10 Physics Textbook 2024-25

CHAIRMAN, ADVISORY GROUP FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor,Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics

(IUCAA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISOR
Rupamanjari Ghosh, Professor, School of Physical Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi
MEMBERS
Alka Mehrotra, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Animesh K. Mohapatra, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
B.B. Swain, Professor (Retd.), Department of Physics, Utkal University, Orissa
B.K. Sharma, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
B.K. Tripathi, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Brahm Parkash, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Charu Maini, PGT, Salwan Public School, Gurgaon, Haryana
Dinesh Kumar, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Gagan Gupta, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
H.L. Satheesh, TGT , DM School, Regional Institute of Education, Mysore
Ishwant Kaur, PGT, DM School, Regional Institute of Education, Bhopal
J.D. Arora, Reader, Hindu College, Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh
Meenambika Menon, TGT, Cambridge School, Noida, Uttar Pradesh
Puran Chand, Professor and Jt. Director (Retd.), Central Institute of Educational Technology
NCERT, New Delhi
Reeta Sharma, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Bhopal
R.P. Singh, Lecturer, Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, Kishan Ganj, Delhi
Satyajit Rath, Scientist, National Institute of Immunology, JNU Campus, New Delhi
S.K. Dash, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneswar
Sunita Ramrakhiani, PGT, Ahlcon Public School, Delhi
Uma Sudhir, Eklavya, Indore, Madhya Pradesh
Vandana Saxena, TGT, Kendriya Vidyalaya-4, Kandhar Lines, Delhi Cantt., New Delhi
Vinod Kumar, Reader, Hans Raj College, Delhi University, Delhi
MEMBER- COORDINATOR
Anjni Koul, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
The National Curriculum Framework, (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s life at
school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the
legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between
the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF
signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning
and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these
measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of
education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will
take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities
and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate
new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the
prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other
resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we
perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of
knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar
so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods
used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for
making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or
boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by
restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child
psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this
endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and
wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates the
hard work done by the textbook development team responsible for this book. We wish to thank
the Chairman of the advisory group in science and mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and
the Chief Advisor for this book, Professor Rupamanjari Ghosh, School of Physical Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, for guiding the work of this committee. Several
teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to them and their
principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which
have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are
especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the
Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development
under the Chairmanship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their
valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic reform and
continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and
suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
National Council of Educational
Research and Training
The Government of Andhra Pradesh has unleashed a new era in school education by
introducing extensive curricular reforms from the academic year 2020 - 21. The Government
hastakenupcurricularreformsintendingtoenhancethelearningoutcomesofthechildrenwith
focus on building solid foundational learning and to build up an environment conductive for an
effective teaching-learning process. To achieve this objective, The Government of A.P has
adopted NCERTcurriculumfromClass8thtoreachtheglobalstandards.
As a part of curriculum reforms the NCERT Text book has been translated into telugu and
printed as bilingual text books for the convenience of the students. To enrich the content of the
subject QR codes are incorporated in the beginning of each lesson to enable learning outside
the classroom. In this textbook, lessons are prepared based on the themes like Chemical
substances-Nature and Behaviour, Natural phenomena, How things work are incorporated
under Physical Science. In order to reinforce the concepts, several projects and activities are
given to inculcate scientific temperament. Each lesson is provided with eye catching
illustrations to engage the children. The lessons are included under “Activities” and the salient
features of the lessons are given under the title "What you have learnt" for the review of the
important concepts. Questions are framed for each lesson to recapitulate the conceptual
understanding and to achieve competencies required for project works, drawings model
making under “Exercises” and group activity. An effort has been made to relate the scientific
concepts with the real-life events thereby developing and promoting scientific temperament
in“moretoknow”.
We are grateful to Honourable Chief Minister, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Sri Y.S.
Jagan Mohan Reddy for being our source of inspiration to carry out this extensive reform in the
education department. We extend our gratitude to Hon'ble Minister for Education,
Government of Andhra Pradesh, Sri Botcha Satyanarayana for striving towards qualitative and
quantitative education. Our special thanks to Sri Praveen Prakash IAS, Principle Secretary to
Government, School Education Department, Andhra Pradesh and Sri S. Suresh Kumar, IAS,
Commissioner of School Education, Andhra Pradesh, Sri B. Srinivas Rao IAS, State Project
Director,SamagraShiksha,AndhraPradesh.
We convey our special thanks to the NCERT for their cooperation and assistance in
adopting their curriculum. We also thank our co-ordinators, editors, translators and layout
designers for their contribution in the development of this textbook. We invite constructive
feedbackfromtheteachersandtheparentsinfurtherrefinementofthetextbook.
Dr. B. Pratap Reddy

Director, SCERT
ThistextbookofScienceforClassXisacontinuationofourattemptintheClassIXScience
textbook to comply with the guidelines of the National Curriculum Framework-2005. We had to
work within a limited time frame and also had our own constraints coming in the way of this
radical change. The revised and re-structured syllabus for Class X covers selected topics in the
broadthemesof—Materials,TheWorldoftheLiving,HowThingsWork,NaturalPhenomenaand
Natural Resources. We have interpreted the syllabus to present a coherent coverage of
scientific concepts related to our daily life on the select topics. It is an integrated approach to
science at this level, with no sharp divisions into disciplines such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology
andEnvironmentalScience.
There has been a conscious attempt to address the relevant social concerns in this
science textbook wherever possible — the concerns for people with special needs, the issues
of gender discrimination, energy and environment have found their natural place in this book.
Students have been encouraged to get into the debates on some of the management
concerns (for sustainable development, for example) so that they can arrive at their own
decisionsafterascientificanalysisofallthefacts.
This book has some features which are meant to enhance its effectiveness. The theme
of each chapter has been introduced with examples from daily life, and if possible, by a
relevant activity that the students have to perform. The entire approach of the book is, in fact,
activity-based, i.e., the students are required to construct knowledge themselves from these
activities.Theemphasisisnotondefinitionsandtechnicalterms,butontheconceptsinvolved.
Special care has been taken so that the rigour of science is not lost while simplifying the
language. Difficult and challenging ideas, which are not to be covered at this stage, have
often been placed as extra material in the boxes in light orange. The excitement of doing
science comes from pursuing the unknown — the students would have the opportunity to think
and explore somewhat beyond the syllabus and may feel the urge to continue their scientific
expedition at higher levels. All such box items, including brief biography of scientists, are, of
course,non-evaluative.
Solvedexamplesareprovided,whereverfeltnecessary,toclarifyaconcept.Thein-text
questions after a main section are for the students to check their understanding of the topic. At
the end of each chapter, there is a quick review of the important points covered in the chapter.
We have introduced some multiple choice questions in the exercises. There are problems of
differentdifficultylevelsanswerstothemultiple-choicequestionsandnumericals,andhintsfor
thedifficultquestionsareincludedattheendofthebook.
This book has been made possible because of the active participation of many
people. I wish to thank Professor Krishna Kumar, Director, NCERT, Prof. G. Ravindra, Joint
Director, NCERT, and Professor Hukum Singh, Head, Department of Education in Science and
Mathematics, NCERT, specially for their keen interest in the development of the book and for all
the administrative support. I wish to put on record my sincere appreciation for Dr Anjni Koul, the
member-coordinator of the textbook development committee, for her extraordinary
commitment and efficiency. It has been a real pleasure working with my textbook
development team and the review committee. The chosen editorial team worked extremely
hard, on tight deadlines, to bring the book close to the shape that we dreamt of. Fruitful
discussions with some members of the MHRD Monitoring Committee helped in providing the
final touches to the book. I do not have the words to acknowledge the professional and
personal inputs I received from some of my close friends during the preparation of this book. We
warmlywelcomecommentsandsuggestionsforimprovementfromourreaders.
RUPAMANJARI GHOSH
Professor of Physics
School of Physical Sciences
Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), besides
expressingitsgratefulnesstowardsthemembersoftheTextbookDevelopmentCommitteefor
their contribution in the development of the Science Textbook for Class X, also acknowledges
the contribution of the following members for reviewing, editing, refining, and finalisation of the
manuscript of the book. Kanhiya Lal, Principal (Retd.), Directorate of Education, NCT, Delhi;
Ranveer Singh, Lecturer, Sarvodaya Bal Vidyalaya, Timarpur, Delhi; Bharat Poorey, Professor
(Retd.), Govt. Post Graduate College, Indore; Gagandeep Bajaj, Lecturer, S.P.M. College,
DelhiUniversity,Delhi;RavinderKaur,TGT,KendriyaVidyalaya,Rohini,Delhi;RenuPuri,TGT,N.C.
Jindal Public School, New Delhi; Sarita Kumar, Reader, Acharya Narendra Dev College, Delhi
University,Delhi;ShashiPrabha,Lecturer,DESM,NCERT,Delhi;RashmiSharma,Lecturer,NERIE,
Shillong; Sushma Jaireth, Reader, DWS, NCERT, New Delhi; Y.P. Purang, Addl. Director of
Education (Retd.), NCT, Delhi; Neeta Agarwal, TGT, D.L.D.A.V. Model School, Pitampura, Delhi;
Roma Anand, TGT, D.L.D.A.V., Pitampura, Delhi; Veer Pal Singh, Reader, DEME, NCERT, New
DelhiandS.L.Varte,Lecturer,DESM,NCERT,NewDelhi.
The Council also acknowledges the valuable contribution of Sunita Farkya (Professor,
DESM), Pushplata Verma (Assistant Professor, DESM), K.C. Tripathi (Professor, DEL) and Jatindra
Mohan Misra (Professor, DEL) in updating Chapter 16 titled "Sustainable Management of
NaturalResources",andalsointhereviewofthistextbook.
The contribution of R.S. Sindhu, Professor (Retd.), DESM; V.P. Srivastava, Professor
(Retd.), DESM; R.K. Parashar, Rachna Garg (Professors, DESM); V.V. Anand, Professor (Retd.), RIE
Mysore; S.V. Sharma (Professor, RIE Mysore); V.P. Singh (Professor, RIE Ajmer); R. Joshi, Associate
Professor (Retd.), DESM; C.V. Shimray, Ruchi Verma (Associate Professors, DESM); Ram Babu
Pareek(AssociateProfessor,RIEAjmer);A.K.Srivastava,RejaulKarimBarbhuiya,PramilaTanwar
(Assistant Professors, DESM); R.R. Koireng (Assistant Professor, DCS); V. Tangpu (Assistant
Professor, RIE Mysore) and Akhileshwar Mishra (Head Master, DMS, RIE Bhubaneswar), in the
reviewofthistextbookin2017-18areacknowledged.
Special thanks are due to Hukum Singh, Professor and Former Head, DESM, NCERT, New
Delhi,forprovidingallacademicandadministrativesupport.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the support provided by the APC Office of
DESM, administrative staff of DESM; Deepak Kapoor, Incharge, Computer Station, DESM;
Saima and Arvind Sharma, DTP Operators and Rajesh Handa, Illustrator; Mohd. Qamar Tabrez
andMusarratParveen,CopyEditors;SeemaYadav,ProofReader.
TheeffortsofthePublicationDepartment,NCERTarealsohighlyappreciated.
In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on students. The
National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the content load and providing
opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset. In this background, the NCERT has
undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes
already developed by the NCERT across classes have been taken into consideration in this
exercise.
Contentsofthetextbookshavebeenrationalisedinviewofthefollowing:
Ÿ Overlappingwithsimilarcontentincludedinothersubjectareasinthesameclass
Ÿ Similarcontentincludedinthelowerorhigherclassinthesamesubject
Ÿ Difficultylevel
Ÿ Content,whichiseasilyaccessibletostudentswithoutmuchinterventionsfrom
teachersandcanbelearnedbychildrenthroughself-learningorpeer-learning
Ÿ Content,whichisirrelevantinthepresentcontext
Thispresentedition,isareformattedversionaftercarryingoutthechangesgivenabove.
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CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Chemical Reactions and Equations............2
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Chapter 2
Acids, Bases and Salts...............................36
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Chapter 3
Metals and Non-metals..............................78
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Chapter 4
Carbon and its Compounds.....................120
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Chapter 9
Light ‒ Reflection and Refraction...........164
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Chapter 10
The Human Eye and the Colourful World....216
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Chapter 11
Electricity....................................................238
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Chapter 12
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current.....280
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Teacher Corner Student Corner
* 5,6,7and 8 Chapters are in Biology Textbook
1
ANDHRA PRADESH | PHYSICAL SCIENCE : Chemical Reactions and Equations
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C onsider the following situations of daily

life and think what happens when -
• milk is left at room temperature during
summers. CAUTION: This Activity needs the
• an iron tawa/pan/nail is left exposed to teacher’s assistance. It would be better
humid atmosphere. if students wear suitable eyeglasses.
• grapes get fermented. ■ Clean a magnesium ribbon about 3-
• food is cooked. 4 cm long by rubbing it with
• food gets digested in our body. sandpaper.
• we respire. ■ Hold it with a pair of tongs. Burn it
In all the above situations, the nature and the
using a spirit lamp or burner and
identity of the initial substance have somewhat
collect the ash so formed in a
changed. We have already learnt about physical
watch-glass as shown in Fig. 1.1.
and chemical changes of matter in our previous
Burn the magnesium ribbon
classes. Whenever a chemical change occurs,
keeping it away as far as possible
we can say that a chemical reaction has taken
from your eyes.
place.
You may perhaps be wondering as to what ■ What do you observe?
is actually meant by a chemical reaction. How
do we come to know that a chemical reaction
has taken place? Let us perform some activities
to find the answer to these questions.
Figure 1.1
Burning of a magnesium ribbon in air and collection of magnesium oxide in a watch-glass
4
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5
You must have observed that magnesium From the above three activities, we can say that
ribbon burns with a dazzling white flame and any of the following observations helps us to
changes into a white powder. This powder is determine whether a chemical reaction has
magnesium oxide. It is formed due to the taken place –
reaction between magnesium and oxygen • change in state
present in the air. • change in colour
• evolution of a gas
• change in temperature.
As we observe the changes around us, we can
■ Take lead nitrate solution in a test tube. see that there is a large variety of chemical
reactions taking place around us. We will study
■ Add potassium iodide solution to this. about the various types of chemical reactions
■ What do you observe? and their symbolic representation in this
Chapter.
1.1 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Activity 1.1 can be described as – when a
■ Take a few zinc granules in a conical magnesium ribbon is burnt in oxygen, it gets
flask or a test tube. converted to magnes ium oxide. This
■ Add dilute hydrochloric acid or description of a chemical reaction in a sentence
sulphuric acid to this (Fig. 1.2). form is quite long. It can be written in a shorter
form. The simplest way to do this is to write it in
CAUTION: Handle the acid with care.
the form of a word-equation.
■ Do you observe anything happening The word-equation for the above reaction
around the zinc granules? would be –
■ Touch the conical flask or test tube. Is
there any change in its temperature? Magnesium + Oxygen®Magnesium oxide
(Reactants) (Product) (1.1)
The substances that undergo chemical change

