UNIT 3

Sampling Design: Fundamentals of Sampling Design, Non-probability and Probability Sampling,

Sample Size Determination, Reliability and Validity.

Questionnaire Design: Techniques and Precautions; Measurement and Scaling Techniques:

Types of Data; Rating Scale and Ranking Scales.

Data Collection and Preparation: Primary and Secondary Sources of data; Data Tabulation,
Editing and Coding.

Sampling
In Statistics, the sampling method or sampling technique is the process of studying the
population by gathering information and analyzing that data. It is the basis of the data where
the sample space is enormous.

There are several different sampling techniques available, and they can be subdivided into two
groups. All these methods of sampling may involve specifically targeting hard or approach to
reach groups.

Types of Sampling Method

In Statistics, there are different sampling techniques available to get relevant results from the
population. The two different types of sampling methods are::

 Probability Sampling
 Non-probability Sampling
Probability Sampling
The probability sampling method utilizes some form of random selection. In this method, all the
eligible individuals have a chance of selecting the sample from the whole sample space. This
method is more time consuming and expensive than the non-probability sampling method. The
benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees the sample that should be the
representative of the population.

Probability Sampling Types

Probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and clustered sampling. Let us discuss the
different types of probability sampling methods along with illustrative examples here in detail.

Simple Random Sampling :In simple random sampling technique, every item in the population
has an equal and likely chance of being selected in the sample. Since the item selection entirely
depends on the chance, this method is known as “Method of chance Selection”. As the sample
size is large, and the item is chosen randomly, it is known as “Representative
Sampling”.Example:Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200 students from a
school. Here, we can assign a number to every student in the school database from 1 to 500 and
use a random number generator to select a sample of 200 numbers.

Systematic Sampling :In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the target
population by selecting the random selection point and selecting the other methods after a fixed
sample interval. It is calculated by dividing the total population size by the desired population
size.Example:Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse
alphabetical order. To select a sample in a systematic sampling method, we have to choose some
15 students by randomly selecting a starting number, say 5. From number 5 onwards, will select
every 15th person from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up with a sample of some students.

Stratified Sampling: -In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided into smaller
groups to complete the sampling process. The small group is formed based on a few
characteristics in the population. After separating the population into a smaller group, the
statisticians randomly select the sample.For example, there are three bags (A, B and C), each
with different balls. Bag A has 50 balls, bag B has 100 balls, and bag C has 200 balls. We have
to choose a sample of balls from each bag proportionally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A, 10 balls
from bag B and 20 balls from bag C.

Clustered Sampling:-In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed
from the population set. The group has similar significatory characteristics. Also, they have an
equal chance of being a part of the sample. This method uses simple random sampling for the
cluster of population. Example :An educational institution has ten branches across the country
with almost the number of students. If we want to collect some data regarding facilities and other
things, we can’t travel to every unit to collect the required data. Hence, we can use random
sampling to select three or four branches as clusters.
All these four methods can be understood in a better manner with the help of the figure given
below. The figure contains various examples of how samples will be taken from the population
using different techniques.

Non-Probability Sampling
The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the sample
based on subjective judgment rather than the random selection. In this method, not all the
members of the population have a chance to participate in the study.

Non-Probability Sampling Types

Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as
convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling, snowball
sampling. Here, let us discuss all these types of non-probability sampling in detail.
Convenience Sampling :-In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the
population directly because they are conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are
easy to select, and the researcher did not choose the sample that outlines the entire population.
Example: In researching customer support services in a particular region, we ask your few
customers to complete a survey on the products after the purchase. This is a convenient way to
collect data. Still, as we only surveyed customers taking the same product. At the same time, the
sample is not representative of all the customers in that area.

Consecutive Sampling:- Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling with a slight

variation. The researcher picks a single person or a group of people for sampling. Then the
researcher researches for a period of time to analyze the result and move to another group if
needed.

Quota Sampling :- In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that involves the
individuals to represent the population based on specific traits or qualities. The researcher
chooses the sample subsets that bring the useful collection of data that generalizes the entire
population.

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling :- In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based
on the researcher’s knowledge. As their knowledge is instrumental in creating the samples, there
are the chances of obtaining highly accurate answers with a minimum marginal error. It is also
known as judgmental sampling or authoritative sampling.

Snowball Sampling -Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In

this method, the samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each identified member of a
population is asked to find the other sampling units. Those sampling units also belong to the
same targeted population.

Probability sampling vs Non-probability Sampling Methods

The below table shows a few differences between probability sampling methods and non-
probability sampling methods.

Probability Sampling Methods Non-probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in Non-probability sampling method is a technique in

which samples taken from a larger population are which the researcher chooses samples based on
chosen based on probability theory. subjective judgment, preferably random selection.

These are also known as Random sampling These are also called non-random sampling
methods. methods.

These are used for research which is conclusive. These are used for research which is exploratory.
These involve a long time to get the data. These are easy ways to collect the data quickly.

There is an underlying hypothesis in probability The hypothesis is derived later by conducting the
sampling before the study starts. Also, the objective research study in the case of non-probability
of this method is to validate the defined hypothesis. sampling.

