Two major realities support
this view. One is that employees often focus more on the pay received than on the developmental
appraisal feedback. The other is that managers sometimes manipulate ratings to justify the pay they
wish to give individuals. As a result, many employees view the appraisal process as a game, because
compensation increases have been predetermined before the appraisal is completed. To address these
issues, managers can first conduct performance appraisals and discuss the results with employees, and
then several weeks later hold a shorter meeting to discuss pay issues. For example, one company
created different performance appraisal and compensation forms that are considered separately at
different times. By adopting such an approach, the results of the performance appraisal can be
considered before the amount of the pay adjustment is determined. Also, the performance appraisal
discussions between managers and employees can focus on issues for improvement—not just pay
raises.

4. Describe the developmental uses of performance appraisals.
ANS:
For employees, a performance appraisal can be a primary source of information and feedback. By
identifying employee strengths, weaknesses, potentials, and training needs through performance
appraisal feedback, supervisors can inform employees about their progress, discuss areas in which
additional training may be beneficial, and outline future developmental plans. It is clear that
employees do not always know where and how to perform better, and managers should not expect
improvement if they are unwilling to provide developmental feedback. The purpose of giving feedback
on performance is both to reinforce satisfactory employee performance and to address performance
deficiencies. The developmental function of performance appraisal can also identify areas in which the
employee might wish to grow. For example, in a performance appraisal interview targeted exclusively
to development, an employee found out that the only factor keeping her from being considered for a
management job in her firm was the lack of a working knowledge of cost accounting. Her supervisor
suggested that she consider taking some night courses at the local college. The use of teams provides a
different set of circumstances for developmental appraisals. The manager may not see all of an
employee’s work, but the employee’s team members do. Team members can provide important
feedback. However, whether teams can handle administrative appraisals is still subject to debate;
clearly some cannot. When teams are allowed to design appraisal systems, they tend to “get rid of
judgment” and avoid differential rewards. Thus, group appraisal may be best suited to developmental
rather than administrative purposes.

5. Describe supervisory rating of subordinates, employee rating of managers, team/peer rating, self-
rating, and outsider rating.
ANS:
Supervisory rating of subordinates
The most widely used means of rating employees is based on the assumption that the immediate
supervisor is the person most qualified to evaluate an employee’s performance realistically and fairly.
To help provide accurate evaluations, some supervisors keep performance logs of employees’
accomplishments so that they can reference these notes when rating performance. For instance, a sales
manager might periodically observe a salesperson’s interactions with clients and make notes so that
constructive performance feedback can be provided at a later date.
Employee rating of managers

A number of organizations ask employees to rate the performance of their immediate managers. A
variation of this type of rating takes place in colleges and universities, where students evaluate the
teaching effectiveness of professors in the classroom. Another example is an Indian firm, which
requires employees to rate their bosses as part of a multisource review process that posts all
evaluations on the intranet. These performance appraisal ratings are generally used for management
development purposes. Requiring employees to rate managers provides three primary advantages.
First, in critical manager-employee relationships, employee ratings can be quite useful for identifying
competent managers. The rating of leaders by combat soldiers is one example of such a use. Second,
this type of rating program can help make a manager more responsive to employees. This advantage
can quickly become a disadvantage if the manager focuses on being “nice” rather than on managing;
people who are pleasant, but have no other qualifications may not be good managers in many
situations. Finally, employee appraisals can contribute to career development efforts for managers by
identifying areas for growth. A major disadvantage of asking employees rate managers is the negative
reaction many have to being evaluated by employees. Also, the fear of reprisals may be too great for
employees to give realistic ratings. This may prompt workers to rate their managers based only on the
way they are treated rather than on critical job requirements.
Team/Peer Rating
Having employees and team members rate each other is another type of appraisal with the potential to
both help and hurt. Peer and team ratings are especially useful when supervisors do not have the
opportunity to observe each employee’s performance but other work group members do. For instance,
some of the advanced training programs in the U.S. military use peer ratings to provide candidates
more extensive feedback about their leadership qualities and accomplishments. Peer evaluations are
also common in collegiate schools of business where professors commonly require students to conduct
peer evaluations after the completion of group-based projects. One challenge of this approach is how
to obtain ratings with virtual or global teams, in which the individuals work primarily through
technology, not in person (i.e., an online college class). Another challenge is obtaining ratings from
and for individuals who are on many special project teams throughout the year. It is possible that any
performance appraisal, including team/peer ratings, can negatively affect teamwork and participative
management efforts. Although team members have good information on one another’s performance,
they may not choose to share it in the interest of sparing feelings; alternatively they may unfairly
attack other group members. Some organizations attempt to overcome such problems by using
anonymous appraisals and/or having a consultant or HR manager interpret team/peer ratings.
Self-Rating
Self-appraisal works in certain situations. As a self-development tool, it requires employees to think
about their strengths and weaknesses and set goals for improvement. Employees working in isolation
or possessing unique skills may be particularly suited to self-ratings because they are the only ones
qualified to rate themselves. Overall, the use of self-appraisals in organizations has increased. For
instance, one organization successfully incorporated self-ratings into a traditional rating approach that
did not generate enough dialogue and direction for individual development; reactions from both
workers and supervisors were favorable. However, employees may use quite different standards and
not rate themselves in the same manner as supervisors.
Outsider Rating
People outside the immediate work group may be called in to conduct performance reviews. This
“field review” approach can include someone from the HR department as a reviewer, or completely
independent reviewers from outside the organization. Examples include a review team evaluating a
college president or a panel of division managers evaluating a supervisor’s potential for advancement
in the organization. A disadvantage of this approach is that outsiders may not know the important
demands within the work group or organization. The customers or clients of an organization are good
sources for outside appraisals. For sales and service jobs, customers may provide useful input on the
performance behaviors of employees. For instance, many hospitality organizations such as restaurants
and hotels use customer comments cards to gather feedback about the service provided by customer
contact personnel, and this information is commonly used for job development purposes.

