Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ebook Download (Original PDF) Social Research Methods 5th Edition All Chapter
Ebook Download (Original PDF) Social Research Methods 5th Edition All Chapter
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-research-methods-for-
social-work-8th-edition/
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-survey-research-
methods-5th-edition/
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-qualitative-research-
methods-5th-edition/
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-research-methods-for-
the-social-sciences-8th-edition/
(Original PDF) Social Research Methods 3rd Edition by
Maggie Walter
http://ebooksecure.com/product/original-pdf-social-research-
methods-3rd-edition-by-maggie-walter/
http://ebooksecure.com/product/research-methods-for-the-
behavioral-and-social-sciences-ebook-pdf/
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-research-methods-in-
psychology-5th-edition/
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-empowerment-series-
research-methods-for-social-work-9th-edition/
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-conducting-research-
social-and-behavioral-science-methods-2nd-edition/
Brief contents
Detailed contents ix
About the author xxiii
Introducing the students xxiv
Guide to the book xxv
Guided tour of textbook features xxx
Guided tour of the ORC: lecturer resources xxxii
Guided tour of the ORC: student resources xxxiii
Abbreviations xxxiv
Glossary 688
References 698
Name index 727
Subject index 732
Detailed contents
About the author xxiii
Introducing the students xxiv
Guide to the book xxv
Guided tour of textbook features xxx
Guided tour of the ORC: lecturer resources xxxii
Guided tour of the ORC: student resources xxxiii
Abbreviations xxxiv
Key points 37
Questions for review 37
Glossary 688
References 698
Name index 727
Subject index 732
About the author
Alan Bryman was appointed Professor of Organ
izational and Social Research in the School of
Management at the University of Leicester in August
2005. He was head of the School during 2008 and 2009.
Prior to his move to Leicester, he was Professor of Social
Research at Loughborough University, where he had
worked for thirty-one years. He is now an Emeritus
Professor of the University of Leicester.
His main research interests are in leadership, espe
cially in higher education, research methods (particu
larly mixed methods research), and the ‘Disneyization’
and ‘McDonaldization’ of modern society. In 2003–4 he
completed a project on mixed methods research as part
of the Economic and Social Research Council’s Research
Methods Programme. This research has been used to inform Chapter 27.
He has published widely in the field of Social Research, including: Quantitative Data
Analysis with IBM SPSS 17, 18 and 19: A Guide for Social Scientists (Routledge, 2011) with
Duncan Cramer; Business Research Methods (Oxford University Press, 4th edition 2015)
with Emma Bell; The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods (Sage, 2004)
with Michael Lewis-Beck and Tim Futing Liao; The Disneyization of Society (Sage, 2004);
Handbook of Data Analysis (Sage, 2004) with Melissa Hardy; The SAGE Handbook of
Organizational Research Methods (Sage, 2009) with David Buchanan; and The SAGE
Handbook of Leadership (Sage, 2011) with David Collinson, Keith Grint, Brad Jackson, and
Mary Uhl-Bien.
He has contributed articles to a range of academic journals including Journal of
Management Studies; Human Relations; International Journal of Social Research
Methodology; Leadership Quarterly; Leadership; Studies in Higher Education; and
American Behavioral Scientist. He is also on the editorial board of Leadership and
Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal.
Introducing the students
For many readers of this book one of the main reasons for using it will be to enable you to
undertake a research project of your own, perhaps for the first time. With this in mind, I
have included boxed features entitled ‘Student experience’, which are based on the experi-
ences of undergraduate and postgraduate social science students who have done a research
project, usually as part of their final year dissertation. The aim of these boxes is to provide
insight and advice based on the experiences of real students in their own words, or in other
words, to ‘tell it like it is’, as Nichols and Beynon (1977) have put it. This feature is based on
a set of questionnaires completed by undergraduate and postgraduate students from differ-
ent UK university social science departments.
I am extremely grateful to the students for being willing to share their experiences of
doing a research project and hope that sharing what they have learned from this process
with the readers of this book will enable others to benefit from their experience. A number
of these students assisted on the previous edition of this book.
For more information on the students and to download the original questionnaires in
the form of podcasts, visit the Online Resource Centre at:
www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/brymansrm5e/
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
are characteristic for each species. The Nematus larvae that inhabit
galls possess all the characteristics of those that feed externally. As
a rule the skin of the larva is naked and free from hair, but it is often
minutely tuberculate, and in a few species it is armed with
remarkable forked spines. These spines may exist during part of the
larval life, and completely disappear at one of the moults. The
creatures are as a rule very sluggish, and move about much less
than Lepidopterous larvae; many of them, when alarmed, have the
power of exuding a disagreeable liquid, either from the mouth or
from pores in the skin; in the latter case it may be sent as a sort of
spray to some little distance from the body. This operation is said to
be very efficacious as a means of protecting the larvae from the
attacks of parasitic flies that are desirous of laying eggs in their
bodies. One peculiarity as to their colour has attracted the attention
of Réaumur and subsequent naturalists, namely, that in the case of
many species a great change takes place in the colour during the life
of the larva, and more especially at the period of the last moult. The
change to the pupal state usually takes place in a cocoon, and some
species have the peculiar habit of forming a double cocoon, the
outer one being hard and coarse, while the inner is beautifully
delicate. The cocoon is sometimes formed in the earth, and in that
case it may be to a large extent composed of earthy matter. The
Insect frequently remains a long time in its cocoon before emerging
as a perfect Insect; however long this time may be, it is nearly all of it
passed in the larval state; when the Insect does change to a pupa it
speedily thereafter emerges as a perfect Insect. In the pupa the
parts of the imago may be seen enveloped in a very delicate,
transparent skin.