Sample size determination

Sample size determination or estimation is the act of choosing the number of observations
or replicates to include in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any
empirical study in which the goal is to make inferences about a population from a sample. In
practice, the sample size used in a study is usually determined based on the cost, time, or
convenience of collecting the data, and the need for it to offer sufficient statistical power. In
complex studies, different sample sizes may be allocated, such as in stratified surveys or
experimental designs with multiple treatment groups. In a census, data is sought for an entire
population, hence the intended sample size is equal to the population. In experimental design,
where a study may be divided into different treatment groups, there may be different sample
sizes for each group.

Sample sizes may be chosen in several ways:

 using experience – small samples, though sometimes unavoidable, can result in

wide confidence intervals and risk of errors in statistical hypothesis testing.
 using a target variance for an estimate to be derived from the sample eventually obtained,
i.e., if a high precision is required (narrow confidence interval) this translates to a low target
variance of the estimator.
 the use of a power target, i.e. the power of statistical test to be applied once the sample is
collected.
 using a confidence level, i.e. the larger the required confidence level, the larger the sample
size (given a constant precision requirement).
Reliability vs. Validity

Reliability refers to the consistency and dependability of the data collection process. It’s like
having a steady hand that produces the same result each time it reaches for a task.

In the research context, reliability is all about ensuring that if you were to repeat the same study
using the same reliable measurement technique, you’d end up with the same results. It’s like
having multiple researchers independently conduct the same experiment and getting outcomes
that align perfectly.

Imagine you’re using a thermometer to measure the temperature of the water. You have a
reliable measurement if you dip the thermometer into the water multiple times and get the same
reading each time. This tells you that your method and measurement technique consistently
produce the same results, whether it’s you or another researcher performing the measurement.

Validity:- On the other hand, validity refers to the accuracy and meaningfulness of your data.
It’s like ensuring that the puzzle pieces you’re putting together actually form the intended
picture. When you have validity, you know that your method and measurement technique are
consistent and capable of producing results aligned with reality.Think of it this way; Imagine
you’re conducting a test that claims to measure a specific trait, like problem-solving ability. If
the test consistently produces results that accurately reflect participants’ problem-solving skills,
then the test has high validity. In this case, the test produces accurate results that truly correspond
to the trait it aims to measure.

Types of Reliability

 High test-retest reliability : Test-retest reliability involves assessing the consistency of

measurements over time. It’s like taking the same measurement or test twice – once and
then again after a certain period. If the results align closely, it indicates that the
measurement is reliable over time. Think of it as capturing the essence of stability.

 Inter-rater reliability :- When multiple researchers or observers are part of the equation,
interrater reliability comes into play. This type of reliability assesses the level of
agreement between different observers when evaluating the same phenomenon. It’s like
ensuring that different pairs of eyes perceive things in a similar way.

 Internal reliability :-Internal consistency dives into the harmony among different items
within a measurement tool aiming to assess the same concept. This often comes into play
in surveys or questionnaires, where participants respond to various items related to a
single construct. If the responses to these items consistently reflect the same underlying
concept, the measurement is said to have high internal consistency.

Types of validity
  Content validity :-It delves into whether a measurement truly captures all dimensions of
the concept it intends to measure. It’s about making sure your measurement tool covers
all relevant aspects comprehensively.

 Construct validity :-It assesses how well a measurement aligns with established theories
and concepts. It’s like ensuring that your measurement is a true representation of the
abstract construct you’re trying to capture.

 Criterion validity :Criterion validity examines how well your measurement corresponds
to other established measurements of the same concept. It’s about making sure your
measurement accurately predicts or correlates with external criteria.

Differences between reliability and validity in research

Let’s delve into the differences between reliability and validity in research.

No Category Reliability Validity

Focuses on the consistency of Concerns about the accuracy and

01 Meaning measurements over time and relevance of measurements in capturing
conditions. the intended concept.

Assesses whether the same results can Assesses whether measurements truly
What it
02 be obtained consistently from measure what they are intended to
assesses
repeated measurements. measure.

Evaluated through test-retest Assessed through content coverage,

Assessment
03 consistency, interrater agreement, and construct alignment, and criterion
methods
internal consistency. correlation.

A measurement can be reliable A valid measurement is typically

04 Interrelation (consistent) without being valid reliable, but high reliability doesn’t
(accurate). guarantee validity.

Ensures data consistency and Guarantees meaningful and credible

05 Importance
replicability results.
 Focuses on the stability and
Focuses on the meaningfulness and
06 Focus consistency of measurement
accuracy of measurement outcomes.
outcomes.

Reproducibility of measurements is Meaningful and accurate measurement

07 Outcome
the key outcome. outcomes are the primary goal.

QUESTIONNAIRE

A questionnaire is a list of questions or items used to gather data from respondents about their
attitudes, experiences, or opinions. Questionnaires can be used to
collect quantitative and/or qualitative information.