6. Describe Multisource/360-degree rating.
ANS:
Multisource rating, or 360-degree feedback, has grown in popularity in organizations. Multisource
feedback recognizes that for many jobs, employee performance is multidimensional and crosses
departmental, organizational, and even national boundaries. Therefore, information needs to be
collected from many sources to adequately and fairly evaluate an incumbent’s performance in one of
these jobs. The major purpose of 360-degree feedback is not to increase uniformity by soliciting like-
minded views. Instead, it is designed to capture evaluations of the employee’s different roles to
provide richer feedback during an evaluation. For example, an HR manager for an insurance firm deals
with seven regional sales managers, HR administrators in five claims centers, and various corporate
executives in finance, legal, and information technology. The Vice President of HR uses 360-degree
feedback to gather data on all facets of the HR manager’s job before completing a performance
appraisal on the individual. Similar examples can be cited in numerous managerial, professional,
technical, operational, and administrative jobs. Significant administrative time and paperwork are
required to request, obtain, and summarize feedback from multiple raters. Using electronic systems for
the information can greatly reduce the administrative demands of multisource ratings and increase the
effectiveness (i.e., privacy and expediency) of the process.
As originally designed and used, multisource feedback focuses on the use of appraisals for the
development of individuals. Conflict resolution skills, decision-making abilities, team effectiveness,
communication skills, managerial styles, and technical capabilities are just some of the developmental
areas that can be examined.
The popularity of 360-degree feedback systems has led to the results being used for compensation,
promotion, termination, and other administrative decisions. When using 360-degree feedback for
administrative purposes, managers must anticipate the potential problems. Differences among raters
can present a challenge, especially when using 360-degree ratings for discipline or pay decisions. Bias
can just as easily be rooted in customers, subordinates, and peers as in a boss, and the lack of
accountability of those sources can affect the ratings. “Inflation” of ratings is common when the
sources know that their input will affect someone’s pay or career. Also, issues of confidentiality and
anonymity have led to lawsuits. Even though multisource approaches offer possible solutions to some
of the well-documented dissatisfaction associated with performance appraisals, a number of other
questions have arisen as multisource appraisals have become more common.
Research on multisource/360-degree feedback has revealed both positives and negatives. More
variability than expected may be seen in the ratings given by the different sources. Thus, supervisor
ratings may need to carry more weight than peer or subordinate input to resolve the differences. One
concern is that those peers who rate poor-performing coworkers tend to inflate the ratings so that the
peers themselves can get higher overall evaluation results in return. Also, some wonder whether
multisource appraisals really create sufficiently better decisions to offset the additional time and
investment required. These issues appear to be less threatening when the 360-degree feedback is used
only for development, so companies should consider using multisource feedback primarily as a
developmental tool to enhance future job performance while minimizing the use of multisource
appraisals as an administrative tool.

7. Describe graphic rating scale.
ANS:
The graphic rating scale allows the rater to mark an employee’s performance on a continuum
indicating low to high levels of a particular characteristic. Because of the straightforwardness of the
process, graphic rating scales are common in performance evaluations. Three aspects of performance
are appraised using graphic rating scales: descriptive categories (such as quantity of work, attendance,
and dependability), job duties (taken from the job description), and behavioral dimensions (such as
decision making, employee development, and communication effectiveness). Each of these types can
be used for different jobs. How well employees meet established standards is often expressed either
numerically (e.g., 5, 4, 3, 2, 1) or verbally (e.g., “outstanding,” “meets standards,” “below standards”).
If two or more people are involved in the rating, they may find it difficult to agree on the exact level of
performance achieved relative to the standard in evaluating employee performance. Notice that each
level specifies performance standards or expectations to reduce variation in interpretations of the
standards by different supervisors and employees. Graphic rating scales in many forms are widely used
because they are easy to develop and provide a uniform set of criteria to evaluate the job performance
of different employees. However, the use of scales can cause rater error because the form might not
accurately reflect the relative importance of certain job characteristics, and some factors might need to
be added to the ratings for one employee, while others might need to be dropped. If they fit the person
and the job, the scales work well. However, if they fit poorly, managers and employees who must use
them frequently might complain about “the rating form.” A key point must be emphasized. Regardless
of the scales used, the focus should be on the job duties and responsibilities identified in job
descriptions. The closer the link between the scales and what people actually do, as identified in
current and complete job descriptions, the stronger the relationship between the ratings and the job, as
viewed by employees and managers. Also, should the performance appraisal results be challenged
legally, the closer performance appraisals measure what people actually do, the more likely employers
are to prevail in a lawsuit.
An additional drawback to graphic rating scales is that separate traits or factors are often
grouped, and the rater is given only one box to check. For example, dependability could refer
to meeting deadlines for reports, or it could refer to attendance and tardiness. If a supervisor
gives an employee a rating of 3, which aspect of dependability is being rated? One supervisor
might rate employees on meeting deadlines, while another rates employees on attendance.
Another drawback is that the descriptive words sometimes used in scales may have different
meanings to different raters. Terms such as “initiative” and “cooperation” are subject to many
interpretations, especially if used in conjunction with words such as “outstanding,” “average,”
and “poor.”
8. Discuss management by objectives.
ANS:
Management by objectives (MBO) specifies the performance goals that an individual and manager
identify together. Goal setting has a long history of research in HR. Each manager sets objectives
derived from the overall goals and objectives of the organization; however, MBO should not be a
disguised means for a superior to dictate the objectives of individual managers or employees.
MBO Process: Implementing a guided self-appraisal system using MBO is a four-stage process. The
stages are as follows:
1. Job review and agreement