in the reaction (1.1), magnesium and oxygen,
are the reactants. The new substance is
magnesium oxide, formed during the reaction,
as a product. A word-equation shows change of
reactants to products through an arrow placed
between them. The reactants are written on the
left-hand side (LHS) with a plus sign (+)
between them. Similarly, products are written
on the right-hand side (RHS) with a plus sign
(+) between them. The arrowhead points
Figure 1.2 towards the products, and shows the direction
Formation of hydrogen gas by the action of dilute
sulphuric acid on zinc of the reaction.
6
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dŸ\ÖÎÛ«]¿ù €eT¢+ ¿£\|Ÿ+&.(|Ÿ³+1.2) dŸTBsÁé+>± –+³T+~. B““ dŸ+¿ìŒ|Ÿï sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáTe#áTÌ. ‚~
™V²#áÌ]¿£: €eT¢+ÔÃ C²ç>·Ôáï>± e«eVŸ²]+#á+&. #ûjáT&†“¿ì ÿ¿£ dŸT\uó„yîT®q eÖsÁZ+ |Ÿ<Š dŸMT¿£sÁD+ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË
■ ›+¿ù >·T[¿£\ #áT³Ö¼ @<îÕH ÈsÁ>·&ƒ+ MTsÁT sjáT&ƒ+.
>·eT“+#s? ™|Õ sÁkÍjáT“¿£ #ásÁ«Å£” |Ÿ<Š dŸMT¿£sÁD+
■ Xæ+Ke Å£”™|Î ýñ<‘ |Ÿ¯¿£Œ H[¿£qT eTT³T¼¿Ã+&. <‘“ yîT^•w¾jáT+ + €¿ìàÈHŽ ® yîT^•w¾jáT+ €Â¿Õà&Ž (1.1)
–cþ’ç>·ÔáýË @yîT®H eÖsÁTÎ –+<‘? (ç¿ìjáÖÈq¿±\T) ( ç¿ìjáÖÈH«\T)
sÁkÍjáT“¿£ #ásÁ« 1.1 ýË sÁkÍjáT“¿£ eÖsÁTÎ\Å£” >·TÂsÕq |Ÿ<‘sœ\T

yîT^•w¾jáT+ eT]jáTT €¿ìàÈHŽ\T ç¿ìjáÖÈq¿±\T. ‡ #ásÁ«ýË
_sÁ&† ¿=Ôá ï > ± @sÁ Î & q yî T ^•w¾ j á T + €Â ¿ Õ à &Ž ç ¿ ì j á Ö Èq«eTT.
>±E >=³¼+ ç¿ìjáÖÈq¿±\T ç¿ìjáÖÈH«\T>± eÖsÁ&†“• y{ìeT<óŠ« –q• ÿ¿£
u²D|ŸÚ >·TsÁTï <‘Çs |Ÿ<Š dŸMT¿£sÁD+ Ôî*jáTCñdŸTï+~.
ç¿ìjáÖÈq¿±\qT, eT<óŠ«ýË Å£L&¿£ (+) >·TsÁTïÔÃ, m&ƒeTyîÕ|ŸÚq
Xæ+Ke Å£”™|Î (LHS) çykÍïeTT. n<û$<óŠ+>± ç¿ìjáÖÈH«\qT eT<óŠ«ýË
Å£L&¿£(+) >·TsÁTïÔÃ (RHS) Å£”&yîÕ|ŸÚq çykÍïeTT. u²D|ŸÚ Ôá\
dŸÈý dŸ\ÖÎÛ«]¿ù €eT¢+ >·TsÁTï ç¿ìjáÖÈH«\ yîÕ|ŸÚ –+³T+~ eT]jáTT #ásÁ« ~XøqT
›+¿ù eTT¿£Ø\T
dŸÖºdŸTï+~.
|Ÿ³+1.2:
›+¿ù™|Õ dŸÈ\ dŸ\ÖÎÛ«]¿ù €eT¢ #ásÁ« e\¢ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ yjáTTeÚ
$&ƒT<Š\>·T³
7
1.1.1 Writing a Chemical Equation The above word-equation may be represented

Is there any other shorter way for representing by the following chemical equation –
chemical equations? Chemical equations can
be made more concise and useful if we use Zn + H2SO4 ® ZnSO4 + H2 (1.3)
chemical formulae instead of words. A Let us examine the number of atoms of
chemical equation represents a chemical different elements on both sides of the arrow.
reaction. If you recall formulae of magnesium,
oxygen and magnesium oxide, the above word-
equation can be written as –
Mg + O2 ® MgO (1.2)
Count and compare the number of atoms of
each element on the LHS and RHS of the arrow.
Is the number of atoms of each element the Zn 1 1
same on both the sides? If yes, then the equation
is balanced. If not, then the equation is
unbalanced because the mass is not the same on H 2 2
both sides of the equation. Such a chemical
equation is a skeletal chemical equation for a
S 1 1
reaction. Equation (1.2) is a skeletal chemical
equation for the burning of magnesium in air.
1.1.2 Balanced Chemical Equations O 4 4
Recall the law of conservation of mass that you
studied in Class IX; mass can neither be created
nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. That is,
the total mass of the elements present in the
products of a chemical reaction has to be equal
to the total mass of the elements present in the As the number of atoms of each element is the
reactants. same on both sides of the arrow, Eq. (1.3) is a
In other words, the number of atoms of each balanced chemical equation.
element remains the same, before and after a Let us try to balance the following chemical
chemical reaction. Hence, we need to balance a equation –
skeletal chemical equation. Is the chemical Eq.
(1.2) balanced? Let us learn about balancing a Fe + H2O ® Fe3O4 + H2 (1.4)
chemical equation step by step.
The word-equation for Activity 1.3 may be
represented as –
Zinc + Sulphuric acid ® Zinc sulphate +
Hydrogen
8
1.1.1 sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD+ sjáT&ƒ+ ™|Õ |Ÿ<Š dŸMT¿£sÁD²“• sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD+>± ‚ý² sjáTe#áTÌ
sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT Ôî*jáTCñjáT&†“¿ì ‚+¿± @<îÕH Zn + H2SO4 ® ZnSO4 + H2 (1.3)
dŸT\uó„ eÖsÁZ+ –+<‘? |Ÿ<‘\Å£” ‹<ŠT\T>± sÁkÍjáTq eTqeTT u²D|ŸÚ >·TsÁTïÅ£” ‚sÁTyîÕ|ŸÚý² eÚq• $$<óŠ eTÖ\¿±\
kÍ+¹¿Ü¿±\T y&ƒ&ƒ+ <‘Çs sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT eT]+Ôá |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\ dŸ+K«qT |Ÿ¯¿ìŒ<‘Ý+.
dŸ+¿ìŒ|Ÿï+>±, –|ŸjîÖ>·¿£sÁ+>± #ûjáTe#áTÌ. ÿ¿£ sÁkÍjáTq
dŸ M T¿£ s Á D + ÿ¿£ sÁ k Íjá T “¿£ #á s Á « qT Ôî * já T Cñ d Ÿ T ï + ~. ç¿ìjáÖ Èq¿±\ýË“ ç¿ìjáÖ ÈH«\ýË“
eTÖ\¿£+ |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\ |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\
yî T ^•w¾ j á T +, €¿ì à ÈHŽ eT]já T T yî T ^•w¾ j á T + €Â ¿ Õ à &Ž dŸ+K« (LHS) dŸ+K« (RHS)
kÍ+¹¿Ü¿±\qT >·TsÁTïÅ£” Ôî#áTÌÅ£”+fñ ™|Õ |Ÿ<Š dŸMT¿£sÁD²“• ‡
$<óŠ+>± sjáTe#áTÌ
Zn 1 1
Mg + O2 ® MgO (1.2)
u²D|ŸÚ >·TsÁTïÅ£” m&ƒeTyîÕ|ŸÚ (LHS) eT]jáTT Å£”& (RHS) yîÕ|ŸÚq
eÚq• ç|ŸÜ eTÖ\¿£ |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\ dŸ+K«qT ýÉ¿ìØ+#á+&, bþ\Ì+&. H 2 2
Âs+&ƒT yîÕ|ŸÚý² –q• ç|ŸÜ eTÖ\¿£ |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\ dŸ+K«\T
dŸeÖq+>± –H•jáÖ? dŸeÖqyîT®Ôû dŸMT¿£sÁD+ ÔáT\«yîT®q~ S 1 1
n+{²eTT. ¿±¿£bþÔû dŸMT¿£sÁD+ ÔáT\«yîT®q~ ¿±<ŠT m+<ŠTÅ£q>±,
Âs+&ƒTyîÕ|ŸÚý² ç<Še«s¥ dŸeÖq+ ¿±<ŠT. ¿£qT¿£ ný²+{ì sÁkÍjáTq O 4 4
dŸMT¿£sÁD+ € #ásÁ«Å£” çbÍ<¸Š$T¿£ sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD+
neÚÔá T +~. dŸ M T¿£ s Á D + (1.2) yî T ^•w¾ j á T +qT >±*ýË
eT+&+#áT³Å£” çbÍ<¸Š$T¿£ sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD+.
1.1.2 ÔáT\« sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T u²D|Ÿ Ú >· T sÁ T ï Å £ ” ‚sÁ T yî Õ | Ÿ Ú \ –q• ç | Ÿ Ü eTÖ\¿£ + ýË“
Ô=$Tˆ<Ã ÔásÁ>·ÜýË #á<ŠTeÚÅ£”q• ç<Še« “Ôá«ÔáÇ “jáTeÖ“• |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\ dŸ+K« dŸeÖq+>± –q•+<ŠTq dŸMT¿£sÁD+ (1.3)
>·TsÁTïÅ£” Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&. ÿ¿£ sÁkÍjáTq #ásÁ«ýË ç<Še«s¥ ÿ¿£ ÔáT\« sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD+.
dŸw¾¼+#á‹&ƒ<ŠT eT]jáTT HXøq+ #ûjáT‹&ƒ<ŠT. nq>± sÁkÍjáTq
#á s Á « ýË ç ¿ ì j á Ö ÈH«\ýË“ eTÖ\¿±\ yî T TÔá ï + ç < Š e «s¥ ¿ì+~ sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD²“• ÔáT\«+ #ûjáTT³Å£” ç|ŸjáTÜ•<‘Ý+.
ç¿ìjáÖÈq¿±\ýË“ eTÖ\¿±\ yîTTÔáï+ ç<Še«s¥¿ì dŸeÖq+.
eTsÃý² #îbÍÎ\+fñ sÁkÍjáTq #ásÁ«ýË sÁkÍjáTq #ásÁ« eTT+<ŠT
Fe + H2O ® Fe3O4+ H2 (1.4)
#ásÁ« ÔásÁTyÔá ç|ŸÜ eTÖ\¿£+ |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\ dŸ+K« dŸeÖq+>±
–+&†*. ¿±‹{ì¼ eTq+ çbÍ<¸Š$T¿£ sÁkÍjáT“¿£ dŸMT¿£sÁD²“•
ÔáT\«+ #ûjáÖ*. sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD+ (1.2) ÔáT\«eÖ? eTq+
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD²“• ÔáT\«+ #ûjáT&†“• kþbÍH\
ç¿£eT+ýË HûsÁTÌÅ£”+<‘+.
¿£Ôá«+ 1.3 jîTT¿£Ø |Ÿ<Š dŸMT¿£sÁD²“• ‚ý² dŸÖº+#áe#áTÌ:
›+¿ù + dŸ\ÖÎÛ«]¿ù €eT¢ ® ›+¿ù dŸýñÎÛ{Ù + ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ
9
Step I: To balance a chemical equation, first not H2O4 or (H2O)4. Now the partly balanced
draw boxes around each formula. Do not equation becomes–
change anything inside the boxes while
balancing the equation. Fe + 4 H2O ® Fe3O4 + H2 (1.5)
(partly balanced equation)
Fe + H2O ® Fe3O4 + H2 (1.5) Step IV: Fe and H atoms are still not balanced.
Pick any of these elements to proceed further.
Step II: List the number of atoms of different
Let us balance hydrogen atoms in the partly
elements present in the unbalanced equation
balanced equation.
(1.5).
To equalise the number of H atoms, make the
number of molecules of hydrogen as four on the
RHS.
Fe 1 3
H 2 2
O 1 4
(I) Initial 8 (in 4H2O) 4 (in H2)
Step III: It is often convenient to start
(ii) To
balancing with the compound that contains the balance 8 2×4
maximum number of atoms. It may be a
reactant or a product. In that compound, select
the element which has the maximum number of The equation would be –
atoms. Using these criteria, we select Fe3O4 and
the element oxygen in it. There are four oxygen Fe + 4 H2O ® Fe3O4 + 4 H2 (1.5)
atoms on the RHS and only one on the LHS. (partly balanced equation)
To balance the oxygen atoms –
(I) Initial 1 (in H2O) 4 (in Fe3O4)