Questionnaires are commonly used in market research as well as in the social and health
sciences. For example, a company may ask for feedback about a recent customer service
experience, or psychology researchers may investigate health risk perceptions using
questionnaires.

A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or other types of

prompts that aims to collect information from a respondent. A research questionnaire is typically
a mix of close-ended questions and open-ended questions.

Open-ended, long-form questions offer the respondent the ability to elaborate on their thoughts.
Research questionnaires were developed in 1838 by the Statistical Society of London.

Advantages of a good questionnaire design

 With a survey questionnaire, you can gather a lot of data in less time.
 There is less chance of any bias(like selection bias) creeping if you have a standard set of
questions to be used for your target audience. You can apply logic to questions based on
the respondents’ answers, but the questionnaire will remain standard for a group of
respondents that fall in the same segment.
 Surveying online survey software is quick and cost-effective. It offers you a rich set of
features to design, distribute, and analyze the response data.
 It can be customized to reflect your brand voice. Thus, it can be used to reinforce your
brand image.
 The responses can be compared with the historical data and understand the shift in
respondents’ choices and experiences.
 Respondents can answer the questionnaire without revealing their identity. Also, many
survey software complies with significant data security and privacy regulations.
Characteristics of a good questionnaire

 Uniformity: Questionnaires are very useful to collect demographic information, personal

opinions, facts, or attitudes from respondents. One of the most significant attributes of a
research form is uniform design and standardization. Every respondent sees the same
questions. This helps in data collection and statistical analysis of this data. For example,
the retail store evaluation questionnaire template contains questions for evaluating retail
store experiences. Questions relate to purchase value, range of options for product
selections, and quality of merchandise. These questions are uniform for all customers.
 Exploratory: It should be exploratory to collect qualitative data. There is no restriction on
questions that can be in your questionnaire. For example, you use a data collection
questionnaire and send it to the female of the household to understand her spending and
saving habits relative to the household income. Open-ended questions give you more
insight and allow the respondents to explain their practices. A very structured question
list could limit the data collection.
 Question Sequence: It typically follows a structured flow of questions to increase the
number of responses. This sequence of questions is screening questions, warm-up
questions, transition questions, skip questions, challenging questions, and classification
questions. For example, our motivation and buying experience questionnaire
template covers initial demographic questions and then asks for time spent in sections of
the store and the rationale behind purchases.

Types & Definitions

As we explored before, questionnaires can be either structured or free-flowing. Let’s take a

closer look at what that entails for your surveys.

 Structured Questionnaires: Structured questionnaires collect quantitative data. The

questionnaire is planned and designed to gather precise information. It also initiates a
formal inquiry, supplements data, checks previously accumulated data, and helps validate
any prior hypothesis.
 Unstructured Questionnaires: Unstructured questionnaires collect qualitative data. They
use a basic structure and some branching questions but nothing that limits the responses
of a respondent. The questions are more open-ended to collect specific data from
participants.

Types of questions in a questionnaire

You can use multiple question types in a questionnaire. Using various question types can help
increase responses to your research questionnaire as they tend to keep participants more engaged.
The best customer satisfaction survey templates are the most commonly used for better insights
and decision-making.

Some of the widely used types of questions are:

 Open-Ended Questions: Open-ended questions help collect qualitative data in a
questionnaire where the respondent can answer in a free form with little to no restrictions.
 Dichotomous Questions: The dichotomous question is generally a “yes/no” close-ended
question. This question is usually used in case of the need for necessary validation. It is
the most natural form of a questionnaire.
 Multiple-Choice Questions: Multiple-choice questions are a close-ended question type in
which a respondent has to select one (single-select multiple-choice question) or many
(multi-select multiple choice question) responses from a given list of options. The
multiple-choice question consists of an incomplete stem (question), right answer or
answers, incorrect answers, close alternatives, and distractors. Of course, not all multiple-
choice questions have all of the answer types. For example, you probably won’t have the
wrong or right answers if you’re looking for customer opinion.
 Scaling Questions: These questions are based on the principles of the four measurement
scales – nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. A few of the question types that utilize these
scales’ fundamental properties are rank order questions, Likert scale questions, semantic
differential scale questions, and Stapel scale questions.
Steps Involved in Questionnaire Design

1. Identify the scope of your research:Think about what your questionnaire is going to include
before you start designing the look of it. The clarity of the topic is of utmost importance as this is
the primary step in creating the questionnaire. Once you are clear on the purpose of the
questionnaire, you can begin the design process.

2. Keep it simple:The words or phrases you use while writing the questionnaire must be easy to
understand. If the questions are unclear, the respondents may simply choose any answer and
skew the data you collect.

3. Ask only one question at a time:At times, a researcher may be tempted to add two similar
questions. This might seem like an excellent way to consolidate answers to related issues, but it
can confuse your respondents or lead to inaccurate data. If any of your questions contain the
word “and,” take another look. This question likely has two parts, which can affect the quality of
your data.

4. Be flexible with your options:While designing, the survey creator needs to be flexible in
terms of “option choice” for the respondents. Sometimes the respondents may not necessarily
want to choose from the answer options provided by the survey creator. An “other” option often
helps keep respondents engaged in the survey.