2. Development of performance standards
3. Setting of objectives
4. Continuing performance discussions
The MBO process seems to be most useful with managerial personnel and employees who have a
fairly wide range of flexibility and control over their jobs. When imposed on a rigid and autocratic
management system, MBO will often fail. Emphasizing penalties for not meeting objectives defeats
the development and participative nature of MBO.

9. Describe the different types of rater errors.
ANS:
There are many possible sources of error in the performance appraisal process. One of the major
sources is the rater. Although completely eliminating errors is impossible, making raters aware of
potential errors and biases helps.
Varying Standards: When appraising employees, a manager should avoid applying different standards
and expectations to employees performing the same or similar jobs. Such problems often result from
the use of ambiguous criteria and subjective weightings by supervisors.
Recency and Primacy Effects: The recency effect occurs when a rater gives greater weight to recent
events when appraising an individual’s performance. Another time-related issue is the primacy effect,
which occurs when a rater gives greater weight to information received first when appraising an
Central Tendency, Leniency, and Strictness Errors: Appraisers who rate all employees within a narrow
range in the middle of the scale (i.e., rate everyone as “average”) commit a central tendency error,
giving even outstanding and poor performers an “average” rating. The leniency error occurs when
ratings of all employees fall at the high end of the scale. The strictness error occurs when a manager
uses only the lower part of the scale to rate employees.
Rater Bias: When a rater’s values or prejudices distort the rating, rater bias results. Such bias may be
unconscious or quite intentional. For example, a manager’s dislike of certain ethnic groups may cause
distortion in appraisal information for some people. Use of age, religion, seniority, sex, appearance, or
other “classifications” may also skew appraisal ratings if the appraisal process is not properly
designed. A review of appraisal ratings by higher-level managers may help correct this problem.
Halo and Horns Effects: The halo effect occurs when a rater scores an employee high on all job criteria
because of performance in one area. The opposite is the horns effect, which occurs when a low rating
on one characteristic leads to an overall low rating.
Contrast Error: One problem is the contrast error, which is the tendency to rate people relative to one
another rather than against performance standards. Although it may be appropriate to compare people
at times, the performance rating usually should reflect comparison against performance standards, not
against other people.
Similar-to-Me/Different-from-Me Errors: Sometimes, raters are influenced by whether people show

characteristics that are the same as or different from their own. The error comes in measuring an
individual against another person rather than measuring how well the individual fulfills the
expectations of the job.
Sampling Error: If the rater has seen only a small sample of the person’s work, an appraisal may be
subject to sampling error. Ideally, the work being rated should be a broad and representative sample of
all the work done by the employee.

NAT: BUSPROG: Analytic TOP: Training Managers and Employees in
Performance Appraisal
10. Describe appraisal feedback.
ANS:
After completing appraisals, managers need to communicate results to give employees a clear
understanding of how they stand in the eyes of their immediate superiors and the organization.
Organizations commonly require managers to discuss appraisals with employees. The appraisal
feedback interview provides an opportunity to clear up any misunderstandings on both sides. The
appraisal interview presents both an opportunity and a challenge. It can be an emotional experience for
the manager and the employee because the manager must communicate both praise and constructive
criticism. A major concern for managers is how to emphasize the positive aspects of the employee’s
performance while still discussing ways to make needed improvements.
Employees usually approach an appraisal interview with some concern. They may feel that discussions
about performance are both personal and important to their continued job success. At the same time,
they want to know how their managers feel about their performance. Managers who must complete
appraisals of their employees often resist the appraisal process. Many feel that their role requires them
to assist, encourage, coach, and counsel employees to improve their performance. However, being a
judge on the one hand and a coach and a counselor on the other hand may cause internal conflict.
Knowing that appraisals may affect employees’ future careers may also cause altered or biased ratings.
This problem is even more likely when managers know that they will have to communicate and defend
their ratings to the employees, their bosses, or HR specialists. Managers can simply make the
employee’s ratings positive and avoid unpleasantness. But avoidance helps no one. A manager owes
an employee a well-done appraisal, no matter how difficult an employee is, or how difficult the
conversation about performance might be. Likewise, employees being appraised may not necessarily
agree with the manager doing the appraising. However, in most cases, employees will view appraisals
done well as what they are meant to be—constructive feedback. Many employees want appraisals but
some may find it difficult to get honest feedback.
Regardless of the approach used, managers must understand the intended outcome of performance
management. When performance management is used to develop employees as resources, it usually
works. Done well, performance management can lead to higher employee motivation and satisfaction.
To be effective, a performance management system, including the performance appraisal processes,
should be:
• beneficial as a development tool;