(ii) To
balance 1×4 4
To equalise the number of atoms, it must be

remembered that we cannot alter the formulae
of the compounds or elements involved in the
reactions. For example, to balance oxygen
atoms we can put coefficient ‘4’ as 4 H2O and
10
kþbÍq+ I : ÿ¿£ sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD+ ÔáT\«+ #ûjáTT³Å£” çyjáTÅ£L&ƒ<ŠT. ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT bÍ¿ìŒ¿£+>± ÔáT\«+ #ûjáT‹&ƒ¦ dŸMT¿£sÁD+.
yîTT<Š³>± ç|ŸÜ kÍ+¹¿Ü¿±“¿ì ÿ¿£ ™|fÉ¼ ^jáT+&. dŸMT¿£sÁD+ Fe + 4 H2O ® Fe3O4 + H2 (1.5)
ÔáT\«+ #ûd³|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ™|fÉ¼\ ýË|Ÿ\ m³Te+{ì eÖsÁTÎ #ûjáTs<ŠT. (bÍ¿ìŒ¿£ ÔáT\«dŸMT¿£sÁD+)
Fe + H2O ® Fe3O4 + H2 (1.5) kþbÍq+ IV: Fe eT]jáTT H |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\T ‚+¿± ÔáT\«+ ¿±ýñ<ŠT.
kþbÍq+ II : ÔáT\«+ ¿±“ dŸMT¿£sÁD+ýË“ $$<óŠ eTÖ\¿±\ ‚+<ŠTýË“ @<Ã ÿ¿£ eTÖ\¿£+ rdŸT¿=“ eTT+<ŠTÅ£” yîÞ²Ý+. bÍ¿ìŒ¿£
|ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\ dŸ+K«qT qyîÖ<ŠT #ûjáT+&. ÔáT\«dŸMT¿£sÁD+ ýË“ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\qT ÔáT\«+ #û<‘Ý+.
H |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\qT ÔáT\«+ #ûjáTT³Å£” R.H.S yîÕ|ŸÚq –q•
ç¿ìjáÖ Èq¿±\ýË“ ç¿ìjáÖ Èq¿±\ýË“ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ nDTeÚ\ dŸ+K«qT H\T>·T>± #û<‘Ý+ .
eTÖ\¿£+ |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\ |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\
dŸ+K« (LHS) dŸ+K« (RHS)
Fe 1 3 ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ ç¿ìjáÖÈq¿±\ýË ç¿ìjáÖÈH«\ýË
|ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\T
H 2 2
O 1 4 (I) çbÍsÁ+uó„+ýË 8 (4H2O) q+<ŠT 2(H2) q+<ŠT
(ii) ÔáT\«+
kþbÍq+ III: >·]wŸ¼ |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\T ¿£*Ðq dŸ+jîÖ>· |Ÿ<‘sœ\ #ûjáT&ƒ+ ¿ÃdŸ+ 1×4 4
qT+& ÔáT\«+ #ûjáT&ƒ+ çbÍsÁ+_ódï kå\uó„«+>± –+³T+~. n~
ç¿ìjáÖÈq¿£yîT®H ýñ<‘ ç¿ìjáÖÈq«yîT®H ¿±e#áTÌ. € dŸ+jîÖ>·
dŸMT¿£sÁD+ ç¿ì+<Š $<óŠ+>± –+³T+~.
|Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ýË >·]wŸ¼ dŸ+K«ýË |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\T eÚq• eTÖ\¿±“•
m+#áT¿Ãy*. ‡ |Ÿ<ŠÆÜ“ –|ŸjîÖÐdŸÖï Fe3O4 qT eT]jáTT Fe + 4 H2O ® Fe3O4 + 4 H2 (1.5)
n+<ŠTýË €¿ìàÈHŽ eTÖ\¿±“• eTq+ m+#áTÅ£”+<‘+. Å£”&yîÕ|ŸÚ
H\T>·T €¿ìàÈHŽ |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\T m&ƒeTyîÕ|ŸÚ ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ €¿ìàÈHŽ
|ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ –q•~.
€¿ìàÈHŽ |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\qT ÔáT\«+ #ûjáT&ƒ+
€¿ìàÈHŽ ç¿ìjáÖÈH«\ýË
|ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\T ç¿ìjáÖÈq¿±\ýË
(I) çbÍsÁ+uó„+ýË 1 (H2O) q+<ŠT 4 (Fe3O4) q+<ŠT
(ii) ÔáT\«+
#ûjáT&ƒ+ ¿ÃdŸ+ 1×4 4
|ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\ dŸ+K«qT dŸeÖq+ #ûjáT&ƒ+ ¿ÃdŸ+ #ásÁ«ýË“

eTÖ\¿£+ ýñ<‘ dŸ+jîÖ>· |Ÿ<‘sœ\ jîTT¿£Ø kÍ+¹¿Ü¿±ýqT
eÖsÁÌÅ£L&ƒ<Š“ >·TsÁTï™|³T¼¿Ãy*. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” €¿ìàÈHŽ
|ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\qT ÔáT\«+ #ûjáT&ƒ+ ¿ÃdŸ+ H O ¿ì eTT+<ŠT 4
2
>·TD¿£+ –+º 4H O >± çyjáÖ*. H O >±ú (H O)4>± >±ú

2 2 4 2
11
Step V: Examine the above equation and pick products are represented by the notations (g),
up the third element which is not balanced. You (l), (aq) and (s), respectively. The word aqueous
find that only one element is left to be balanced, (aq) is written if the reactant or product is
that is, iron. present as a solution in water.
The balanced Eq. (1.9) becomes
3Fe(s) + 4H 2 O(g) ® Fe 3 O 4 (s) + 4H 2 (g)

(1.10)
(I) Initial 1 (in Fe) 3 (in Fe3O4)
(ii) To Note that the symbol (g) is used with
balance 1×3 3 H2O to indicate that in this reaction water is
used in the form of steam.
To equalise Fe, we take three atoms of Fe on the Usually physical states are not included
LHS. in a chemical equation unless it is necessary to
specify them.
3 Fe + 4 H2O ® Fe3O4 + 4 H2 (1.8)
Sometimes the reaction conditions, such
Step VI: Finally, to check the correctness of the as temperature, pressure, catalyst, etc., for the
balanced equation, we count atoms of each reaction are indicated above and/or below the
element on both sides of the equation. arrow in the equation. For example –
3 Fe + 4 H2O ® Fe3O4 + 4 H2 (1.9)

(balanced equation) 340 atm
CO(g) + 2H2 (g) →CH3 OH(l)
The numbers of atoms of elements on both (1.11)
sides of Eq. (1.9) are equal. This equation is
Sunlight
now balanced. This method of balancing 6CO2 (aq) +12H2 O(l) →
Chlorophyll C6 H12 O6 (aq)
glucose
chemical equations is called hit-and-trial +6O2(aq) + 6H 2O(l) (1.12)
method as we make trials to balance the
equation by using the smallest whole number
coefficient. Using these steps, can you balance Eq. (1.2)
given in the text earlier?
Step VII: Writing Symbols of Physical States
Carefully examine the above balanced Eq.
(1.9). Does this equation tell us anything about
the physical state of each reactant and product?
No information has been given in this equation
about their physical states.
To m a k e a c h e m i c a l e q u a t i o n m o r e
informative, the physical states of the reactants
and products are mentioned along with their
chemical formulae. The gaseous, liquid,
aqueous and solid states of reactants and
12
kþbÍq+ V : ™|Õ dŸMT¿£sÁD²“• |Ÿ¯¿ìŒ+º ÔáT\«+ ¿±“ eTÖ&ƒe ýñ<‘ ç¿ìjáÖ Èq«+ ú{ì jáT+<ŠT ç<‘eD+>± –+fñ, <‘““ È\
eTÖ\¿±“• rdŸT¿Ã+&. ÔáT\«+ #ûjáT&†“¿ì $TÐ*q ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ ç<‘eD+, (È.ç<‘) nHû |Ÿ<Š+ sjáÖ*.
eTÖ\¿£+, ‚qTeTT n“ MTsÁT >·eT“kÍïsÁT. ‚|Ÿ Ú Î&ƒ T Ôá T \« dŸ M T¿£ s Á D + (1.9) ‡ $<ó Š + >±
eÖsÁTÔáT+~.
‚qTeTT ç¿ìjáÖÈq¿±\ýË ç¿ìjáÖÈH«\ýË
|ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\T 3Fe(|˜ŸT) + 4H O(y)® Fe O (|˜ŸT)+ 4H (y) (1.10)
2 3 4 2
H O |Ÿ¿£Øq (y) nqT dŸ+Èã ‡ #ásÁ«ýË úsÁT €$] sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË

2
(i) çbÍsÁ+uó„+ýË 1 (Fe) q+<ŠT 3(Fe3O4) q+<ŠT
–+<Š“ Ôî*jáTCñjáT&ƒ+ ¿ÃdŸ+ n“ >·eT“+#*.
(ii) ÔáT\«+
#ûjáT&ƒ+ ¿ÃdŸ+ 1×3 3
kÍ<ó ‘ sÁ D +>± sÁ k Íjá T q dŸ M T¿£ s Á D +ýË uó … Ü¿£
d¾œÔáT\qT nedŸsÁyîT®Ôû Ôá|ŸÎ ç|ŸÔû«¿£+>± #ûsÁÌeTT.
¿=“•kÍsÁT¢ #ásÁ« jîTT¿£Ø |Ÿ]d¾œÔáTýÉÕq –cþ’ç>·Ôá, |Ó&ƒq+,
Fe “ ÔáT\«+ #ûjáTT³ ¿=sÁÅ£”, eTÖ&ƒT Fe |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\qT
–çÔûÎsÁ¿£+ yîTT<Š\>·T y{ì“ sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD+ýË u²D|ŸÚ
m&ƒeT#ûÜ yîÕ|ŸÚ rdŸTÅ£”+<‘+. >·TsÁTï ™|Õq ýñ<‘ ¿ì+<Š dŸÖºkÍïeTT. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”
3 Fe + 4 H2O ® Fe3O4 + 4 H2 (1.8)
340 atm
CO(y)+2H2(y) ®CH3OH(ç<‘) (1.11)
kþbÍq+ VI: ºesÁ>±, ÔáT\« dŸMT¿£sÁD+ dŸÂsÕq<Š“ eTq+ 6CO2(È.ç<‘) + 12H2O(ç<‘) ®

dŸÖsÁ«¿±+Ü
“sÆ]+#áT³Å£” ‚sÁTyîÕ|ŸÚý² >·\ ç|Ÿr eTÖ\¿£+ jîTT¿£Ø ¿Ã¢sÃ|˜¾ýÙ
|ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\ dŸ+K«qT ýÉ¿ìØ+#*. C6H12O6(È.ç<‘)+6O2 (È.ç<‘) + 6H O(ç<‘)
2 (1.12)
>·Ö¢¿ÃE
3 Fe + 4 H2O ® Fe3O4 + 4 H2(1.9)
(ÔáT\«dŸMT¿£sÁD+) (1.9) eTT+<ŠT>± ‚eÇ‹&q dŸeÖ#sÁ+ýË“ kþbÍH\T –|ŸjîÖÐ+º
dŸMT¿£sÁD+ (1.9) ýË ‚sÁTyîÕ|ŸÚý² –q• eTÖ\¿±\ |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\ dŸMT¿£sÁD+ (1.2) qT MTsÁT ÔáT\«+ #ûjáT>·\s?
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13
1.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

We have learnt in Class IX that during a
1. Why should a magnesium ribbon chemical reaction atoms of one element do not
be cleaned before burning in air? change into those of another element. Nor do
2. Write the balanced equation for the atoms disappear from the mixture or appear
following chemical reactions. from elsewhere. Actually, chemical reactions
involve the breaking and making of bonds
(i) Hydrogen + Chlorine ® Hydrogen
between atoms to produce new substances. You
chloride
will study about types of bonds formed
(ii)Barium chloride + Aluminium between atoms in Chapters 3 and 4.
sulphate ® Barium sulphate +
1.2.1 Combination Reaction
Aluminium chloride
(iii)Sodium + Water ® Sodium
hydroxide + Hydrogen
■ Take a small amount of calcium oxide or
3. Write a balanced chemical equation
quick lime in a beaker.
with state symbols for the following
reactions. ■ Slowly add water to this.
(i) Solutions of barium chloride and ■ Touch the beaker as shown in Fig. 1.3.
sodium sulphate in water react to give
■ Do you feel any change in temperature?
insoluble barium sulphate and the
solution of sodium chloride.
(ii) Sodium hydroxide solution (in
water) reacts with hydrochloric acid
solution (in water) to produce sodium
chloride solution and water.
? Figure 1.3
Formation of slaked lime by the reaction of calcium
oxide with water
Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) releasing a
large amount of heat.
CaO(s) + H2O(l) ® Ca(OH)2(aq) + Heat (1.13)
(Quick lime) (Slaked lime)
In this reaction, calcium oxide and water combine to form a single product, calcium hydroxide.
Such a reaction in which a single product is formed from two or more reactants is known as a
combination reaction.
14
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¿±*üjáT+ €Â¿Õà&Ž ú{ìÔÃ #ásÁ« È]|¾ Ôá& dŸTq•+ @sÁÎsÁ#áT³
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+ H O(ç<Š) ® Ca(OH)2(È.ç<‘) + –wŸ’+ (1.13)
CaO(|˜ŸT) 2
(bõ&dŸTq•+) (Ôá&dŸTq•+)
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15
A solution of slaked lime produced by the reaction 1.13 is used for whitewashing walls.
Calcium hydroxide reacts slowly with the carbon dioxide in air to form a thin layer of calcium
carbonate on the walls. Calcium carbonate is formed after two to three days of whitewashing
and gives a shiny finish to the walls. It is interesting to note that the chemical formula for
marble is also CaCO3.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g)®CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) (1.14)