5. The open-ended or closed-ended question is a tough choice:The survey creator might end
up in a situation where they need to make distinct choices between open or close-ended
questions. The question type should be carefully chosen as it defines the tone and importance of
asking the question in the first place.If the questionnaire requires the respondents to elaborate on
their thoughts, an open-ended question is the best choice. If the surveyor wants a specific
response, then close-ended questions should be their primary choice. The key to asking closed-
ended questions is to generate data that is easy to analyze and spot trends.

6. It is essential to know your audience:A researcher should know their target audience. For
example, if the target audience speaks mostly Spanish, sending the questionnaire in any other
language would lower the response rate and accuracy of data. Something that may seem clear to
you may be confusing to your respondents. Use simple language and terminology that your
respondents will understand, and avoid technical jargon and industry-specific language that
might confuse your respondents.For efficient market research, researchers need a representative
sample collected using one of the many sampling techniques, such as a sample questionnaire. It
is imperative to plan and define these target respondents based on the demographics required.

7. Choosing the right tool is essential: QuestionPro is a simple yet advanced survey software
platform that the surveyors can use to create a questionnaire or choose from the already
existing 300+ questionnaire templates.Always save personal questions for last. Sensitive
questions may cause respondents to drop off before completing. If these questions are at the end,
the respondent has had time to become more comfortable with the interview and are more likely
to answer personal or demographic questions.
Differences between a Questionnaire and a Survey

Questionnaire Survey

A questionnaire can is a researchA survey is a research method used for

instrument that consists of a set ofcollecting data from a pre-defined group
Meaning
questions to collect informationof respondents to gain information and
from a respondent. insights on various topics of interest.

Process of collecting and analyzing that

What is it? The instrument of data collection
data

Consists of questionnaire and survey

Characteristic Subset of survey
design, logic and data collection

Time and Cost Fast and cost-effective Much slower and expensive

Use Conducted on the target audience Distributed or conducted on respondents

Close-ended and very rarely

Questions Close-ended and open-ended
open-ended

Answers Objective Subjective or objective

Measurement and Scaling Techniques:

Measurement of Variables is an integral part of research and an important aspect of research

design. The characteristic of individual and business vary from individual to individual and from
entity to entity. In the case of human beings, there are certain physical or quantitative
characteristics like height, weight and there are certain abstract or qualitative characteristics like
intelligence, integrity, attitude creativity, etc., In case of business organization also there are
physical characteristics like employees, sales, profit, etc. which are easily measureable.
However, there are certain abstract characteristics like reputation, image of the entity,
motivation, customer perceptions. The perceptions and feelings of customers and employees are
extremely important because they help the company to stay afloat and grow.

Measurement means assigning numbers or symbols to the characteristics of certain objects.

We do not measure the object but some characteristics of it. Therefore in research people or
consumers are not measured; what is measured only are their perceptions, attitude or any other
relevant characteristics. There are two reasons for which numbers are usually assigned. First of
all, numbers permit statistical analysis of the resulting data and secondly, they facilitate the
communication of measurement results. The assignment of numbers to the characteristics must
be isomorphic. Scaling is an extension of measurement. It involves creating a continuum on
which measurement of objects are located. Suppose you want to measure the satisfaction level
towards coffee day and scale of 1 to 11 is used for the said purpose. This scale indicates the
degree of dissatisfaction, with 1=extremely dissatisfied and 11=extremely satisfied.
Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 11 to each respondent. Scaling
describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other
concepts. This can be done in two ways viz, (i) making a judgment about some characteristic of
an individual and then placing him directly on a scale that has been defined in terms of
thatcharacteristic (ii) Constructing questionnaires in such a way that the score of individual’s
responses assigns him a place on a scale.

Characteristics or goodness of instruments / measurement scales

A measurement scale has to have certain desirable characteristic or criteria to judge its
“goodness” so that one could have faith or trust in the scale that it will measure what it is
intended to measure. The following are the main characteristics of measurement scales. They are

 Accuracy and Precision

 Reliability
 Validity
 Practicality

Accuracy and Precision :- The characteristics of accuracy in measurement scale means it should
be a true representative of the observation of underlying characteristic. The precision, however,
means the power to discriminate/distinguish and indicate the extent of accuracy that can be
achieved with the measurement scale.Eg: The examination is conducted to measure the
knowledge and understanding of the student. The marks scored out of say 100, would provide
better accuracy and precision than simply grading the students A+, A, B+, B and C

Reliability :-Reliability indicates the confidence one could have in the measurement obtained
with a scale. It tests how consistently a measuring instrument measures a given
characteristic/attitude is measured again and again, leading to about the same conclusion.
However, it may be emphasized that reliability does not necessarily imply that the measuring
instrument is also accurate. All it means is consistency in drawing conclusion.

Validity:- The validity of a measuring instrument indicates the extent to which an instrument
scale tests or measures what it is intended to measure. For example, if we intent to
measure intelligence, the instrument, say question paper, ought to be such that it results in
measuring true intelligence; if the paper tests only general knowledge, the instrument is not
valid.