1. The egg may be laid outside a larva, and the embryonic and larval
developments may both be passed on the exterior.
2. The egg may be laid and the embryonic development passed
through, outside the host, but the parasite on hatching may enter the
host, so that the post-embryonic development is passed in the lymph
of the host.
3. The egg may be laid inside the host, both embryonic and post-
embryonic developments being gone through in the fluids of the
host.
4. The egg may be laid inside another egg, the embryonic and post-
embryonic developments being passed therein.
We shall find that all these conditions exist in the Insects we are
about to consider.
Fam. I. Cynipidae—Gall-flies.
Wings with very few cells, with no dark patch (stigma) on the
anterior margin; pronotum fixed to the mesonotum, and at each
side extending back to the point of insertion of the front wing.
Antennae not elbowed but straight, composed of a moderate
number (12-15) of joints. Early stages passed either in galls or
as parasites in the bodies of other Insects.
The wings frequently bear fine hairs; the paucity of nervures and the
absence of the "stigma" are of importance in the definition of the
family. The most important of the cells is one called the radial cell,
situate just beyond the middle of the front part of the wing.
The exact mode in which the egg is brought to the requisite spot in
the plant is still uncertain. The path traversed by the ovipositor in the
plant is sometimes of considerable length, and far from straight; in
some cases before it actually pierces the tissues, the organ is thrust
between scales or through fissures, so that the terebra, or boring
part of the ovipositor, when it reaches the minute seam of cambium,
is variously curved and flexed. Now as the canal in its interior is of
extreme tenuity, and frequently of great length, it must be a very
difficult matter for the egg to reach the tissue where it should
develop. The eggs of Cynipidae are very remarkable bodies; they
are very ductile, and consist of a head, and of a stalk that in some
cases is five or six times as long as the head, and is itself somewhat
enlarged at the opposite end. Some other Hymenoptera have also
stalked eggs of a similar kind (Fig. 357, A, egg of Leucospis). It has
been thought that this remarkable shape permits of the contents of
the egg being transferred for a time to the narrower parts, and thus
allows the broader portion of the egg to be temporarily compressed,
and the whole structure to be passed through a very narrow canal or
orifice. It is, however, very doubtful whether the egg really passes
along the canal of the borer. Hartig thought that it did so, and Riley
supports this view to a limited extent. Adler, however, is of a different
opinion, and considers that the egg travels in larger part outside the
terebra. It should be remembered that the ovipositor is really
composed of several appendages that are developed from the
outside of the body; thus the external orifice of the body is
morphologically at the base of the borer, the several parts of which
are in longitudinal apposition. Hence there is nothing that would
render the view of the egg leaving the ovipositor at the base
improbable, and Adler supposes that it actually does so, the thin end
being retained between the divisions of the terebra. Riley is of
opinion that the act of oviposition in these Insects follows no uniform
system. He has observed that in the case of Callirhytis clavula,
ovipositing in the buds of Quercus alba, the eggs are inserted by the
egg-stalk into the substance of the leaf, and that the egg-fluids are at
first gathered in the posterior end, which is not inserted. "The fluids
are then gradually absorbed from this exposed portion into the
inserted portion of the egg, and by the time the young leaves have
formed the exposed [parts of the] shells are empty, the thread-like
stalk has disappeared, and the egg-contents are all contained within
the leaf tissue." He has also observed that in Biorhiza nigra the
pedicel, or stalk, only is inserted in the embryonic leaf-tissue, and
that the enlarged portion or egg-body is at first external. The same
naturalist also records that in the case of a small inquiline species,
Ceroptres politus, the pedicel of the egg is very short, and in this
case the egg is thrust down into the puncture made by the borer, so
that the egg is entirely covered.