(Calcium (Calcium
hydroxide) carbonate)
Let us discuss some more examples of (ii) Do you know that respiration is an
combination reactions. exothermic process?
(I) Burning of coal We all know that we need energy to stay
alive. We get this energy from the food we eat.
C(s) + O2(g) ® CO2(g) (1.15) During digestion, food is broken down into
(ii) Formation of water from H2(g) and O2(g) simpler substances. For example, rice, potatoes
and bread contain carbohydrates. These
2H2(g) + O2(g) ® 2H2O(l) (1.16) carbohydrates are broken down to form
In simple language we can say that when two or glucose. This glucose combines with oxygen in
more substances (elements or compounds) the cells of our body and provides energy. The
combine to form a single product, the reactions special name of this reaction is respiration, the
are called combination reactions. process of which you will study in Chapter 6.
In Activity 1.4, we also observed that a large
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(aq) ® 6CO2(aq) +
amount of heat is evolved. This makes the (Glucose)
reaction mixture warm. Reactions in which 6H2O(l) + energy
heat is released along with the formation of (1.18)
products are called exothermic chemical
reactions. (iii) The decomposition of vegetable matter
into compost is also an example of an
Other examples of exothermic reactions are –
exothermic reaction.
(I) Burning of natural gas
Identify the type of the reaction taking place
CH4(g) + 2O2 (g) ® CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g) in Activity 1.1, where heat is given out along
with the formation of a single product.
(1.17)
16
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17
1.2.2 Decomposition Reaction In this reaction you can observe that a single
reactant breaks down to give simpler products.
This is a decomposition reaction. Ferrous
sulphate crystals (FeSO4, 7H2O) lose water
■ n Take about 2 g ferrous sulphate when heated and the colour of the crystals
crystals in a dry boiling tube. changes. It then decomposes to ferric oxide
■ Note the colour of the ferrous sulphate (Fe2O3), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur
crystals. trioxide (SO3). Ferric oxide is a solid, while SO2
■ Heat the boiling tube over the flame and SO3 are gases.
of a burner or spirit lamp as shown in
Decomposition of calcium carbonate to
Fig. 1.4.
calcium oxide and carbon dioxide on heating is
■ Observe the colour of the crystals after an important decomposition reaction used in
heating. various industries. Calcium oxide is called lime
or quick lime. It has many uses – one is in the
Have you noticed that the green colour of the manufacture of cement. When a decomposition
ferrous sulphate crystals has changed? You can reaction is carried out by heating, it is called
also smell the characteristic odour of burning thermal decomposition.
sulphur. heat
CaCO3(s) ® CaO(s) + CO2(g) (1.20)
heat
2FeSO4(s) ® Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g) (Limestone) (Quick lime)
(Ferrous sulphate) (Ferric oxide) (1.19)
Another example of a thermal decomposition
reaction is given in Activity 1.6.
■ Take about 2 g lead nitrate powder in a

boiling tube.
■ Hold the boiling tube with a pair of
tongs and heat it over a flame, as shown
in Fig. 1.5.
■ What do you observe? Note down the
change, if any.
Figure 1.4
Correct way of heating the boiling tube containing
crystals of ferroussulphate and of smelling the odour
Figure 1.5
Heating of lead
nitrate and
You will observe the emission of brown emission
of nitrogen dioxide
fumes. These fumes are of nitrogen
dioxide (NO2). The reaction that takes
place is –
18
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19
heat
2Pb(NO3)2(s) ® 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) (1.21)
(Lead nitrate) (Lead oxide) (Nitrogen (Oxygen)
dioxide)
Let us perform some more decomposition

reactions as given in Activities 1.7 and 1.8.
■ n Take a plastic mug. Drill two holes

at its base and fit rubber stoppers in
these holes. Insert carbon electrodes in
these rubber stoppers as shown in Fig. Figure 1.6
1.6. Electrolysis of water
■ Connect these electrodes to a 6 volt
battery.
■ Fill the mug with water such that the ■ Take about 2 g silver chloride in a china
electrodes are immersed. Add a few dish.
drops of dilute sulphuric acid to the ■ What is its colour?
■ Place this china dish in sunlight for
water.
■ Take two test tubes filled with water and some time (Fig. 1.7).
■ Observe the colour of the silver
invert them over the two carbon chloride after some time.
electrodes.
■ Switch on the current and leave the
apparatus undisturbed for some time.
■ You will observe the formation of
bubbles at both the electrodes. These
bubbles displace water in the test tubes.
■ Is the volume of the gas collected the
same in both the test tubes?
■ Once the test tubes are filled with the
respective gases, remove them
carefully.
Figure 1.6
■ Test these gases one by one by bringing
Electrolysis of water
a burning candle close to the mouth of
the test tubes. You will see that white silver chloride turns
CAUTION: This step must be grey in sunlight. This is due to the
performed carefully by the teacher. decomposition of silver chloride into silver and
■ What happens in each case? chlorine by light.
■ Which gas is present in each test tube? heat
2AgCl(s) ® 2Ag(s) + Cl2(g) (1.22)
20
2Pb(NO3)2(|˜ŸT) ® 2PbO(|˜ŸT) + 4NO2(y) + O2(y) (1.21)

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2AgCl(|˜ŸT) ® 2Ag(|˜ŸT) +Cl2(y) (1.22)
21
Silver bromide also behaves in the same way. 1.2.3 Displacement Reaction
heat
2AgBr(s) ® 2Ag(s) + Br2(g) (1.23)
The above reactions are used in black and white
photography. What form of energy is causing
these decomposition reactions?
We have seen that the decomposition
reactions require energy either in the form of
heat, light or electricity for breaking down the
reactants. Reactions in which energy is
absorbed are known as endothermic reactions.
Take about 2 g barium hydroxide in a test

tube. Add 1 g of ammonium chloride and
mix with the help of a glass rod. Touch the
bottom of the test tube with your palm. What
Figure 1.8
do you feel? Is this an exothermic or (a) Iron nails dipped in copper sulphate solution
endothermic reaction?
■ Take three iron nails and clean them by

rubbing with sand paper.
1. A solution of a substance ‘X’ is used for ■ Take two test tubes marked as (A) and
whitewashing. (B). In each test tube, take about 10 mL
copper sulphate solution.
(i) Name the substance ‘X’ and write its ■ Tie two iron nails with a thread and
formula. immerse them carefully in the copper
sulphate solution in test tube B for about
(ii) Write the reaction of the substance
20 minutes [Fig. 1.8 (a)]. Keep one iron
‘X’ named in (i) above with water.
nail aside for comparison.
2. Why is the amount of gas collected in one ■ After 20 minutes, take out the iron nails
from the copper sulphate solution.
of the test tubes in Activity 1.7 double of ■ Compare the intensity of the blue
the amount collected in the other? Name colour of copper sulphate solutions in
this gas.
?
test tubes (A) and (B) [Fig. 1.8 (b)].
■ Also, compare the colour of the iron
nails dipped in the copper sulphate
solution with the one kept aside [Fig.
1.8 (b)].
22
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2AgBr(|˜ŸT) ® 2Ag(|˜ŸT) + Br2(y) (1.23)
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23
Figure 1.8 (b) Iron nails and copper sulphate solutions compared before and after the experiment
Why does the iron nail become brownish in 1.2.4 Double Displacement Reaction
colour and the blue colour of copper sulphate
solution fades?
■ Take about 3 mL of sodium sulphate
The following chemical reaction takes place in
solution in a test tube.
this Activity– ■ In another test tube, take about 3 mL of
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) ® FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s) barium chloride solution.
■ Mix the two solutions (Fig. 1.9).
(Copper sulphate) (Iron sulphate) (1.24) ■ What do you observe?
In this reaction, iron has displaced or removed
another element, copper, from copper sulphate You will observe that a white substance, which
solution. This reaction is known as is insoluble in water, is formed. This insoluble
displacement reaction. substance formed is known as a precipitate.
Any reaction that produces a precipitate can be
Other examples of displacement reactions are
called a precipitation reaction.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ® ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) ® BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
(Copper sulphate) (Zinc sulphate) (1.25) (Sodium (Barium (Barium (Sodium
sulphate) chloride) sulphate) chloride)
Pb(s) + CuCl2(aq) ® PbCl2(aq) + Cu(s) (1.27)
(Copper chloride) (Lead chloride) (1.26)
Zinc and lead are more reactive elements than

copper. They displace copper from its
compounds.
Figure 1.9
Formation of
barium sulphate
and sodium
chloride
24
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Zn(|˜ŸT) + CuSO4(È.ç<‘)® ZnSO4(È.ç<‘) + Cu(|˜ŸT)
Na2SO4(È.ç<‘)+BaCl2(È.<
ç ‘)®BaSO4(|˜ŸT)+2NaCl(È.<ç‘)
(¿±|ŸsY dŸýñÎÛ{Ù) (›+¿ù dŸýñÎÛ{Ù) (1.25) kþ&jáT+
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( (uñ]jáT+ (kþ&jáT+
dŸýñÎÛ{Ù) ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž) dŸýñÎÛ{Ù) ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž)
Pb(|˜ŸT) + CuCl2(È.ç<‘) ® PbCl2(È.ç<‘) + Cu(|˜ŸT) (1.27)
(¿±|ŸsY ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž) (ýÉ&Ž ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž) (1.26)

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25
heat
What causes this? The white precipitate of 2Cu + O2 ® 2CuO (1.28)
BaSO4 is formed by the reaction of SO4 and
2+ If hydrogen gas is passed over this heated
Ba . The other product formed is sodium
material (CuO), the black coating on the
chloride which remains in the solution. Such
surface turns brown as the reverse reaction
reactions in which there is an exchange of ions
takes place and copper is obtained.
between the reactants are called double
displacement reactions. Heat (1.29)
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2 O
Recall Activity 1.2: where you have mixed the If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it
solutions of lead(II) nitrate and potassium is said to be oxidised. If a substance loses
iodide. oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be
reduced.
(I) What was the colour of the precipitate
formed? Can you name the compound During this reaction (1.29), the copper(II)
precipitated? oxide is losing oxygen and is being reduced.
The hydrogen is gaining oxygen and is being
(ii) Write the balanced chemical equation for
oxidised. In other words, one reactant gets
this reaction.
oxidised while the other gets reduced during a
(iii) Is this also a double displacement reaction. Such reactions are called oxidation-
reaction? reduction reactions or redox reactions.
1.2.5 Oxidation and Reduction

(1.30)
■ Heat a china dish containing about 1 g Some other examples of redox reactions are:
copper powder (Fig. 1.10).
ZnO + C → Zn+ CO (1.30)
■ What do you observe?
MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl 2 + 2H 2O + Cl2 (1.31)
The surface of copper powder becomes coated
with black copper(II) oxide. Why has this black
substance formed?
This is because oxygen is added to copper and

copper oxide is formed.
Figure 1.10
Oxidation of copper to copper oxide
26
B“¿ì ¿±sÁD+ @$T{ì? BaSO4jîTT¿£Ø Ôî\¢{ì ne¹¿Œ|Ÿ+

SO4 eT]jáTT Ba2+ #ásÁ« e\¢ @sÁÎ&+~. #ásÁ«ýË @sÁÎ&q
‚+¿=¿£ ç ¿ ì j á Ö Èq«eTT kþ& j á T + ¿Ã¢ Â s Õ & Ž ç < ‘eD+ýË –wŸ’+
–+&bþsTT+~. ç¿ìjáÖÈq¿±\ eT<óŠ« njáÖqT¢ eÖsÁTÌÅ£”Hû ‡ 2Cu + O2 ® 2CuO (1.28)
#ásÁ«\qT <ŠÇ+<Š kÍœqçuó„+Xø #ásÁ«\T n+{²sÁT.
yû& #ûjáT‹&q |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ (CuO) ™|Õ¿ì ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ yjáTTeÚ
|Ÿ+|¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT q\¢{ì |ŸPÔá ¿£*Ðq –|Ÿ]Ôá\+, e«Ü¹s¿£ #ásÁ« <‘Çs
ýÉ&Ž (II) HîÕçfñ{Ù eT]jáTT bõ{²w¾jáT+ njîÖ&îÕ&Ž ç<‘eD²\ >Ã<óŠTeT sÁ+>·TýË¿ì eÖ] ¿±|ŸsY @sÁÎ&+~.
$TçXøeÖ“¿ì dŸ+‹+~ó+ºq ¿£Ôá«+1.2 qT >·TsÁTïÅ£” Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&. –wŸ’+
CuO + H2 →Cu + H2 O (1.29)
(i) @sÁÎ&q ne¹¿Œ|Ÿ+ sÁ+>·T @$T{ì? € ne¹¿Œ|Ÿ ÿ¿£ #ásÁ« È]Ðq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT @<îÕH ÿ¿£ |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ €¿ìàÈHŽqT ç>·V¾²dï, €
dŸ+jîÖ>· |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ |sÁT #î|ŸÎ>·\s? |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ €¿¡à¿£sÁD+ #î+~+<Š“ n+{²eTT. ÿ¿£ |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ #ásÁ«
È]Ðq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT €¿ìàÈHŽqT ¿ÃýËÎÔû, n~ ¿£ŒjáT¿£sÁD+ #î+~+<Š“
(ii) ‡ #ásÁ«Å£” ÔáT\« sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD+ çyjáT+&. n+{²eTT.
(iii) ‚~ Å£L&† <ŠÇ+<Š kÍœqçuó„+Xø #á¹s«H? ‡ #ásÁ« (1.29) È]Ðq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ¿±|ŸsY(II) €Â¿Õà&Ž €¿ìàÈHŽqT
¿ÃýËÎsTT ¿£ŒjáT¿£sÁD+ #î+~+~. ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ €¿ìàÈHŽ qT ç>·V¾²+º
€¿¡à¿£sÁD+ #î+~+~. eTsÃý² #îbÍÎ\+fñ #ásÁ«ýË ÿ¿£
1.2.5 €¿¡à¿£sÁD+ eT]jáTT ¿£ŒjáT¿£sÁD+ ç¿ìjáÖÈq¿£+ €¿¡à¿£sÁD+ #î+~Ôû eTs=¿£{ì ¿£ŒjáT¿£sÁD+
#î+<ŠTÔáT+~. ‚³Te+{ì #ásÁ«\qT €¿¡à¿£sÁD-¿£ŒjáT¿£sÁD #ásÁ«\T
¿£Ôá«+ 1.11 ýñ<‘ ]&†¿ùà #ásÁ«\T n+{²sÁT.
€¿ìà¿£sÁD+
■ 1 ç > ±. ¿±|Ÿ s Y bõ& –q• #î Õ H & w t q T yû & –wŸ¼+
#ûjáT+&. (|Ÿ³+1.10)
■ MTsÁT @$T >·eT“+#sÁT? ¿£ŒjáT¿£sÁD+
]&†¿ùà #ásÁ«\Å£” eT]¿=“• –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T
ZnO + C → Zn+ CO (1.30)
¿±|ŸsY bõ& –|Ÿ]Ôá\+ q\¢{ì ¿±|ŸsY(II) €Â¿Õà&ŽÔÃ ¿£|ŸÎ‹&+~.
m+<ŠTÅ£” ‡ q\¢{ì |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ @sÁÎ&+~? MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl 2 + 2H 2O + Cl2 (1.31)
m+<ŠTe\qq>± ¿±|ŸsYÅ£” €¿ìàÈHŽ ¿£\|Ÿ&ƒ+ e\¢ ¿±|ŸsY €Â¿Õà&Ž
@sÁÎ&+~. ¿±|ŸsY bõ&
–q• #îÕH &wt r>· e\
çÜbÍ~ kÍ¼+&Ž
‹sÁ•sY
|Ÿ³+ 1.10
¿±|ŸsY ¿±|ŸsY €Â¿Õà&Ž>± €¿¡à¿£sÁD+ #î+<ŠT³
27
In reaction (1.31) carbon is oxidised to CO year an enormous amount of money is spent to