Practicability :- From theoretical viewpoint, a measure is ought to be reliable and valid.

However, from practical viewpoint, the measure should be ,Economical,Convenient,Interpretable
Properties of scales

 Distinctive classification
 Order
 Equal Distance
 Fixed Origin

Distinctive classification:- A measure that can be used to classify objects or their characteristics
into distinctive classes or categories is said to have this property. This is the minimum
requirement for any measure. Eg: Gender classifies the individuals into two distinctive groups,
male and female.

Order:- A measure is set to have an order if the objects or their characteristics can be arranged in
a meaningful order. Eg: Marks of the student can be arranged in an ascending or descending
order.

Equal Distance :- Thedifference between any two consecutive categories of a measured tribute,
are equal, then the measure is said to have equal distance. Eg: The time difference between 2 pm
to 3 pm is same as the difference between 3 pm and 4 pm.

Fixed Origin :-A measurement for measuring a characteristic is said to have a fixed origin if
there is a meaningful zero or “absence” of characteristic. Ex: Income of an individual, Sales of a
Company.

CLASSIFICATION OR TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES

 Nominal Scale
 Ordinal Scale
 Interval Scale
 Ratio Scale

Nominal Scale :- The qualitative scale without order is called nominal scale. The nominal scale
involves classification of measure objects into various categories such as ‘Yes’ or ‘No’, ‘pass’ or
‘fail’. Numeric value is assigned to these classified categories like house number, telephone
number, and roll number of the student. The data collected through a nominal measure scale is
called nominal data.

Ordinal Scale :- A qualitative scale with order is called an ordinal scale, it tells whether an object
has more or less of characteristics than some other objects. It is a scale that does not measure
values of the characteristics but indicates only the order or rank like 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc. Some
examples are Ratings of hotels, restaurants, and movies. The data obtained using ordinal scale is
termed as ordinal data.

Interval Scale:-A measurement scale whose successive values represent equal value or amount of
characteristic that is being measured and whose base value is not fixed is called an interval scale.
It provides more powerful measurement than ordinal scales. It also incorporates the concept of
equality of interval. This is a quantitative scale of measure without a fixed or true zero. It is a
quantitative data that can be measured on a numerical scale. However, the zero point does not
mean the absence of the characteristic being measured. Some examples are temperature, time,
longitude, latitude, etc. The data obtained from an interval scale is termed as interval data.

Ratio Scale :-This is the highest level of measurement and has all the four properties of a scale.
Ratio scale represents the actual amount of variables. Ratio scales are quantitative measures with
fixed or true zero. The data obtained from ratio scales are referred to as ratio data. Ratio is also a
quantitative data that can be measured on a numerical scale but, here the zero point is fixed and
implies the absence of what is being measured. In fact, if a scale has all the features of an
interval scale, and there is a true zero point, then it is called a ratio scale.

Table 1 Examples of measurement scales

Statistical Analysis based on Scales Depending on the property of the scales, there is a
limitation on the descriptive statistics one can perform on the scales.

Table 2 summarizes the descriptive statistics that can be used on the type of scales
SCALING TECHNIQUES

Several scales formats have been developed to enable a researcher in collecting appropriate data
for conducting a study. The scales are broadly divided into two categories viz.

 Conventional scaling
 Unconventional scaling

The conventional scales are used in the questionnaire format and are most common. The
unconventional scales are used for unconventional collection of data through games, puzzles, etc.

The conventional scales are of two types viz, Comparative Scaling techniques and Non
comparative techniques.

COMPARATIVE SCALING TECHNIQUES

The comparative scale involves direct comparison of the different objects. Comparative scale
data are measured on ordinal scale and interpreted in relative terms and such as they generate
non metric or non-numerical data.

Types of comparative scaling techniques

 Paired comparison
 Rank order
 Constant Sum

Paired Comparison

In paired comparison scales, the respondent is asked to select one object from the list of two
objects, on the basis of some criteria. This forces the respondents to compulsorily select one of
the two. Such scales are used when the study requires to distinguish between the two specified
objects.

Example

In the study of consumer preferences about two brands of glucose biscuits viz, Parl-G and
Tiger.
Select any one of the two brands.
Which Glucose biscuits do you prefer on the basis of ‘Taste’?
1 Parle-G 1 Tiger
Which Glucose biscuit do you prefer on the basis of ‘Price’?
1 Parle-G 1 Tiger
Which Glucose biscuits do you prefer on the basis of ‘Taste’?
1 Parle-G 1 Tiger
 This scaling technique is useful when the researcher wants to compare two or more objects. In
the above example we have compared two brands over three factors. Hence the number of
comparison is three.

Rank order scaling

In the rank order scaling, respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and
asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. It is also termed as forced ranking scale.
Unlike paired comparison, rank order scaling technique prompts respondents to rank a given list
of objects.