Some Cynipidae bore a large number of the channels for their eggs
before depositing any of the latter, and it would appear that it is the
rule that the boring of the channel is an act separate from that of
actual oviposition. Adler distinguishes three stages: (1) boring of the
canal; (2) the passage of the egg from the base of the ovipositor,
where the egg-stalk is pinched between the two spiculae and the
egg is pushed along the ovipositor; (3) after the point of the
ovipositor is withdrawn, the egg-body enters the pierced canal, and
is pushed forward by the ovipositor until it reaches the bottom.[436]
About fifty years ago Hartig reared large numbers of certain species
of gall-flies from their galls, obtaining from 28,000 galls of Cynips
disticha about 10,000 flies, and from galls of C. folii 3000 or 4000
examples of this species; he found that all the individuals were
females. His observations were subsequently abundantly confirmed
by other naturalists, among whom we may mention Frederick Smith
in our own country, who made in vain repeated attempts to obtain
males of the species of the genus Cynips. On one occasion he
collected in the South of England 4410 galls of C. kollari (at that time
called C. lignicola), and from these he obtained 1562 flies, all of
which were females. A second effort was attended with similar
results. Hartig, writing in 1843, after many years' experience, stated
that though he was acquainted with twenty-eight species of the
genus Cynips, he had not seen a male of any one of them. During
the course of these futile attempts it was, however, seen that a
possible source of fallacy existed in the fact that the Insects were
reared from collected galls; and these being similar to one another, it
was possible that the males might inhabit some different gall. Adler
endeavoured to put the questions thus raised to the test by means of
rearing females from galls, and then getting these females to
produce, parthenogenetically, galls on small oaks planted in pots,
and thus completely under control. He was quite successful in
carrying out his project, and in doing so he made a most
extraordinary discovery, viz. that the galls produced by these
parthenogenetic females on his potted oaks, were quite different
from the galls from which the flies themselves were reared, and
were, in fact, galls that gave rise to a fly that had been previously
considered a distinct species; and of this form both sexes were
produced. Adler's observations have been confirmed by other
naturalists, and thus the occurrence of alternation of generations,
one of the two generations being parthenogenetic, has been
thoroughly established in Cynipidae. We may mention one case as
illustrative. A gall-fly called Chilaspis lowii is produced from galls on
oak-leaves at Vienna at the end of April, both sexes occurring. The
female thereafter lays eggs on the ribs of the leaves of the same
kind of oak, and thus produces a different gall from that which
nourished herself. These galls fall off with the leaves in the autumn,
and in July or August of the following year a gall-fly is produced from
them. It is a different creature from the mother, and was previously
known to entomologists under the name of Chilaspis nitida. Only
females of it occur, and these parthenogenetic individuals lay their
eggs in the young buds of the oak that are already present in the
autumn, and in the following spring, when the buds open and the
leaves develop, those that have had an egg laid in them produce a
gall from which Chilaspis lowii emerges in April or May. In this case
therefore the cycle of the two generations extends over two years,
the generation that takes the greater part of the time for its
production consisting only of females. Adler's observations showed
that, though in some species this alternation of generations was
accompanied by parthenogenesis in one part of the cycle, yet in
other species this was not the case. He found, for instance, that
some gall-flies of the genus Aphilothrix produced a series of
generations the individuals of which were similar to one another, and
were all females and parthenogenetic. In some species of the old
genus Cynips no males are even yet known to occur. A very curious
observation was made by the American, Walsh, viz. that of galls
gathered by him quite similar to one another, some produced
speedily a number of both sexes of Cynips spongifica, while much
later on in the season the remainder of the galls gave rise to females
only of an Insect called Cynips aciculata. It is believed that the galls
gathered by Walsh[437] were really all one species; so that parts of
the same generation emerge at different times and in two distinct
forms, one of them parthenogenetic, the other consisting of two
sexes. It has, however, been suggested that Cynips spongifica and
C. aciculata may be two distinct species, producing quite similar
galls.
Bassett recorded the first case of the kind in connexion with a North
American species, Cynips (Ceroptres) quercus-arbos Fitch. He says:
"On the first of June galls on Quercus ilicifolia had reached their full
size, but were still tender, quite like the young shoots of which they
formed part. Examining them on that day, I discovered on them two
gall-flies, which I succeeded in taking. They were females, and the
ovipositor of each was inserted into the gall so deeply that they could
not readily free themselves, and they were removed by force."
The great resemblance of the inquiline gall-fly to the fly that makes
the gall both dwell in, has been several times noticed by Osten
Sacken, who says "one of the most curious circumstances
connected with the history of two North American blackberry galls is,
that besides the Diastrophus, which apparently is the genuine
originator of the gall, they produce another gall-fly, no doubt an
inquiline, belonging to the genus Aulax, and showing the most
striking resemblance in size, colouring, and sculpture to the
Diastrophus, their companion. The one is the very counterpart of the
other, hardly showing any differences, except the strictly generic
characters! This seems to be one of those curious instances, so
frequent in entomology, of the resemblance between parasites and
their hosts! By rearing a considerable number of galls of D.
nebulosus I obtained this species as well as its parasite almost in
equal numbers. By cutting some of the galls open I ascertained that
a single specimen of the gall frequently contained both species, thus
setting aside a possible doubt whether these Insects are not
produced by two different, although closely similar galls."[438]
Not more than 500 species of Psenides and Inquiline Cynipidae are
known from all parts of the world; and of described Parasitic
Cynipidae there are only about 150 species. The British forms have
recently been treated by Cameron in the work we have already
several times referred to.[439]