• useful as an administrative tool;
• legal and job related;
• viewed as generally fair by employees;
• effective in documenting employee performance; and
• clear about who are high, average, and low performers.

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described in one of the convergent light experiments of the last
chapter, the black cross is observed to be deflected one sector to the
right, as shown at c in Fig. 83; whereas when the left-handed
companion plate is introduced in like manner the cross moves over
one sector to the left, as indicated at a in Fig. 83. The two quartz
plates are mounted on the same mahogany object frame, a specially
long one with two large apertures carrying the quartzes, so that first
one and then the other can be placed in or out of position, and when
this is done rapidly the movement of the cross from right to left and
back again is very marked.
Occasionally a natural biquartz is obtained, on cutting a plate out
of a crystal of quartz perpendicularly to the axis. For it is not
uncommon to find a crystal which, while apparently a single crystal,
is really a twin, the two right and left individuals being joined by an
invisible plane of contact, or “plane of composition” as it is called, so
beautifully have the two grown together. Figs. 84 and 85 show two
kinds of twins of quartz. The former consists of two obviously
different individuals, with the little s and x faces indicating right or
left-handedness clearly developed in an opposite manner. The crystal
shown in Fig. 85, however, appears to be a single individual, yet
differs from either a right-handed or a left-handed crystal in showing
the s and x faces developed on both right and left solid angles. It is a
case of complete interpenetration.
In both cases the plane of twinning is parallel to the optic axis, and
to a pair of faces of the hexagonal prism of the second order,
perpendicular to a pair of the actual first order prism faces shown by
the crystal. They are examples of the well-known “Brazilian
twinning” of quartz, so called because many quartz crystals found in
Brazil display it.
Fig. 84.—Pair of Brazilian Twins
of Quartz.
Fig. 85.—Completely
Interpenetrated Brazilian Twins
of Quartz.
A natural biquartz of 3.75 millimetres thickness cut from such a

crystal as is shown in Fig. 85, the plate having a hexagonal outline
just as if the crystal were really a single one, may next be projected
on the screen. The Nicols being crossed, the outline of the crystal is
seen sharply defined, the whole area of the crystal being coloured a
uniform yellow, there being absolutely no trace of any dividing line.
But the moment one commences to turn the analysing Nicol different
shades, orange and green respectively, begin to develop on the two
sides of the line indicating the plane of composition of the twin, the
hexagon being divided by a diametral line joining two corners, which
have been arranged in mounting the plate in its carrier frame to be
above one another, so as to bring the line of composition vertical, as
will be clear from Fig. 86. On rotating the analyser further the
difference is still more marked, and we have blue on one side and
orange red on the other, developing still deeper into red and purple
as the analyser approaches the parallel position with respect to the
polariser; when this latter position is attained the transition violet
tint is developed evenly over the whole plate, and the dividing line
has again disappeared.
Another natural biquartz, also shown in the
author’s lecture at Winnipeg, introduces us to
a new phenomenon. For when the Nicols are
crossed we observe a black band down the
centre of the plate, marking the line of
division of the twins. When the analyser is
rotated until it is parallel to the polariser this
black band changes to a white one, the
sequence of colours on the different sides of
Fig. 86.—A Natural the band, that is, in each half of the plate,
Biquartz in Parallel being the same as just described. The effect
Polarised Light. with crossed Nicols is more or less simulated
in Fig. 87, Plate XVII., which is a
reproduction of a direct photograph of the
screen picture. The reason for this black band in the dark field, and
for the white one in the bright field, is that the two halves of the twin
overlap at the centre, the plane of junction of the two individual
crystals being oblique to the plate, instead of exactly perpendicular
thereto as was the case with the first natural biquartz. We are, in fact,
beginning to get the effect of two superposed wedges of quartz.
PLATE XVII.
Fig. 87.—Natural Biquartz exhibiting the