Example :-Rank the following services in the order of importance attached by you, while
selecting a new mobile services provider. The most preferred can be ranked 1, the next as 2 and
so on. The least preferred will have the last rank. Do not repeat the ranks.

Constant Sum Rating Scale

When it is to assess the relative importance attached by a respondent to the objects in a list, the
constant sum scaling technique is used. In this technique, a respondent is asked to allocate
certain points, out of a fixed sum of points, for each object according to the importance attached
by him/her to that object. If the object is not so important, the respondent can allocate zero point,
and if an object is most important he/she may allocate maximum points out of the fixed points.
Generally, the total fixed points are 100 for simplicity but it may be taken as some other value
depending on the study.
 Example:-Allocate the amount you would like to spend on your birthday on the following items,
out of total amount of Rs.10000/- (Please note that total amount allocated should be exactly
Rs.10000).

State whether the following statements are true or false

 Nominal scale can only involve the assignment of numbers. Alphabets or symbols cannot be
assigned
 A comparative rating scale attempts to provide a common frame of reference to all respondents

NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES

In the non-comparative scales, the respondents do not make use of any frame of reference before
answering the questions. The resulting data is generally assumed to be interval or ratio scale.

For eg: The respondent may be asked to evaluate the quality of food in a restaurant on a five
point scale (1=very poor, 2=poor and 5=very good).

TYPES OF NON-COMPARITIVE SCALES

 Graphic rating scales

 Itemized rating scales:
 Likert scale
 Semantic differential scale
 Stapel scale

Graphic rating scale

This is a continuous scale, also called graphic rating scale. In the graphic rating scale the
respondent is asked to tick his preference on a graph.

Eg: Please put a tick mark on the following line to indicate your preference for fast food.
 To measure the preference of an individual towards the fast food, one has to measure the
distance from the extreme left to the position where the tick mark has been put. Higher the
distance, higher would be the individual preference for fast food. The basic assumption in this
scale is that the respondents can distinguish the fine shade in differences between the preference
or attitude which need not be the case. Further, the coding, editing and tabulation of data
generated through such a procedure is a very tedious task and the researchers would try to avoid
using it.

Another version of graphic scale could be:Eg: Please put a tick mark on the following line to
indicate your preference for fast food.

This is a slightly better version than the one discussed earlier. For eg: if a respondent had earlier
ticked between 5 and 6, it is likely that he would remember the same and the second time, he
would tick very close to where he did earlier. This means that the difference in the two response
could be negligible.

Itemized rating scale

In the Itemized rating scale, the respondents are provided with a scale that has a number of brief
descriptions associated with each of the response categories. It is widely used in survey research.
There are certain issues that should be kept in mind while designing the itemized rating scale.
These issues are:

Number of categories to be used :- There is no hard and fast rule as to how many categories
should be used in an itemized rating scale. However, it is a practice to use five or six categories.
It is a fact that the additional categories need not increase the precision with the attitude of being
measured.

Odd or even number of categories :- By using even number of categories the scale would not
have a neutral category and the respondent will be forced to choose either the positive or the
negative side of the attitude. If the odd numbers of categories are used, the respondent has the
freedom to be neutral if he wants to be so.
 Balanced versus unbalanced scales :- A balanced scale is the one which has equal number of
favorable and unfavorable categories.

Example for balanced scale:

How important is price to you in buying a new car?

 Very important
 Relatively important
 Neither important nor unimportant Relatively unimportant
 Very unimportant

Example for unbalanced sale:

How important is price to you in buying a new car?

 More important than any other factor Extremely important Important Somewhat
important Unimportant
 Nature and degree of verbal description
 Verbal descriptions must be clearly and precisely worded so that the respondents are
able to differentiate between them.

Forced versus Non-forced scales

In a forced scale, the respondent is allowed to take a stand, whereas in the non- forced scale,
the respondent can be neutral if he/she so desires. Paired comparison scale, rank order scale and
constant sum rating scales are examples of forced scales.

Physical Form :- There are many options that are available for the presentation of the scales. It
could be presented vertically or horizontally. The categories could be expressed in boxes,
discrete lines or as units on a continuum. They may or may not have numbers assigned to them.
The numerical values, if used, may be positive, negative or both. Eg: Suppose we want to
measure the perception about Jet airways using a multi-item scale
 Likert scale

The Likert scale is the most frequently used variations of the summated rating scale commonly
used in the studies relating to attitudes and perceptions. Summated rating scales comprise
statement that expressed either a favorable or an unfavorable attitude toward the objective of
interest on a 5 point, 7 point ot on any other numerical value. The respondents are given a certain
number of items (statements) on which they are asked to express their degree of agreement or
disagreement. Likert scale is also called a summated scale because the scores on individual items
can be added together to produce a total score for the respondent.

Likert scale statements to measure the image of the company

Likert scale has several advantages that make it more popular. It is relatively easy and quick to
compute. Further, it is more reliable and provides more data for a given amount of respondent’s
time, as compared to other scales. The data gathered is interval data.