and ZnO is reduced to Zn. In reaction (1.32) replace damaged iron. You will learn more
HCl is oxidised to Cl2 whereas MnO2 is reduced about corrosion in Chapter 3.
to MnCl2.
1.3.2 Rancidity
From the above examples we can say that if a
Have you ever tasted or smelt the fat/oil
substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen
containing food materials left for a long time?
during a reaction, it is oxidised. If a substance
loses oxygen or gains hydrogen during a When fats and oils are oxidised, they become
reaction, it is reduced. rancid and their smell and taste change. Usually
substances which prevent oxidation
Recall Activity 1.1: where a magnesium
(antioxidants) are added to foods containing
ribbon burns with a dazzling flame in air
fats and oil. Keeping food in air tight containers
(oxygen) and changes into a white substance,
helps to slow down oxidation. Do you know
magnesium oxide. Is magnesium being
that chips manufacturers usually flush bags of
oxidised or reduced in this reaction?
chips with gas such as nitrogen to prevent the
1.3 HAVE YOU OBSERVED THE chips from getting oxidised ?
EFFECTS OF OXIDATION REACTIONS
IN EVERYDAY LIFE?
1.3.1 Corrosion
You must have observed that iron articles are 1. Why does the colour of copper sulphate
shiny when new, but get coated with a reddish solution change when an iron nail is
brown powder when left for some time. This dipped in it?
process is commonly known as rusting of iron. 2. Give an example of a double
Some other metals also get tarnished in this displacement reaction other than the
manner. Have you noticed the colour of the
one given in Activity 1.10.
coating formed on copper and silver? When a
3. Identify the substances that are oxidised
metal is attacked by substances around it such
and the substances that are reduced in
as moisture, acids, etc., it is said to corrode and
this process is called corrosion. The black the following reactions.
coating on silver and the green coating on (i) 4Na(s) + O2(g) ® 2Na2O(s)
copper are other examples of corrosion. (ii) CuO(s) + H2(g) ® Cu(s) + H2O(l)
Corrosion causes damage to car bodies,

bridges, iron railings, ships and to all objects
made of metals, specially those of iron.
Corrosion of iron is a serious problem. Every
?
28
+ç<óç|<ûXÙ uó Ü¿£ sÁkÍjáTqXæg+: sÁkÍjáTq #ásÁ«\T eT]jáTT dMT¿£sÁD²\T
(1.31) #ásÁ«ýË ¿±sÁÒH CO >± ¿¡à¿£sÁD+ #î+~+~ n<ó«jáT+3ýËeT]+ÔámÅ£Øe>±HûsÁTÌÅ£+{²sÁT.
eT]jáTT ZnO, Zn>±¿£jáT¿£sÁD+#î+~+~.(1.32)#ásÁ«ýË Hcl, 1.3.2 eTT¿ìØ bþe&+
Cl2 >± ¿¡à¿£sÁD+ #î+~Ôû MnO2, MnCl2>± ¿£jáT¿£sÁD+ MTsÁT m|ÚÎ&îÕH÷mÅ£Øe¿±\+\Ç+ºqç¿=eÚÇ\T/qÖHî |<s÷\
#î+~+~. sÁTº>±ýñ<y÷dq>± #áÖXæs÷?
|Õ <V²sÁD\ qT+& #ásÁ« È]Ðq|ÚÎ&T ÿ¿£ |<sÁ+ ç¿=eÚÇ\TeT]jáTTqÖHî\T¿¡à¿£sÁD+#î+~q|ÚÎ&T n$
¿ìàÈHqT ç>·V¾²+#á&+ ýñ< VÕ²ç&ÃÈHqT ¿ÃýËÎe&+ È]ÐÔû n~ eTT¿ìØ bþsTT y÷{ì y÷dq eT]jáTT sÁTº eÖ]bþÔ÷sTT.
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#î+~+~nn+{²eTT. ¿£\T|ÚÔ÷sÁT.>±*#=sÁ& &u²Ò\ýËVäsÁ |<s÷\T+#á&+
¿£Ôá«+ 1.1 >·TsÁTïÅ£Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&.yîT^w¾jáT+]ÒHqT Å£L&¿¡à¿£sÁD²ÔáÐZdTï+~.kÍ<ósÁD+>±º|tàÔájáÖ¯<sÁT\T,
>±*ýË(¿ìàÈHýË)eT+&+ºq|ÚÎ&T $TsÁT$T³T¢ >=*| ¿±+ÜÔÃ º|tà ¿¡à¿£sÁD+ #î+<Å£+& bÍ«Â¿³¢ýË HîÕç{ËÈH y÷jáTTeÚqT
eT+& yîT^w¾jáT+ Â¿Õà& nHû Ôî\¢{ì |<sÁÆ+>± eÖ]+~. +|ÚÔ÷sÁMTÅ£Ôî\TkÍ?
#ásÁ«ýË yîT^w¾jáT+ ¿¡à¿£sÁD+ #î+~+< ýñ¿£ ¿£jáT¿£sÁD+
#î+~+<?
1.3 Ôá«J$Ôá+ýË ¿¡à¿£sÁD #ásÁ«\ ç|uó²y÷\qT MTsÁT
>·$T+#÷s÷? ç|Xø\T
1.3.1 ¿£jáT+
1. ¿±|sY dýñÎÛ{Ù ç<eD+ýË qT| yûTÅ£\T +ºq|ÚÎ&T
qT| edTïeÚ\T ¿=Ôáï>± q|ÚÎ&T yîTsÁTdÖï +&, ¿=~Ý ¿±\+ ç<eD+sÁ+>·Tm+<TÅ£eÖsÁTÔáT+~?
Ôás÷ÇÔá eTT<TsÁT >Ã<óTeT sÁ+>·T |PÔá |PjáT&q³T¢ eÖsÁ&+
2. ¿£Ôá«+ 1.10 ýË eÇ&+~ ¿±Å£+& <Ç+< kÍqçuó+Xø
MTsÁT >·eT+º+{²sÁT.|<ÆÜkÍ<ósÁD+>±qTeTTÔáT|ÚÎ
#ásÁ«Å£ÿ¿£<V²sÁDeÇ+&.
|³¼&+ n+{²sÁT. <û |<ÆÜýË eT]¿= ýËVä\T bÍ&eÚÔ÷sTT.
¿±|sY eT]jáTT yî+& edTïeÚ\ |Õ sÁ+>·T |PÔá @sÁÎ&&+ MTsÁT 3. ç¿ì+~ #ásÁ«\ýË @ |<s÷\T ¿¡à¿£sÁD+ #î+<sTT
m|ÚÎ&îÕH÷ >·eT+#÷s÷?ÿ¿£ ýËV²+ < #áT³Ö¼ q ÔûeT, eT]jáTT@|<s÷\T ¿£jáT¿£sÁD+#î+<sTT.
eÖ¢\T yîTT<\>·T y÷{ì ç|uó²y÷¿ì ýËHîÕq|ÚÎ&T ¿£jáÖ¿ì (i) 4Na(|T)+ O (y÷)®2Na O(|T)
2 2
>·TsÁjáÖ«sTTn+{²eTT.|<ÆÜHû ¿£jáT+#î+<&+ n+{²eTT. (ii) CuO(|T)+ H (y÷) ® Cu(|T)+ H O(ç<)

2 2
yî+& edTïeÚ\|Õ q\¢{ì |PÔá eT]jáTTs÷ÐedTïeÚ\|Õ Å£|#áÌ
?
|PÔá¿£jáÖ¿ì eT]¿=<V²sÁD\T.
¿±sÁT uó²>±\T, ç_&¨\T, qT| |{²¼\T, z&\T eT]jáTT
ýËVä\ÔÃ,ç|Ôû«¿£+>±qTeTTÔÃÔájáÖÂsÕq nedTïeÚ\T¿£jáT+
e\qbÍ&îÕbþÔ÷sTT. qTeTT¿£jáT+#î+<&+ ÿ¿£ ç|<óqdeTd«.
ç|Ü d+eÔáàsÁ+ bÍ&îÕbþsTTq qTeTTqT eÖsÁÌ&+ ¿Ãd+ #÷ý²
|<Ý yîTTÔáï+ýË &TÒ KsÁTÌ |{²¼*à ekþï+~. ¿£jáT+ >·T]+º
29
■ A complete chemical equation represents the reactants, products and their physical
states symbolically.
■ A chemical equation is balanced so that the numbers of atoms of each type involved in a
chemical reaction are the same on the reactant and product sides of the equation.
Equations must always be balanced.
■ In a combination reaction two or more substances combine to form a new single
substance.
■ Decomposition reactions are opposite to combination reactions. In a decomposition
reaction, a single substance decomposes to give two or more substances.
■ Reactions in which heat is given out along with the products are called exothermic
reactions.
■ Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic reactions.
■ When an element displaces another element from its compound, a displacement
reaction occurs.
■ Two different atoms or groups of atoms (ions) are exchanged in double displacement
reactions.
■ Precipitation reactions produce insoluble salts.
■ Reactions also involve the gain or loss of oxygen or hydrogen by substances. Oxidation
is the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen. Reduction is the loss of oxygen or gain of
hydrogen.
1. Which of the statements about the reaction below are incorrect?

2PbO(s) + C(s) ® 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
(a) Lead is getting reduced.
(b) Carbon dioxide is getting oxidised.
(c) Carbon is getting oxidised.
(d) Lead oxide is getting reduced.
(i) (a) and (b)
(ii) (a) and (c)
(iii) (a), (b) and (c)
(iv) all
2. Fe2O3 + 2Al ® Al2O3 + 2Fe
The above reaction is an example of a
(a) combination reaction.
(b) double displacement reaction.
30
MTsÁT @$T HûsÁTÌÅ£”H•sÁT
■ ÿ¿£ |ŸP]ï sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD+ <‘“ýË“ ç¿ìjáÖÈq¿±\T, ç¿ìjáÖÈH«\T eT]jáTT y{ì uó…Ü¿£ d¾œÔáT\qT ºVŸä•\ÔÃ
Ôî\T|ŸÚÔáT+~.
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|Ÿ<‘sœ\qT ‚dŸTï+~.
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■ ÿ¿£ eTÖ\¿£+ ÿ¿£ dŸ+jîÖ>· |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ qT+& eTs=¿£ eTÖ\¿±“• kÍœqçuó„+Xø+ #î+~+#á&ƒ+ e\¢ kÍœqçuó„+Xø #ásÁ«\T
ÈsÁT>·TÔsTT.
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eÖsÁÌ‹&ƒÔsTT.
■ ne¹¿Œ|Ÿ #ásÁ«\T ¿£sÁ>·“ \eD²\qT @sÁÎsÁTkÍïsTT.
■ #ásÁ«\ýË“ |Ÿ<‘sœ\T €¿ìàÈHŽ ýñ<‘ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽqT ¿ÃýËÎÔsTT ýñ<‘ ç>·V¾²kÍïsTT. €¿ìàÈHŽqT ç>·V¾²+#á&ƒ+ ýñ<‘
™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽqT ¿ÃýËÎe&ƒ+ €¿¡à¿£sÁD+. €¿ìàÈHŽqT ¿ÃýËÎe&ƒ+ ýñ<‘ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽqT ç>·V¾²+#á&ƒ+ ¿£ŒjáT¿£sÁD+.
nuó„«dŸH\T
1) ‡ #ásÁ« >·T]+º ¿ì+~ y¿±«\ýË dŸ] ¿±“$ @$?
2PbO(|˜ŸT) + C(|˜ŸT) ® 2Pb(|˜ŸT) + CO2(y)
(a) ýÉ&Ž ¿£ŒjáT¿£sÁD+ #î+~+~.
(b) ¿±sÁÒHŽ &ƒjáÖÂ¿Õà&Ž €¿¡à¿£sÁD+ #î+~+~.
(c) ¿±sÁÒHŽ €¿¡à¿£sÁD+ #î+~+~.
(d) ýÉ&Ž €Â¿Õà&Ž ¿£ŒjáT¿£sÁD+ #î+~+~.
(i) (a) eT]jáTT (b)
(ii) (a) eT]jáTT (c)
(iii) (a), (b) eT]jáTT (c)
(iv) nú•
2) Fe2O3 + 2Al ® Al2O3 + 2Fe
™|Õ #ásÁ« <û“¿ì –<‘VŸ²sÁD
a) dŸ+jîÖ>· #ásÁ«.
b) <ŠÇ+<Š kÍœqçuó„+Xø #ásÁ«.
31
(c) decomposition reaction.