Black Band (Nicols crossed) at the
Oblique Junction of the Right-handed
and Left-handed Parts.
Fig. 88.—Artificial Biquartz, the two
parts being obliquely joined in order to
produce the Black Band.
Direct Photographs of Pictures

projected on the Screen by the
Lantern Polariscope, using Parallel
Light.
When the obliquity is greater, or the crystal thicker, a white band

appears on each side of the black central one, the Nicols being
crossed, and when the thickness is as great as 6 to 7.5 mm. a
spectrum band appears on each side of the white one.
That this obliquity of the surface of contact of the two intergrown
individuals (not the plane of twinning, which remains parallel to a
pair of faces of the hexagonal prism of the second order) is the true
explanation can be readily proved by reproducing the effect
artificially. A thick double plate of quartz is constructed, as shown in
Fig. 88, composed of two halves of respectively right-handed and
left-handed quartz, each 6 to 7 millimetres thick, and each of which
has had the edge-face of junction ground and polished obliquely at
an angle of 30° or so, and oppositely so, instead of perpendicularly to
the plates; the two halves are then cemented together in the usual
manner for a biquartz, with Canada balsam, in order to make a
continuous plate. On placing the plate of this construction possessed
by the author on the stage of the projection polariscope, the two
halves exhibit on the screen respectively brilliant red and green
colour, with a vertical central black band, and on each side of it first a
white strip and then a spectrum band, all the bands being parallel to
each other, and the whole effect being precisely what was observed
with the thickest natural biquartz.
Thus, we have imitated the oblique junction of the twin parts of
the second and third biquartzes, and proved that this obliquity is the
reason for the phenomena of bands, the black band occupying the
centre where the two opposite rotations of the right and left quartz
are precisely neutralised. The dark field of the crossed Nicols
consequently prevails along this central strip, for the rotatory effect
of the first individual crystal on the light passing through it is exactly
undone by the subsequent passage of the rays through the other
individual. On either side of this neutral strip there is a little
preponderance of right-handed quartz on one side, and of left-
handed quartz on the other, and the usual effect of a thin plate of
quartz is therefore seen, namely, no colour but a little light, while
further accretions of thickness of the preponderating variety give all
the colours of the spectrum in turn, as with growing thicknesses of
ordinary single quartz plates, thus producing the spectrum band.
The black band is also afforded when the plate is cut somewhat
obliquely, out of a twin crystal with a junction plane truly
perpendicular to the equatorial section, instead of cutting it truly
perpendicularly to the axis, the junction plane being then oblique to
the plate. The polarisation colours are not so strong, however, unless
the plate be made thicker.
PLATE XVIII.
Fig. 89.—Black Central Band and

equidistant Spectrum Bands on each
side, afforded by Babinet’s Composite
Plate of two Quartz Wedges, one parallel
and the other perpendicular to the Axis.
(Direct Photograph of Screen Picture as
projected by Lantern Polariscope.)
Fig. 94.—Section-plate of Amethyst, natural size, as seen directly
in Ordinary Light, showing Alternate Violet Sectors (see p. 223).
This effect of a black band with flanking spectra is very similar to

that obtained, due to double refraction and not to optical activity,
when two thin wedges of quartz are cemented together to form a
parallel plate, one wedge being cut so that the optic axis is parallel to
the edge of the wedge, and the other with the optic axis
perpendicular to the edge. When such a composite plate of quartz,
often known as a Babinet plate from the name of its first constructor,
is placed on the stage of the polariscope, and rotated to the 45°
position with respect to the planes of vibration of the crossed Nicols,
there is observed on the screen a deep black band in the centre
parallel to the edge of the wedge, and a number of spectrum bands
on each side, separated by white equal interspaces, the rainbow
coloured bands showing the orders of Newton’s spectra. The effect,
as seen on the screen, is reproduced photographically in black and
white in Fig. 89, Plate XVIII.
These experiments lead us naturally to the study of a great variety
of quartz twins, involving some of the most beautiful and gorgeously
chromatic phenomena which it is possible to produce on the screen
with the projection polariscope. They will eventually bring us to the
study of amethyst quartz, in which the twinning is repeated so often
that the laminations of alternate right and left quartz are sometimes
countless, and almost approach molecular dimensions.
The Brazilian twinning of quartz, parallel to a pair of faces of the
second order hexagonal prism {11̄20}, often occurs in a very erratic
manner, as regards the arrangement of the portions of the composite
crystal belonging to the two varieties, the surfaces of contact and
character of the interpenetration being frequently very irregular, and
often remarkably so. Thus Fig. 90, the upper figure of the coloured
frontispiece, gives some faint idea of the appearance presented on
the screen by a very beautiful quartz plate, one-half of which is
entirely composed of left-handed quartz, giving a rich even rose-red
colour when the Nicols are crossed, not very far from the violet
transition tint, the plate being nearly 7.5 mm. thick, while the other
half consists of an alternation of strips of right and left-handed
quartz, joined obliquely to the surface of the plate, the black band
and its accompanying white ones and spectrum bands being
repeated two or three times before the edge is reached. This is a very
instructive case, for it shows in this half of the plate, on a large scale,
what occurs in amethyst in a more minutely structural manner, the
broad strips, the sections of plates upwards of a quarter of an inch
thick, of alternating character becoming in amethyst thin lines, the
sections of laminæ or films of microscopic tenuity, their number
being correspondingly enormously increased.
It may be interesting to state how this Fig. 90, and the lower Fig.
97 of the frontispiece representing the projection on the screen of
benzoic acid in the act of crystallisation, were produced. The pictures
on the screen were directly photographed on the latest Lumière
autochrome plates, a transparency in the actual natural colours being
thus obtained in each case. These transparent colour-photographs
were then used as originals wherewith to reproduce the effects on
paper by the most recent improved three-colour photographic
process.
PLATE XIX.
Fig. 91.—Sectorial 60° or 120° Intrusive