Semantic differential scale

This scale is widely used to compare the images of competing brands, companies or services.
In semantic differential scale, a respondent is required to rate each attitude object on a number of
five-or-seven point rating scales. The difference between likert and semantic differential scale is
 that, in a likert scale, a number of statements are presented to the respondents to express their
degree of agreement or disagreement. However, in semantic differential scale, bipolar adjectives
or phrases are used. The advantage of semantic differential scale is that it is versatile and gives
multi dimension advantage. It is widely used to compare image of brands, products, services and
companies. The data generated from this scale can be considered as numeric in some cases, and
can be summed to arrive total scores.

Stapel scale

Stapel scale is used to measure the direction and intensity of an attitude. The scale generally
has 10 categories involving numbering -5 to +5 without a neutral point and is usually presented
in a vertical form.

Eg: Suppose a restaurant is to be evaluated on quality of food and quality of service, and then
the staple scale would be presented as:

 The data generated in staple scale is interval data.

 It can be used to collect data through telephonic interview.
 This method is most applicable were evaluative responses are to be rated on a single dimension.
 The scale is most economical were several items are all to be rated on the same dimension.
Different Sources Of Data
The following are the two sources of data:

1. Internal sources

 When data is collected from reports and records of the organisation itself, they are known
as the internal sources.
 For example, a company publishes its annual report’ on profit and loss, total sales, loans,
wages, etc.

2. External sources

 When data is collected from sources outside the organisation, they are known as the
external sources. For example, if a tour and travel company obtains information on
Karnataka tourism from Karnataka Transport Corporation, it would be known as an
external source of data.

Types of Data
A) Primary data

 Primary data means first-hand information collected by an investigator.

 It is collected for the first time.
 It is original and more reliable.
 For example, the population census conducted by the government of India after every ten
years is primary data.
B) Secondary data

 Secondary data refers to second-hand information.

 It is not originally collected and rather obtained from already published or unpublished
sources.
 For example, the address of a person taken from the telephone directory or the phone
number of a company taken from Just Dial are secondary data.
Students can also refer to Meaning and Sources of Secondary Data

Methods of Collecting Primary Data

1. Direct personal investigation

2. Indirect oral investigation
3. Information through correspondents
4. Telephonic interview
5. Mailed questionnaire
6. The questionnaire filled by enumerators
Coding Editing And Tabulation Of Data
The data which is collected for the purpose of the study itself cannot reveal everything. This
being a raw data, it is required to process and analyze in order to have desired result. The data
which is collected cannot be directly used for making analysis. Before analysis, data is required
to be processed.

Data processing is an intermediate stage between collection of data and their analysis and
interpretation, which include Checking, Editing, Coding and Tabulation.Data processing is a
crucial stage in research. After collecting the data from the field, the researcher has to process
and analyze them in order to arrive at certain conclusions which may confirm or invalidate the
hypothesis which he had formulated towards the beginning of research worth. The mass of data
collected during the field work is to be processed with a view to reducing them to manageable
proportions. Only by such a careful and systematic processing, the data will lend itself for
statistical treatment and meaningful interpretation and conclusion.

EDITING

Editing means to rectify or to set to order or to correct or to establish sequence.Editing is the

process of examining the data collected in questionnaire or interview schedule to deduct errors
and omissions and to correct those if possible. When the whole data collection is over, a final
and thorough check up is made for data processing. It is better if the data collected is verified
even before the data analysis is carried out. In this process editing is the first step. Editing is done
to assure that the collected data are accurate, consistant with other facts gathered uniformly
entered and as complete as possible. For example imagine if we get the newspaper unedited, how
the news will appear? Similarly, an unedited film will have no sequence of events, which means
the story cannot be understood at all.

TYPES

Editing is performed at two stages and depending on that it could be of two types:

 Field editing
 Central editing / Centralized editing

Field editing :- Field editing is the process for completing the information recorded in
abbreviated or in illegible form at the time of recording the respondent’s response. This sort of
editing should be carried out as soon as possible after interview. In field editing completeness of
the forms should be checked by person. It may be possible that the investigator might have
forgotten to record the information. If investigator recorded information is incomplete form
using abbreviations than it should be completed.

Central editing / Centralized editing :- Central editing is done on the return to the office after
completing all forms of schedule. This sort of editing is performed by single editor or by a team
of editors. The editors are free to correct the obvious errors such as an entry in the wrong place,
entry recorded in different units and the like. At central level, editors must correct various
mistakes of the investigator. In case of gap in the answers the editor will be required to decide
the proper answer to meet out the gap in answer. This can be done by reviewing the other
information in questionnaire. Some times in spite of all efforts, if correctness of the answer is
impossible than it is safe to strike out such wrong answers. All the wrong answers should be
dropped by the editors.