(d) displacement reaction.
3. What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to iron fillings? Tick the
correct answer.
(a) Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced.
(b) Chlorine gas and iron hydroxide are produced.
(c) No reaction takes place.
(d) Iron salt and water are produced.
4. What is a balanced chemical equation? Why should chemical equations be
balanced?
5. Translate the following statements into chemical equations and then balance them.
(a) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.
(b) Hydrogen sulphide gas burns in air to give water and sulpur dioxide.
(c) Barium chloride reacts with aluminium sulphate to give aluminium chloride
and a precipitate of barium sulphate.
(d) Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
6. Balance the following chemical equations.
(a) HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 ® Ca(NO3)2 + H2O
(b) NaOH + H2SO4 ® Na2SO4 + H2O
(c) NaCl + AgNO3 ® AgCl + NaNO3
(d) BaCl2 + H2SO4® BaSO4 + HCl
7. Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.
(a) Calcium hydroxide + Carbon dioxide ® Calcium carbonate + Water
(b) Zinc + Silver nitrate ® Zinc nitrate + Silver
(c) Aluminium + Copper chloride ® Aluminium chloride + Copper
(d) Barium chloride + Potassium sulphate ® Barium sulphate + Potassium
chloride
8. Write the balanced chemical equation for the following and identify the type
of reaction in each case.
(a) Potassium bromide(aq) + Barium iodide(aq) ® Potassium iodide(aq) +
Barium bromide(s)
(b) Zinc carbonate(s) ® Zinc oxide(s) + Carbon dioxide(g)
(c) Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g) ® Hydrogen chloride(g)
(d) Magnesium(s) + Hydrochloric acid(aq) ® Magnesium chloride(aq) +
Hydrogen(g)
32
(c) $jîÖ>· #ásÁ«.

(c) kÍœqçuó„+Xø #ásÁ«.
3) ‚qT|Ÿ sÁÈqTÅ£” dŸÈ\ ™VÕ²ç&Ã¿Ã¢]¿ù €eT¢+ ¿£*|¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT @$T ÈsÁT>·TqT ?dŸÂsÕq dŸeÖ<ó‘H“• >·T]ï+#á+&.
(a) ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ yjáTTeÚ eT]jáTT ×sÁHŽ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž @sÁÎ&ƒTqT.
(b) ¿Ã¢]HŽ yjáTTeÚ eT]jáTT ×sÁHŽ ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž @sÁÎ&ƒTqT.
(c) @ #ás« ÈsÁ>·<ŠT.
(d) ×sÁHŽ \eD+ eT]jáTT úsÁT @sÁÎ&ƒTqT.
4) ÔáT\« sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD+ n+fñ @$T{ì? m+<ŠTÅ£” sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT ÔáT\«+ #ûjáÖ*?
5) ç¿ì+~ y¿±«\qT sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T>± eÖsÁTÎ #ûjáT+& eT]jáTT y{ì“ ÔáT\«+ #ûjáT+&.
(a) ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ yjáTTeÚ HîÕç{ËÈHŽÔÃ ¿£*d¾ nyîÖˆ“jáÖ @sÁÎsÁ#áTqT.
(b) ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ dŸýÉÕÎÛ&Ž yjáTTeÚ >±*ýË eT+& úsÁT eT]jáTT dŸ\ÎÛsY &ƒjáÖÂ¿Õà&Ž\qT @sÁÎsÁ#áTqT.
(c) uñ]jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž, n\Ö«$T“jáT+ dŸýñÎÛ{ÙÔÃ #ásÁ« È]|¾ n\Ö«$T“jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž eT]jáTT uñ]jáT+ dŸýñÎÛ{Ù
ne¹¿Œ|Ÿ+qT @sÁÎsÁT#áTqT.
(d) bõ{²w¾jáT+ ýËVŸ²+ ú{ìÔÃ #ásÁ« È]|¾ bõ{²w¾jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž eT]jáTT ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ yjáTTeÚqT ‚dŸTï+~.
6) ç¿ì+~ sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD²\“ ÔáT\«+ #ûjáT+& .
(a) HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 ® Ca(NO3)2 + H2O
(b) NaOH + H2SO4 ® Na2SO4 + H2O
(c) NaCl + AgNO3 ® AgCl + NaNO3
(d) BaCl2 + H2SO4® BaSO4 + Hcl
7) ç¿ì+~ #ásÁ«\Å£” ÔáT\« sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T sjáT+&.
(a) ¿±*üjáT+ ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž + ¿±sÁÒHŽ &ƒjáÖÂ¿Õà&Ž ® ¿±*üjáT+ ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù + úsÁT
(b) ›+¿ù + d¾\ÇsY HîÕçfñ{Ù ® ›+¿ù HîÕçfñ{Ù + d¾\ÇsY
(c) n\Ö«$T“jáT+ + ¿±|ŸsY ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž ® n\Ö«$T“jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž + ¿±|ŸsY.
(d) uñ]jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž + bõ{²w¾jáT+ dŸýñÎÛ{Ù ® uñ]jáT+ dŸýñÎÛ{Ù + bõ{²w¾jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž
8) ç¿ì+~ sÁkÍjáT“¿£ dŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT ÔáT\«+ #ûd¾, n$ @ sÁ¿£yîT®q #ásÁ«ýË sjáT+&.
(a) bõ{²w¾jáT+ çuËyîT®&Ž (È.ç<‘) + uñ]jáT+ njîÖ&îÕ&Ž(È.ç<‘)® bõ{²w¾jáT+ njîÖ&îÕ&Ž(È.ç<‘) +
uñ]jáT+ çuËyîT®&Ž(|˜ŸT)
(b) ›+¿ù ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù(|˜ŸT)® ›+¿ù €Â¿Õà&Ž(|˜ŸT) + ¿±sÁÒHŽ &ƒjáÖÂ¿Õà&Ž(y)
(c) ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ(y)+ ¿Ã¢]HŽ(y) ® ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž(y)
(d) yîT^•w¾jáT+(|˜ŸT) + ™VÕ²ç&Ã¿Ã¢]¿ù €eT¢+(È.ç<‘)® yîT^•w¾jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž(È.ç<‘) + ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ(y)
33
9. What does one mean by exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give examples.
10. Why is respiration considered an exothermic reaction? Explain.
11. Why are decomposition reactions called the opposite of combination reactions?
Write equations for these reactions.
12. Write one equation each for decomposition reactions where energy is supplied in
the form of heat, light or electricity.
13. What is the difference between displacement and double displacement reactions?
Write equations for these reactions.
14. In the refining of silver, the recovery of silver from silver nitrate solution involved
displacement by copper metal. Write down the reaction involved.
15. What do you mean by a precipitation reaction? Explain by giving examples.
16. Explain the following in terms of gain or loss of oxygen with two examples each.
(a) Oxidation
(b) Reduction
17. A shiny brown coloured element ‘X’ on heating in air becomes black in colour.
Name the element ‘X’ and the black coloured compound formed.
18. Why do we apply paint on iron articles?
19. Oil and fat containing food items are flushed with nitrogen. Why?
20. Explain the following terms with one example each.
(a) Corrosion
(b) Rancidity
Perform the following activity.

■ Take four beakers and label them as A, B, C and D.
■ Put 25 mL of water in A, B and C beakers and copper sulphate solution in beaker D.
■ Measure and record the temperature of each liquid contained in the beakers above.
■ Add two spatulas of potassium sulphate, ammonium nitrate, anhydrous copper
sulphate and fine iron fillings to beakers A, B, C and D respectively and stir.
■ Finally measure and record the temperature of each of the mixture above.
Find out which reactions are exothermic and which ones are endothermic in nature.
34
9) –wŸ’yîÖ#á¿£, –wŸ’ ç>±VŸ²¿£ #ásÁ«\T nq>±Hû$T? –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T ‚eÇ+&.
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(a) €¿¡à¿£sÁD+
(b) ¿£ŒjáT¿£sÁD+
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(b) eTT¿ìØbþe&ƒ+
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ç>±VŸ²¿£ #ásÁ«ýË ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
35
ANDHRA PRADESH | PHYSICAL SCIENCE : Acids, Bases and Salts
36
€+ç<óŠç|Ÿ<ûX|Ù uó…Ü¿£ sÁkÍjáTq XæçdŸï+ : €eÖ¢\T, ¿Œ±s\T eT]jáTT \eD²\T
n<ó‘«jáT+ 2
€eÖ¢\T, ¿Œ±s\T eT]jáTT
\eD²\T
37
Y ou have learnt in your previous classes

that the sour and bitter tastes of food are
due to acids and bases, respectively,
natural indicator, turmeric is another such
indicator. Have you noticed that a stain of curry
on a white cloth becomes reddish-brown when
present in them. soap, which is basic in nature, is scrubbed on it?
If someone in the family is suffering from It turns yellow again when the cloth is washed
a problem of acidity after overeating, which of with plenty of water. You can also use synthetic
the following would you suggest as a remedy– indicators such as methyl orange and
lemon juice, vinegar or baking soda solution? phenolphthalein to test for acids and bases.
■ Which property did you think of while In this Chapter, we will study the
choosing the remedy? reactions of acids and bases, how acids and
bases cancel out each other’s effects and many
Surely you must have used your
more interesting things that we use and see in
knowledge about the ability of acids and bases
our day-to-day life.
to nullify each other’s effect.
■ Recall how we tested sour and bitter
substances without tasting them.
You already know that acids are sour in
taste and change the colour of blue litmus to
red, whereas, bases are bitter and change the
colour of the red litmus to blue. Litmus is a
Litmus solution is a purple dye, which is extracted from lichen, a plant belonging to the
division Thallophyta, and is commonly used as an indicator. When the litmus solution is
neither acidic nor basic, its colour is purple. There are many other natural materials like red
cabbage leaves, turmeric, coloured petals of some flowers such as Hydrangea, Petunia and
Geranium, which indicate the presence of acid or base in a solution. These are called acid-
base indicators or sometimes simply indicators.
38
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39
Table 2.1
1. You have been provided with three test

tubes. One of them contains distilled water
and the other two contain an acidic
solution and a basic solution, respectively.
If you are given only red litmus paper, how
will you identify the contents of each test
?
tube?
These indicators tell us whether a

substance is acidic or basic by change in colour.
There are some substances whose odour
2.1 UNDERSTANDING THE CHEMICAL changes in acidic or basic media. These are
PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES called olfactory indicators. Let us try out some
of these indicators.
2.1.1 Acids and Bases in the Laboratory
40
|Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 2.1
ç|Ÿ Xø•
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ç|ŸjáTÜ•<‘Ý+.
¿Œ±s\T
¿£Ôá«+ 2.1 ¿£Ôá«+ 2.2
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Ôá]Ðq –*¢bÍjáT\qT bÍ¢d¾¼¿ù dŸ+ºýË rdŸT¿Ã+&.
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4
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■ MT |Ÿ]o\q\qT |Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 2.1ýË bõ+<ŠT|ŸsÁT#áTeTT.
41
■ Rinse both cloth strips with water and 2.1.2 How do Acids and Bases React
again check their odour. with Metals?
■ Note your observations.
■ Now take some dilute vanilla essence
CAUTION:
and clove oil and check their odour.
■ Take some dilute HCl solution in one
■
test tube and dilute NaOH solution in ■
another. Add a few drops of dilute
vanilla essence to both test tubes and
■
shake well. Check the odour once
again and record changes in odour, if ■
any.
■ Similarly, test the change in the odour ■
of clove oil with dilute HCl and dilute
NaOH solutions and record your ■
observations.
■
Which of these – vanilla, onion and clove, ■
can be used as olfactory indicators on the basis
of your observations? ■
Let us do some more activities to understand
the chemical properties of acids and bases.
Figure 2.1 Reaction of zinc granules with dilute sulphuric acid and testing hydrogen gas by burning
42
2.1.2 ýËVŸä\ÔÃ €eÖ¢\T eT]jáTT ¿Œ±s\T mý²
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qÖHî\qT rdŸT¿=“, y{ì ydŸqqT |Ÿ]o*+#á+&. ■ |Ÿ³+ 2.1 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<óŠ+>± |Ÿ]¿£s\qT neTsÁÌ+&.
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■ dŸ‹TÒ ç<‘eD+ýË ‹T&ƒ>·\T m+<ŠTÅ£” @sÁÎ&†¦sTT?
@yîT®H –+fñ y{ì“ qyîÖ<ŠT #ûjáT+&.
■ yjáTTeÚ “+&q ‹T&ƒ>·\ <Š>·ZsÁÅ£” yî\T>·TÔáTq•
■ n<û $<óŠ+>±, dŸÈ\ HCl, dŸÈ\ NaOH ç<‘eD²\ÔÃ ¿=y=ÇÜï“ rdŸTÅ£”sÁ+&.
\e+>· qÖHî ydŸqqT |Ÿ¯¿ìŒ+º, MT |Ÿ]o\q\qT ■ MT¹s$T >·eT“+#sÁT?
qyîÖ<ŠT #ûjáT+&. ■ ‚<û ¿£Ô«“• HCl, HNO , CH COOH \ÔÃ Ü]Ð
3 3
MTsÁT #ûd¾q |Ÿ]o\q\ €<ó‘sÁ+>± - yîúý² m™dHŽà, #ûjáT+&.