Twinning of Right and Left-handed
Quartz, showing Ribbons with Central
Black Band where Oblique Overlapping
occurs.
Fig. 92.—Irregular Intrusive Twinning of
Right and Left-handed Quartz.
Direct Photographs of Remarkable

Screen Pictures afforded in Parallel
Polarised Light by Sections of Twins
of Right and Left Quartz.
Two other typical cases of irregular quartz twinning may also with
advantage be demonstrated. The first is a plate in which there are
repeated 60° V-shaped or 120° wedge-shaped intrusions of one
variety into a greater mass of the other variety. The border of the V
or 120° wedge is composed of a ribbon, the outer edges of which are
spectrum-coloured and the central line of which is formed by the
deep black band, which is separated on each side from the spectra by
a white strip. Some idea of the beauty of this quartz plate, which was
generously lent to the author by Prof. S. P. Thompson, as projected
on the screen under crossed Nicols, may be gathered from Fig. 91,
Plate XIX., the upper homogeneous part of the plate being coloured a
brilliant green, and the lower part red.
The second is an irregular interpenetration of one variety into the
other, in repeated V-shapes occupying the lower half of the image of
the plate as seen on the screen in the dark field of the projection
polariscope, like a range of sharp mountain peaks, the black bands
being so rapidly repeated as to be nearly continuous. These darker
portions thus appear to form the bulk of the mountains, while the
upper untwinned half of the crystal shows a clear and even sky blue;
to make the resemblance to a range of Alpine mountains even more
complete, the wavy line of demarcation between the twinned and
non-twinned portions of the plate is bordered by a white ribbon, of
varying width, giving the appearance of a snow-cap to each peak,
which shows up clearly against the blue sky. It will be obvious that
this quartz plate affords an altogether very beautiful series of
phenomena in parallel polarised light on the screen, for the colours
change with every movement of the analysing Nicol from the crossed
position, the appearance for which has just been described. Fig. 92,
Plate XIX., gives only the faintest idea of the beauty of the screen
picture afforded by this section-plate. The effect chosen as best for
photographic reproduction purposes is one afforded when the
analysing Nicol is rotated somewhat away from the crossed position
with respect to the polariser.
And now we arrive finally at amethyst quartz, three very beautiful
hexagonal plates of which—cut perpendicularly to the optic axis as
usual for quartzes intended to display optical activity, from an
apparently single hexagonal prism in each case—will be taken as
typifying the phenomena exhibited by this especially interesting
variety of quartz on the screen in parallel polarised light. The smaller
one affords a screen picture, with Nicols not quite crossed, such as is
portrayed in Fig. 93, Plate XX. We observe that the area of the
hexagon is roughly divisible into six 60°-sectors, and that alternate
ones are uniformly coloured, indicating that they belong to wholly
right-handed or left-handed quartz; whereas the other alternate
sectors are most beautifully marked, as if by line shading parallel or
inclined at 30° to the edges of the hexagon, by a considerable
number of equally spaced dark or slate coloured bands, close
together but separated by white bands, with a trace of spectrum
colours along the middle of the latter. If we rotate the analysing Nicol
somewhat we can readily find a position, which is not always that of
crossed Nicols, for which these parallel bands of laminar twinning
are most clearly defined, as shown in the illustration, the colours of
the other sectors ever changing during the rotation.
PLATE XX.
Fig. 93.—Section-plate of Amethyst

Quartz, showing Sectorial Repeated
Twinning of the Right and Left Varieties.
Fig. 95.—Section-plate of large Amethyst
Quartz Crystal, showing relatively large
Area of Sectorial Repeated Twinning of
Right and Left-handed Quartz (see p.
225).
Direct Photographs of Screen

Pictures of Amethyst projected by
the Lantern Polariscope in Parallel
Light.
It is obvious that we have here to do with the same phenomenon as