Significance of editing
 It is pre-requisite for accuracy.
 It is useful in the elimination of the incorrect reply.
 It ensures the consistency of the data collected and avoids contradictions.
 It is useful to convert the answers into uniform units of measurement before coding

CODING

Coding is the process of organizing the data or response into classes or categories and
assigning numerical or other symbols to responses according to the class or category in which
they fall. Hence coding is considered as the classification process. Coding is necessary for
efficient analysis. Coding is used to compartmentalize several replies effective into a small
number of classes which contain the critical information required for analysis. In the process of
coding, the study of answer is the first step and the last step is transfer of information from the
schedule to the separate sheet called transcription sheet. Transcription sheet is a large summary
sheet which contains the answers or codes of all the respondents. Transcription may not be
necessary when only simple tables are required and the number of respondents is few. Coding is
done with the help of set rules. The classes or categories should be reasonable and should be
appropriate to the research problem, under study. The coding must be exhaustive; it means there
should be class for each item of the data. For each answer it should be assigned with separate
number. The coding should be based on the fact of mutual exclusivity it means specific answer
can be place only in one category. The coding must observe the rule of single dimension; it
means every class in the category set is defined in terms of only one concept. Coding provides
base for analysis. It can be simplified if use of pre-coded questionnaire is made. The decision of
coding should be taken well in advance at the stage of designing of questionnaire. By the
investigators time is saved. Standard method should be used in case of hand coding. The process
of coding is hard task but can be simplified if coding preparation is made prior to designing of
schedule or questionnaire. Whatever method is adopted for coding the main important fact is that
coding errors should be reduced.

Significance of coding

 It is useful in the classification of the responses into meaningful categories.

 It simplifies the difficult task of processing the qualitative information.
 One code is specific to only one kind of information so that a given response falls in
only one category.

Rules for coding

1. Give code numbers to each respondent and to each response.
2. Give code numbers to qualitative response also.
3. Prepare the coding frame.

While the editing is being performed, special coding actions are carried out. Geographic coding
is in essence for the completion of automatic coding.

CLASSIFICATION

Classification is a process in which large data is reduced into homogeneous group meaningful
relationship is needed. It is process of arranging data into groups based on common
characteristics and classification can be done either according to attributes or according to class
intervals.

 Classification as per attributes

 Classification as per class intervals

Classification as per attributes

The data which is required to be classified as per attributes can be either descriptive or
numerical in nature. If the data is collected in qualitative means in descriptive forms that it
cannot be measured in quantitative form. Data collected based on attributes is classified
according to attributes only. In attribute classification only one attribute is considered to divide
the universe in two classes, one having attribute and other not having the attribute. In
classification based on more number of attributes, than data is divided in number of classes,
for example- if attributes AB are studied than their presence is recorded as AB respectively and
their absence is recorded in AB respectively. Then we have following classes- AB, Ab, aB,ab.

Classification as per class intervals

The numerical data collected refers to quantitative form, it can be measured only through
some statistical unit, and data related to production, income, age come under this category. This
type of data is classified on the basis of class interval. For example, person having income of
Rs.7000 or Rs.11000 per month, group one for 7000 group within Rs.5000-10000 can be formed
for another for Rs.11000 can be formed within 10000-15000, with formation of these groups as it
can be seen that every group will have lower and upper limit. This is known as class limits.

Rules of classification

 Classification must be exhaustive without any room for doubt or confusion regarding the
placement of the observations in the given classes.
 The classes must not overlap.
 Classification should be in accordance with the objectives of inquiry.

Significance of classification
 It is helpful in tabulation.
 It leads to a valid result.
 It makes interpretation clear and meaningful.

TABULATION

Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying in compact form of vertical
columns and horizontal rows of numbers for further analysis. Analysis of data is made possible
through tables. Tabulation may be done manually or mechanically or electronically.

Tabulation is the process of presenting in an orderly manner of the classified data in a table. In
other words, it is a method of presenting the summarized data. Tabulation is very important
because,

 Its helps to conserve space

 It avoids any need for explanation
 Computation of the data is made easier
 Comparison of data becomes very simple
 Adequacy or inadequacy of the data is clearly visible.

A table contains columns and rows. These columns and rows create small boxes which are
called cells. Tables are classified as

 One-way table
 Two-way table and
 Multi-way table

Through one-way table, we would get only one information, while the two-way table can provide
minimum two information’s and the multi-way table could provide a number of information. In
case of large number of items in big study, project strip method is used. Long strip used in this
method, where 160 columns and 320 items can be recorded in one strip. Tabulation can be
classified as

A. Simple tabulation
B. Complex tabulation

Simple tabulation

It gives information about one or more groups of independent questions. This results, in one
way table, provides information of one characteristics of data.

Complex tabulation
 In this type of tabulation, the data is divided in two or more categories which gives
information regarding more sets of inter-related question. It results in two way or three way
tables which gives information about several inter related characteristics of data. This complex
table is described as cross tabulation.

Components of Table

There are set rules for tabulation but due care should be taken on following aspect for
constructing table.

1. Each table should have clear number for the purpose of the reference.
2. Every table should also have suitable title and this title should be self explanatory.
3. There should be proper heading to each column and raw of the table in brief.
4. The body of the table contains the numerical information. Data presented in the body is
arranged as per the description.
5. The unit of measurement is frequently written as headnote such as in ‘000’ (in thousand)
or million (i.e. 10 lakhs) or Cr. (i.e. crores).