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–|ŸjîÖÐ+#áe#áTÌ? yûsÁT>± –H•jáÖ?
€eÖ¢ \ , ¿Œ ± s\ sÁ k Íjá T q <ó Š s ˆ\qT nsÁ œ +
#ûdŸT¿Ãe&†“¿ì eT]¿=“• ¿£Ô«\qT #û<‘Ý+.
yjáTTyVŸ²¿£ HÞø+
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43
Note that the metal in the above

reactions displaces hydrogen atoms from the
acids as hydrogen gas and forms a compound ■ Take two test tubes, label them as A
called a salt. Thus, the reaction of a metal with and B.
an acid can be summarised as – ■ Take about 0.5 g of sodium carbonate
Acid + Metal ® Salt + Hydrogen gas (Na2CO3) in test tube A and about
0.5 g of sodium hydrogencarbonate
Can you now write the equations for the
reactions you have observed? (NaHCO3) in test tube B.
■ Add about 2 mL of dilute HCl to both
the test tubes.
■ Place a few pieces of granulated zinc
■ Pass the gas produced in each case
metal in a test tube.
through lime water (calcium
■ Add 2 mL of sodium hydroxide
hydroxide solution) as shown in
solution and warm the contents of the
test tube. Fig. 2.2 and record your observations.
■ Repeat the rest of the steps as in
Activity 2.3 and record your The reactions occurring in the above Activity
observations. are written as –
The reaction that takes place can be written as Test tube A:
follows.
Na 2 CO3 (s) + 2 HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2 O(l) + CO2 (g)
2NaOH(aq) + Zn(s) ® Na2ZnO2(s) + H2(g) Test tube B:
(Sodium zincate)
NaHCO3 (s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2 O(l) + CO2 (g)
You find again that hydrogen is formed On passing the carbon dioxide gas evolved
in the reaction. However, such reactions are not through lime water,
possible with all metals.
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s) + H2 O(l)
2.1.3 How do Metal Carbonates and Metal (Lime water) (White precipitate)
Hydrogencarbonates React with
Acids?
Figure 2.2
Passing carbon dioxide gas through calcium hydroxide solution
44
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kþbÍH\qT |Ÿ Ú qseÔá + #û j á T +& eT]já T T
|Ÿ]o\q\qT qyîÖ<ŠT #ûjáT+&. ™|Õ ¿£Ôá«eTTýË È]Ðq #ásÁ«\qT ç¿ì+~ $<óŠ+>± çyjáTe#áTÌ -
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(kþ&jáT+ ›+¹¿{Ù) H O(ç<Š) + CO (y)

2 2
|Ÿ¯¿£Œ H[¿£ B:
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‚ý²+{ì #ásÁ«\T n“• ýËVŸä\ÔÃ kÍ<óŠ«+ ¿±eÚ. CO2 (y)

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2.1.3 €eÖ¢\ÔÃ ýËVŸ² ¿±sÃÒHû³T¢ eT]jáTT ýËVŸ² ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ Ca(OH)2(È.ç<‘) + CO2 (y) ® CaCO3 (|˜ŸT) + H2O(ç<Š)
(dŸTq•|ŸÚ úsÁT) (Ôî\¢“ ne¹¿Œ|Ÿ+)
¿±sÃÒHû³T¢ mý² #ásÁ« H=+<ŠTÔsTT?
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45
On passing excess carbon dioxide the In the above Activity, we have observed that
following reaction takes place: the ef fect of a base is nullified by an acid and
CaCO3 (s) + H2 O(l)+ CO2 (g) → Ca(HCO3 )2 (aq ) vice-versa. The reaction taking place is written
(Soluble in water) as –
Limestone, chalk and marble are
different forms of calcium carbonate. All metal NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ® NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
carbonates and hydrogencarbonates react with
acids to give a corresponding salt, carbon The reaction between an acid and a base to
dioxide and water. give a salt and water is known as a
Thus, the reaction can be summarised as – neutralisation reaction. In general, a
neutralisation reaction can be written as –
Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogencarbonate +
Acid ® Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water Base + Acid ® Salt + Water
2.1.5 Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids
2.1.4 How do Acids and Bases React with
each other?
■ Take a small amount of copper oxide in

a beaker and add dilute hydrochloric
■ Take about 2 mL of dilute NaOH acid slowly while stirring.
solution in a test tube and add two
■ Note the colour of the solution. What
drops of phenolphthalein solution. has happened to the copper oxide?
■ What is the colour of the solution?
■ Add dilute HCl solution to the above
solution drop by drop.
You will notice that the colour of the solution
■ Is there any colour change for the becomes blue-green and the copper oxide
reaction mixture? dissolves. The blue-green colour of the solution
■ Why did the colour of phenolphthalein is due to the formation of copper(II) chloride in
change after the addition of an acid? the reaction. The general reaction between a
■ Now add a few drops of NaOH to the metal oxide and an acid can be written as –
above mixture.
Metal oxide + Acid ® Salt + Water
■ Does the pink colour of
phenolphthalein reappear?
■ Why do you think this has happened?
46
n~ó¿£+>± ¿±sÁÒHŽ &îÕ€Â¿Õà&Ž yjáTTqT |Ÿ+|¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ™|Õ ¿£Ôá«+ýË, ¿Œ±sÁ+ jîTT¿£Ø ç|Ÿuó²e+ €eT¢+ #ûÔá €eT¢
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e«Ü¹s¿£+>± ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+<Š“ eTq+ >·eT“+#eTT.
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(ú{ìýË $©qeTeÚÔáT+~)
NaOH(È.ç<‘) + HCl(È.ç<‘) ® NaCl(È.ç<‘) + H O(ç<Š)
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+ ¿±sÁÒHŽ &îÕ €Â¿Õà&Ž + úsÁT
¿£Ôá«+ 2.7
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#ásÁ« ÈsÁT|ŸÚÔsTT? HîeTˆ~>± dŸÈ\ ™VÕ²ç&Ã¿Ã¢]¿ù €eÖ¢“• ¿£\T|ŸÚÔáÖ
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ç<‘eD²“• ¿£\|Ÿ+&.
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ç < ‘eD|Ÿ Ú sÁ + >· T ú*- €Å£ ” |Ÿ # á Ì sÁ + >· T ýË¿ì
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eÖsÁTÔáT+<Š“ eT]jáTT ¿±|ŸsY €Â¿Õà&Ž ¿£]ÐbþÔáT+<Š“ MTsÁT
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>·eT“+#áe#áTÌ. ‡ #ásÁ«ýË ¿±|ŸsY (II) ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž @sÁÎ&ƒ³+ e\¢
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>·eT“+#s? eT]jáTT €eT¢eTT eT<óŠ« È]¹> kÍ<ó‘sÁD #ásÁ«qT ‚ý²
■ €eÖ¢“• ¿£\|Ÿ&ƒ+ e\q |˜¾H|˜Ÿï©HŽ jîTT¿£Ø sÁ+>·T çyjáTe#áTÌ.
m+<ŠTÅ£” eÖ]+~? ýËVŸ² €Â¿Õà&Ž + €eT¢+ ® \eD+ + úsÁT
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47
now write and balance the equation for the 2.2 WHAT DO ALL ACIDS AND ALL
above reaction. Since metallic oxides react with BASES HAVE IN COMMON?
acids to give salts and water, similar to the In Section 2.1 we have seen that all acids
reaction of a base with an acid, metallic oxides have similar chemical properties. What leads to
are said to be basic oxides. this similarity in properties? We saw in Activity
2.1.6 Reaction of a Non-metallic Oxide with 2.3 that all acids generate hydrogen gas on
Base reacting with metals, so hydrogen seems to be
common to all acids. Let us perform an Activity
You saw the reaction between carbon dioxide to investigate whether all compounds
and calcium hydroxide (lime water) in Activity containing hydrogen are acidic.
2.5. Calcium hydroxide, which is a base, reacts
with carbon dioxide to produce a salt and water.
Since this is similar to the reaction between a
base and an acid, we can conclude that non-
metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
1.Why should curd and sour substances

not be kept in brass and copper vessels?
2. Which gas is usually liberated when an Figure 2.3
Acid solution in water conducts electricity
acid reacts with a metal? Illustrate with
an example. How will you test for the
presence of this gas?
■ Take solutions of glucose, alcohol,
3. Metal compound A reacts with dilute
hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, etc.
hydrochloric acid to produce
■ Fix two nails on a cork, and place the
effervescence. The gas evolved
cork in a 100 mL beaker.
extinguishes a burning candle. Write a
■ Connect the nails to the two terminals
balanced chemical equation for the
of a 6 volt battery through a bulb and a
reaction if one of the compounds
switch, as shown in Fig. 2.3.
formed is calcium chloride. ■ Now pour some dilute HCl in the
?
beaker and switch on the current.
■ Repeat with dilute sulphuric acid.
■ Repeat the experiment separately with
glucose and alcohol solutions. What
do you observe now?
■ Does the bulb glow in all cases?
48
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@sÁÎ&q dŸyûTˆÞøH\ýË ¿±*üjáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž ÿ¿£fÉ®Ôû € ■ ÿ¿£ sÁ‹ÒsÁT _sÁ&† MT<Š Âs+&ƒT yûTÅ£”\qT _Ð+#á+&
eT]jáTT € sÁ‹ÒsÁT _sÁ&†qT ÿ¿£ 100 $T.©. ;¿£sÁT
#ásÁ«Å£” ÿ¿£ ÔáT\« sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD²“• çyjáT+&. q+<ŠT –+#á+&.
?
■ |Ÿ³+ 2.3 ýË #áÖ|¾q³T¢, Âs+&ƒT yûTÅ£”\qT 6V
u²«³¯ Âs+&ƒT ¿=q\qT ÿ¿£ ‹\TÒ eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ d¾Ç#Y
<‘Çs dŸ+<ó‘q+ #ûjáT+&.
■ ‚|ŸÚ&ƒT ;¿£sÁTýË ¿=+#î+ dŸÈ\ HClqT bþd¾
$<ŠT«ÔY d¾Ç#YqT €HŽ #ûjáT+&.
■ B““ dŸÈ\ dŸ\ÖÎÛ«]¿ù €eT¢+ÔÃ |ŸÚqseÔá+
#ûjáT+&.
■ MT¹s$T >·eT“+#sÁT?
■ ‡ ç|ŸjîÖ>±“• yûsÁTyûsÁT>± >·Ö¢¿ÃE eT]jáTT
€\ØVŸä\T ç<‘eD²\ÔÃ |ŸÚqseÔá+ #ûjáT+&.
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT MT¹s$T >·eT“+#sÁT?
■ ‹\TÒ n“• dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\ýË yî\T>·TÔáT+<‘?
49
The bulb will start glowing in the case of

acids, as shown in Fig. 2.3. But you will
observe that glucose and alcohol solutions do ■ Take about 1g solid NaCl in a clean
not conduct electricity. Glowing of the bulb and dry test tube and set up the
indicates that there is a flow of electric current apparatus as shown in Fig. 2.4.
through the solution. The electric current is ■ Add some concentrated sulphuric acid
carried through the acidic solution by ions. to the test tube.
+
Acids contain H ion as cation and anion ■ What do you observe? Is there a gas
– – -2
such as Cl in HCl, NO3 in HNO3, SO4 in
coming out of the delivery tube?
H2SO4, CH3COO– in CH3COOH. Since the
+ ■ Test the gas evolved successively with
cation present in acids is H , this suggests that
+ dry and wet blue litmus paper.
acids produce hydrogen ions, H (aq), in
■ In which case does the litmus paper
solution, which are responsible for their acidic
change colour?
properties.
Repeat the same Activity using alkalis ■ On the basis of the above Activity,
such as sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, what do you infer about the acidic
etc. What can you conclude from the results of character of:
this Activity? (i) dry HCl gas
(ii) HCl solution?
2.2.1 What Happens to an Acid or a Base in a Note to teachers: If the climate is very
Water Solution?
humid, you will have to pass the gas
Do acids produce ions only in aqueous produced through a guard tube (drying
solution? Let us test this.
tube) containing calcium chloride to dry
the gas.
This experiment suggests that hydrogen

ions in HCl are produced in the presence of
+
water. The separation of H ion from HCl
molecules cannot occur in the absence of water.
+ –
HCl + H2O ® H3O + Cl
Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but
they exist after combining with water
molecules. Thus hydrogen ions must always be
+ +
shown as H (aq) or hydronium ion (H3O ).
H + + H 2 O ® H 3O +
+
We have seen that acids give H3O or
+
Figure 2.4 Preparation of HCl gas H (aq) ion in water. Let us see what happens
when a base is dissolved in water.
HO
2
NaOH(s) ® Na+ (aq) + OH–(aq)
50
|Ÿ³+ 2.3 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<óŠ+>±, €eÖ¢\ dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ýË ¿£Ôá«+ 2.9

‹\TÒ yî\T>·TÔáT+~. ¿±ú >·Ö¢¿ÃE eT]jáTT €\ØVŸäýÙ ç<‘eD²\T
$<ŠT«ÔYqT ç|ŸdŸ]+#áe“ MTsÁT >·eT“kÍïsÁT. ‹\TÒ yî\>·³+, ■ <‘<‘|ŸÚ 1 ç>±. |˜ŸTq NaCl qT ÿ¿£ Xø—çuó„yîT®q bõ&
ç<‘eD+ <‘Çs $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸkÍs“• dŸÖºdŸTï+~. njáÖqT\#û |Ÿ¯¿£Œ H[¿£ýË rdŸTÅ£”“ |Ÿ³+ 2.4 ýË #áÖ|¾q
€eT¢ ç<‘eD²\ >·T+&† $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyV¾²dŸTï+~. $<óŠ+>± |Ÿ]¿£s\qT neTsÁÌ+&.
€eÖ¢\T H njáÖqT\qT <óŠHÔáˆ¿£ njáÖqT\T>±qT
+ ■ |Ÿ¯¿£ŒH[¿£Å£” ¿=+#î+ >±&óƒ dŸ\ÖÎÛ«]¿ù €eT¢eTT
eT]jáTT HCl ýË Cl , HNO ýË NO3-, H SO ýË SO ,
-
3 2
4
4
-2 ¿£\|Ÿ+&.
-
CH COOH ýË CH COO \qT ‹TTD²Ôáˆ¿£
3 3
■ MT¹s$T >·eT“+#sÁT? yjáTT yVŸ²¿£HÞø+ qT+&
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njáÖqT\T H ¿±eÚq €eÖ¢\T y{ì €eT¢ <óŠsˆ\Å£”
+
■ yî\Te&q yjáTTeÚqT esÁTdŸ>± bõ& eT]jáTT Ôá&
¿±sÁDeTjûT« ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ njáÖqT\qT H (È.ç<‘) ç<‘eD²\ýË
+
ú* *³ˆdt ¿±ÐÔá+ÔÃ |Ÿ¯¿ìŒ+#á+&.
–ÔáÎÜï #ûkÍïjáT“ ‚~ dŸÖºdŸTï+~. ■ @ dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ýË *³ˆdt ¿±ÐÔá+ sÁ+>·T eÖsÁTÔáT+~?
‚<û ¿£Ô«“• kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž, ¿±*üjáT+ ■ ™|Õ ¿£Ôá«+ €<ó‘sÁ+>±,
™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž yîTT<Š\>·T €\Ø©\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º |ŸÚqseÔá+ (i) bõ& HCl yjáTTeÚ
#ûjáT+&. ‡ ¿£Ôá«+ |˜Ÿ*Ô\ qT+& MT¹s$T “sÆ]+#á>·*>±sÁT?
(ii) HCl ç<‘eD²\ €eT¢ dŸÇuó²y“• >·T]+º MTsÁT
2.2.1 È\ ç<‘eD+ýË ÿ¿£ €eT¢eTT ýñ<‘ ÿ¿£ @eT“ }V¾²kÍïsÁT?
¿Œ±sÁeTTqÅ£” @$T ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+~? ■ –bÍ<ó‘«jáTT\Å£” dŸÖ#áq: ÿ¿£yûÞø yÔesÁD+ #ý²
€eÖ¢\T È\ ç<‘eD+ýË eÖçÔáyûT njáÖqT\qT –ÔáÎÜï mÅ£”Øe ÔûeT>± –+fñ, yî\Te&q yjáTTeÚqT bõ&>±
#ûkÍïjáÖ? B““ eTq+ |Ÿ¯¿ìŒ<‘Ý+. #ûjáT{²“¿ì € yjáTTeÚqT ¿±*üjáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž ¿£*Ðq
¿£e#á >=³¼+ (“sÁ¨©¿£sÁD >=³¼+) <‘Çs |Ÿ+|ŸeýÉqT.
Ôá& *³ˆdt ¿±ÐÔá+