was illustrated by the parallel bands shown on the large scale by the
section illustrated in Fig. 90 of the coloured frontispiece, the black,
white, and spectrum-coloured bands being simply repeated very
many more times in the same space, and in alternate sectors of the
crystal.
The twinning of amethyst in 60°-sectors is very characteristic of
this variety of quartz, and it is an interesting fact that the sectors
which show the laminar bands in polarised light often appear purple
coloured in ordinary light, the tint from which amethyst derives its
name. This is not necessarily or always so however, and the section
just described and illustrated in Fig. 93 appears quite colourless
throughout on casual inspection in ordinary light, in fact as a clear
colourless hexagonal section of ordinary simple quartz; a trace of the
amethyst colour becomes, however, apparent on closer examination
when held obliquely, in the sectors where the bands become visible
in polarised light.
The second plate of amethyst is a magnificent section 9
millimetres thick and 2½ inches in diameter, of which alternate 60°-
sectors are deeply amethyst coloured, the tint being a pure violet of
about the wave-length of the hydrogen line near G of the spectrum.
Moreover, even to the naked eye when the specimen is held in the
hand up to the light, in certain positions the laminæ become visible
as more deeply shaded violet line markings. On placing it on the
stage of the polariscope but with the analysing Nicol removed, so as
to observe the natural appearance of the section in white light (for,
although polarised by the polarising Nicol, being unanalysed the
section exhibits no polarisation effects), these facts become clear to
everyone in the room. The violet staining of alternate sectors appears
very deep, and traces of lamination in the violet parts are just
apparent on close scrutiny, the other alternate sectors appearing
colourless and unmarked except by a few flaws almost always
present in so large a section-plate of amethyst. The natural
appearance of this plate is shown in Fig. 94, Plate XVIII. (facing page
218), as far as is possible photographically, the violet sectors being
clearly demarcated.
On replacing the analysing Nicol the colourless sectors are seen to
polarise uniformly in brilliant colours, indicating a homogeneous
variety of quartz in each, either right or left-handed. Moreover,
whenever two of these naturally colourless parts touch each other,
which they do as the margin of the plate is approached, an irregular
ribbon is produced, composed of the black band in the centre, with
first white and then spectrum-coloured flanking strips on each side,
the spectra forming the edges of the ribbon. The violet sectors show
the laminated twinning, but, owing to the great thickness of this
plate, in too complicated (overlapping) a manner to be easily
followed, a thinner plate being required to show such fine
laminations clearly.
Finally, the third section is such a thinner plate, about 3.5 mm.
thick and nearly 1½ inches in diameter. This section of amethyst is
probably the most beautiful of all, for it not only shows the laminated
twinning to perfection, in three alternate 60°-sectors and in all six in
the middle part of the plate, but also these alternate sectors are
distinctly violet even to the eye when the specimen is held in the
hand against a white background; and the laminations are likewise
also clearly visible on holding the section obliquely up to the light. In
polarised light, either with crossed or parallel or anyway arranged
Nicols, the phenomena on the screen are of the most superb
character. The whole of the middle part of the plate appears made up
of six sectors, all showing the fine laminar bands parallel to the edges
of the second order hexagonal prism {11̄20}, that is, at 30° to the
edges of the section, the crystal being a first order hexagonal prism
{10̄10}. Some idea of the arrangement will be afforded by Fig. 95,
Plate XX. The marginal parts develop into alternately right and left-
handed sectors or half-sectors, polarising in different and very
brilliant colours, and showing the ribbon bands at every junction. On
rotating the analysing Nicol the changes are remarkably beautiful,
particularly for the positions of the analyser when the laminar bands
take on their deep slate colour, with white and marginally spectral
interstrips. The whole phenomena, indeed, afforded by this plate of
amethystine quartz, are the most magnificent which the author has
ever seen on the screen, in the whole of his crystallographic
experiences.
The Brazilian twinning law of quartz, according to which the plane
of twinning is parallel to a pair of faces of the second order hexagonal
prism {11̄20}, appears capable of explaining all these varieties of
right and left-handed twins, the interpenetration of the intimate kind
shown in Fig. 85 (page 215) usually resulting in sectorial portions of
space being occupied by each kind, the surfaces of junction of
oppositely optically active parts being, however, very varied in their
distribution and character. Where they happen to be more or less
horizontal, a plate cut perpendicularly to the axis to include both
kinds would show Airy’s spirals in convergent polarised light, as may
readily be demonstrated by such a plate, one of several, in the
author’s collection. Where they are oblique, a plate cut at right angles
to the axis would, as we have seen experimentally, afford the black,
white and spectral ribbon bands in parallel polarised light. Where,
however, the mode of interpenetration is still more intimate, we have
the rapidly alternating laminæ of the two varieties, right and left-
handed, building up the beautiful structure of amethyst in thin
layers. A section-plate of such an intimate blending of the two
varieties, cut as usual perpendicular to the axis in order that any
phenomena of optical activity shall be exhibited at the maximum,
affords no indication whatever of optical rotation, the two varieties
simply neutralising each other’s effects, and the plate behaves as an
ordinary uniaxial crystal, affording in convergent polarised light a
black cross like calcite, complete to the centre. In parallel polarised
light it shows of course the laminated structure, but the tendency to
remain dark under crossed Nicols is shown by the fact that the tints
exhibited by the laminations are slates, greys, and even black, when
the Nicols are crossed, the delightful other colours only making their
appearance when the analysing Nicol is rotated. Thus the simple law
of Brazilian twinning is quite capable of explaining the whole of the
phenomena exhibited by composite crystals of the two varieties of
quartz, and such an explanation is the one accepted by von Groth, in
the excellent description of quartz in the last edition of his
Physikalische Krystallographie.
Fig. 96.—Plan of Amethyst

Crystal.
An interesting crystal of amethyst very similar to the third of those

just described, the one illustrated in Fig. 95, was described by Prof.
Judd in the year 1892 to the Mineralogical Society.[18] The plan of the
crystal is given in Fig. 96. The wedges marked x, y, z, are of a pale
yellow colour, as are also the three strips, sections of plates,
proceeding from the wedges and meeting at the centre o. The wedge
y exhibits left-handed polarisation, and the wedge z right-handed.
The large wedge x is composite, the part marked xr being right-
handed and that marked xl left-handed. The surface of junction of
the two parts is not perpendicular to the plate, so where the two
varieties overlap, the part marked xrl, a ribbon band is shown in
parallel light and Airy’s spirals in convergent polarised light. The
yellow parts of the crystal exhibit ordinary rotatory polarisation
colours, even tints; but in the remaining sectors of the crystal, the
lines of division of which are indicated by the radial lines A, B, C, no
trace of circular polarisation is displayed, and the central part, where
the lamellæ are very well developed, gives the ordinary calcite-like
uniaxial interference figure. The more marginal portions, however,
show complicated interference figures, somewhat resembling those
of biaxial crystals, owing to irregular distribution of the two varieties
of quartz, and probable displacement of the optic axis by distortion.
An ingenious theory of the formation of the lamellæ is put forward
by Prof. Judd in the same memoir. He had already shown that quartz
is endowed with planes of gliding, parallel to the rhombohedral
faces, and suggests that the lamellation is the result of the effect of
high pressure and possibly high temperature on the quartz crystal
after its formation. The lamellæ appear to be frequently parallel to
the rhombohedral terminal faces of the crystal, as if they were indeed
glide plane effects. It is quite conceivable that the gliding of layers of
molecules, which when permanent usually involves rotation and
inversion of the molecules, might result in alternately right and left
structural arrangements, and there is considerable evidence that the
development of the purple tint occurred subsequently to the growth
of the crystal. It is probably due to change in the state of oxidation of
the trace of manganese present as a minute impurity in the quartz
crystal, and which is concentrated between the lamellæ, just as the
yellow tint is due to a slight trace of iron (ferric) oxide. The theory is
an interesting one, and throws considerable light on the possible
nature of intimate lamellar twinning.
One last experiment may now be referred to, the concluding
experiment of the Winnipeg lecture, and which is very reminiscent of
the beautiful slate colour of the lamellæ of amethyst. It is the actual
crystallisation, projected on the screen, of a thin film of melted
benzoic acid, which affords radiating closely packed long and narrow
crystals, shooting out on the screen from centres near the margin of
the field, very much like the individual crystals of repeatedly twinned
quartz in the beautiful amethyst crystal illustrated in Fig. 95.
Provided the film of melted benzoic acid be thin enough, the crystals
appear on the screen in parallel polarised light, under crossed Nicols,
tinted with the same beautiful shades of slate colour as amethyst, the
intermediate low-order tint between the black and the grey of
Newton’s first order spectrum. Some idea of the appearance on the
screen is afforded by Fig. 97, the lower of the two coloured figures in
the frontispiece. As in the case of Fig. 90, the screen picture was
photographed directly on a Lumière autochrome plate, and the
transparency in the actual colours thus obtained was employed as an
original wherewith to reproduce the picture on paper by the latest
three-colour photographic process.
In carrying out the experiment a few of the flaky crystals of benzoic
acid are placed on one of the circular glass object plates of the
standard 1⅞-inch size for the projection polariscope; they are
covered by a second similar one, and the two plates are then held in a
pair of tongs and gently warmed over a small spirit lamp, or
miniature Bunsen lamp. As soon as the crystals have fused, and the
melted substance is evenly spread as a thin film between the two
glass plates, the latter are rapidly transferred to a special mahogany
object frame, fitted with a side slide to press the double-plate edge
just sufficiently to hold it in position in the frame, which is then at
once placed on the rotating stage of the polariscope. The screen
appears quite dark at first, the Nicols being crossed, but in a second
or two as the slide cools the benzoic acid begins to crystallise out at
the sides, brilliant colours and the deep greys being both developed,
the former chiefly near the edges of the crystals, rendering the
crystallisation wonderfully distinct and beautiful on the black
background. Then long needle crystals shoot out from various
quarters one after another or simultaneously, in lovely shades of
slate or grey tinted with brilliant colours at the margins and tips, the
growing point cutting its way along like a sharp brilliantly coloured
arrowhead. Eventually an arch is formed of such acicular crystals,
radiating simultaneously from many centres, gorgeously coloured in
parts, but showing the yet more æsthetic slates and greys in the
main. Finally, the whole screen picture fills up with a mass of

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2. Which of the following is true of performance appraisal?

4. Which of the following is true of organizations that practice a performance-driven approach?

5. Which of the following is trait-based information?

6. Which of the following is behavior-based information?

7. Which of the following is an example of results-based information?

8. Which of the following is true of performance standards?

10. Which of the following is typically a responsibility of managers in performance appraisals?

ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

11. _____ is the most widely used means of rating employees.

24. Which of the following is a comparative method of performance appraisals?

27. Which of the following is a narrative method of performance appraisals?

44. Which of the following is true of appraisal interviews?

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

4. The entitlement approach of organizational culture links performance evaluations to employee

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

5. Employee attitude is classified as trait-based information.

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

6. Menu up-selling by a waitperson is classified as behavior-based information.

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

8. Both numerical and nonnumerical performance standards can be established.

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging

ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Challenging

ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

1. Define performance management. What should a performance management system do?

• Make clear what the organization expects.

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

2. Describe the entitlement approach and the performance-driven approach.

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

3. What are the common employee performance measures?

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

4. Define performance standards.

PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

6. Discuss the administrative and developmental uses of performance appraisals.