ú{ì dŸeT¿£Œ+ýË HCl qT+& ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ njáÖHŽ\T
yjáTT yVŸ²¿£ HÞø+
H SO4qT
2
_sÁ&† –ÔáÎÜï neÚÔjáT“ ‡ ç|ŸjîÖ>·eTT Ôî*jáTCñdŸTï+~.
C²sÁ$&#û ç&†|ŸsÁT Hcl nDTeÚ\ qT+& H njáÖqT\ yûsÎ³T úsÁT
+
|Ÿ¯¿£ŒH[¿£ ýñÅ£”+&† ÈsÁ>·<ŠT.

|Ÿ³¼¿±sÁT |Ÿ³¼¿±sÁT
HCl + H2O ® H3O+ + Cl–
™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ njáÖqT\T ÿ+³]>± –+&ƒýñeÚ, n$ ú{ì
|Ÿ¯¿£ŒH[¿£ nDTeÚ\ÔÃ ¿£*d¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT eÖçÔáyûT –+&ƒ>·\eÚ. n+<ŠTe\q
kþ&jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ njáÖqT\qT m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ H (È.ç<‘) >± ýñ<‘
+
™VÕ²ç&Ã“jáT+ €jáÖqT (H O ) >± >±ú #áÖ|¾kÍïsÁT.

3
+
¿±*üjáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž ¿£*Ð +

H + H 2 O ® H 3O
+
–q• ¿£e#á >=³¼+ ú{ì ý Ë €eÖ¢ \ T H O ýñ < ‘ H (È.ç < ‘)

3
+ +
njáÖqT\“kÍïjáT“ eTq+ #áÖXæ+. ÿ¿£ ¿Œ±sÁ+ ú{ìýË

|Ÿ³+ 2.4 HCl yjáTTeÚ ÔájáÖ¯ ¿£]Ðq|ŸÚ&ƒT @$T ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+<Ã #áÖ<‘Ý+.
HO
NaOH(|˜ŸT) ® Na (È.ç<‘) + OH (È.ç<‘)
2 + –
51
H O
2
KOH(s) → K + (aq)+ OH – (aq)
H2O ■ Take 10 mL water in a beaker.

Mg(OH)2(s)→ Mg2+(aq)+2OH–(aq)
■ Add a few drops of concentrated
–
Bases generate hydroxide (OH ) ions in H2SO4 to it and swirl the beaker slowly.
water. Bases which are soluble in water are
■ Touch the base of the beaker.
called alkalis.
■ Is there a change in temperature?
■ Is this an exothermic or endothermic
process?
All bases do not dissolve in water. An
alkali is a base that dissolves in water. ■ Repeat the above Activity with sodium
They are soapy to touch, bitter and hydroxide pellets and record your
corrosive. Never taste or touch them as observations.
they may cause harm. Which of the bases
in the Table 2.1 are alkalis?
The process of dissolving an acid or a base in
water is a highly exothermic one. Care must be
Now as we have identified that all acids taken while mixing concentrated nitric acid or
+ –
generate H (aq) and all bases generate OH (aq), sulphuric acid with water. The acid must
we can view the neutralisation reaction as always be added slowly to water with constant
follows – stirring. If water is added to a concentrated acid,
the heat generated may cause the mixture to
Acid + Base ® Salt + Water splash out and cause burns. The glass container
H X + M OH ® MX + HOH may also break due to excessive local heating.
Look out for the warning sign (shown in Fig.
+ –
H (aq) + OH (aq) ® H2O(l) 2.5) on the can of concentrated sulphuric acid
Let us see what is involved when water is mixed and on the bottle of sodium hydroxide pellets.
with an acid or a base. Mixing an acid or base with water results in
decrease in the concentration of ions
(H3O+/OH–) per unit volume. Such a process is
called dilution and the acid or the base is said to
be diluted.
Figure 2.5
Warning sign displayed on containers
containing concentrated acids and bases
52
H O
KOH(|˜ŸT)→
2
K + (È.ç<‘)+ OH – (È.ç<‘) ¿£Ôá«+ 2.10
H2O
Mg(OH)2 (|˜ŸT) →Mg (È.ç<‘)+2OH (È.ç<‘)
2+ –
■ ÿ¿£ ;¿£sÁTýË 10 MT.©.\ ú{ì“ rdŸT¿Ã+&.

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-
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2 4
;¿£sÁTqT HîeTˆ~>± ¿£~*+#á+&.

■ ;¿£sÁT n&ƒT>·Tuó²>±“• #ûÜÔÃ Ô¿£+&.
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qT –ÔáÎÜï #ûkÍïsTT eT]jáTT n“• ¿Œ±s\T OH (È.ç<‘)qT –ÔáÎÜï

–
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H (È.ç<‘) + OH (È.ç<‘) ® H O(ç<Š)
+ –
2
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€eÖ¢“• ýñ<‘ ¿Œ±s“• ú{ì¿ì ¿£\|Ÿ&ƒ+ e\¢ ç|ŸeÖD |˜ŸTq
|Ÿ]eÖD+ýË >·\ (H3O+/OH–) €jáÖqT\ >±&óƒÔá Ôá>·TZÔáT+~.
‡ ç|Ÿç¿ìjáTqT $©q+ #ûjáT³+ n+{²sÁT eT]jáTT € €eT¢+ ýñ<‘
¿Œ±sÁ+ $©q+ #î+~+~ n+{²+.
|Ÿ³+ 2.5
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53
2.3 HOW STRONG ARE ACID OR BASE

SOLUTIONS?
We know how acid-base indicators can be
1. Why do HCl, HNO3, etc., show acidic
used to distinguish between an acid and a base.
characters in aqueous solutions while We have also learnt in the previous section
solutions of compounds like alcohol about dilution and decrease in concentration of
+ –
H or OH ions in solutions. Can we
and glucose do not show acidic quantitatively find the amount of these ions
character? present in a solution? Can we judge how strong
2. Why does an aqueous solution of an a given acid or base is?
We can do this by making use of a universal
acid conduct electricity? indicator, which is a mixture of several
3. Why does dry HCl gas not change the indicators. The universal indicator shows
colour of the dry litmus paper? different colours at different concentrations of
hydrogen ions in a solution.
4. While diluting an acid, why is it
A scale for measuring hydrogen ion
recommended that the acid should be concentration in a solution, called pH scale has
added to water and not water to the been developed. The p in pH stands for ‘potenz’
in German, meaning power. On the pH scale we
acid? can measure pH generally from 0 (very acidic)
5. H o w i s t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f to 14 (very alkaline). pH should be thought of
+ simply as a number which indicates the acidic
hydronium ions (H3O ) affected when
or basic nature of a solution. Higher the
a solution of an acid is diluted? hydronium ion concentration, lower is the pH
6. How is the concentration of hydroxide value.
– The pH of a neutral solution is 7. Values
ions (OH ) affected when excess base
less than 7 on the pH scale represent an acidic
is dissolved in a solution of sodium solution. As the pH value increases from 7 to
?
–
hydroxide? 14, it represents an increase in OH ion
concentration in the solution, that is, increase in
the strength of alkali (Fig. 2.6). Generally paper
impregnated with the universal indicator is
used for measuring pH.
Figure 2.6
Variation of pH with the change in concentration of H+(aq) and OH–(aq) ions
54
ç|ŸXø•\T 2.3 €eT¢ ýñ<‘ ¿Œ±sÁ ç<‘eD²\T m+Ôá

1. È\ ç<‘eD²\ýË HCl, HNO yîTT<ŠýÉÕq$ €eT¢
‹\yîT®q$?
3
€eT¢eTT eT]jáTT ¿Œ±sÁeTT eT<óŠ« Ôû&†qT >·T]ï+#á&†“¿ì
dŸÇuó²y“• ç|Ÿ<Š]ôkÍïsTT. ¿±ú €\ØVŸäýÙ, >·Ö¢¿ÃCÙ
€eT¢-¿Œ±sÁ dŸÖº¿£\qT mý² –|ŸjîÖÐ+#áe#áTÌHÃ eTq+
e+{ì ç < ‘eD²\T €eT¢ dŸ Ç uó ² y“• m+<Š T Å£ ” Ôî\TdŸTÅ£”H•+. ç<‘eD²\ýË H ýñ<‘ OH njáÖq¢ >±&óƒÔá
+ –
ç|Ÿ<Š]ô+#áeÚ? Ôá>·Z&ƒ+ eT]jáTT $©q+ >·T]+º Å£L&† eTqeTT ç¿ì+<Š{ì

$uó²>·+ýË HûsÁTÌÅ£”H•eTT. ç<‘eD+ýË –q• ‡ njáÖq¢ yîTTÔï“•
2. €eT¢ È\ ç<‘eD+ $<ŠT«<‘ÇVŸ²¿£ÔáqT m+<ŠTÅ£” eTq+ |Ÿ]eÖD²Ôáˆ¿£+>± ¿£qT>=q>·\eÖ? ‚ºÌq €eT¢eTT ýñ<‘
ç|Ÿ<Š]ôdŸTï+~? ¿Œ±sÁeTT m+Ôá ‹\+>± –+<Ã eTq+ “sÆ]+#á>·\eÖ?
3. bõ& HCl yjáTTeÚ m+<ŠTÅ£” bõ& *³ˆdt ¿±ÐÔá+ nHû¿£ dŸÖº¿£\ $TçXøeT+ nsTTq, kÍsÁÇçÜ¿£ dŸÖº¿£qT
–|ŸjîÖÐ+#á&ƒ+ <‘Çs eTq+ B““ #ûjáTe#áTÌ. kÍsÁÇçÜ¿£
sÁ+>·TqT eÖsÁÌ<ŠT? dŸÖº¿£ ÿ¿£ ç<‘eD+ýË –+&û yû¹sÇsÁT ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ njáÖq¢
4. €eÖ¢“• $©q+ #ûd³|Ÿð&ƒT €eÖ¢“• ú{ì¿ì ¿£\bÍ* >±&óƒÔá\qT ‹{ì¼ yû¹sÇsÁT sÁ+>·T\qT #áÖ|ŸÚÔáT+~.
ÿ¿£ ç<‘eD+ýË“ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ njáÖHŽ >±&óƒÔáqT
¿±“ ú{ì“ €eÖ¢“¿ì ¿£\|ŸÅ£L&ƒ<Š“ m+<ŠTÅ£”
¿=\e{²“¿ì, pH dØýÙ n“ |¾\Te‹&û dØ\T n_óe~Æ
dŸ\VŸä“kÍïsÁT? #ûjáT‹&+~. ÈsÁˆHŽ uó²wŸýË pH ýË p n+fñ bõfÉHŽ¨ kÍeTsÁœ«eTT
5. €eT¢ ç<‘eD²“• $©q+ #ûd¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ™VÕ²ç&Ã“jáT+ n“ nsÁœ+. pH dØ\TýË eTq+ pH “ kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± 0 (mÅ£”Øe
€eT¢ dŸÇuó²e+) qT+& 14 (mÅ£”Øe ¿Œ±sÁ dŸÇuó²e+) esÁÅ£”
€jáÖq¢ (H O ) >±&óƒÔá mý² ç|Ÿuó²$ÔáeTeÚÔáT+~?
3
+
¿=\ee#áTÌ. pH nHû~ ç<‘eD+ jîTT¿£Ø €eT¢ ýñ<‘ ¿Œ±sÁ
6. kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž ç<‘eD+ýË n<Šq|ŸÚ ¿Œ±s“• dŸÇuó²y“• dŸÖº+#û ÿ¿£ dŸ+K«>± uó²$+#*. ™VÕ²ç&Ã“jáT+
njáÖHŽ >±&óƒÔá mÅ£”Øe>± –+fñ, pH $\Te ÔáÅ£”Øe>±
¿£*|¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž njáÖq¢ (OH ) >±&óƒÔá mý²
-
–+³T+~.
ç|Ÿuó²$ÔáeTeÚÔáT+~?
?
Ôá³dŸœ ç<‘eD|ŸÚ pH $\Te 7, pH dØ\T™|Õ 7 ¿£+fñ
ÔáÅ£”Øe $\Te\T €eT¢ ç<‘eD²“• dŸÖºkÍïsTT. pH $\Te 7
qT+& 14 Å£” ™|sÁT>·TÔáT+fñ, ‚~ € ç<‘eD+ýË OH- njáÖHŽ
>±&ó ƒ Ô á ™ | sÁ T >· T <Š \ qT dŸ Ö ºdŸ T ï + ~, n+fñ , ¿Œ ± sÁ ‹\+
™|sÁT>·TÔáT+~ (|Ÿ³+ 2.6). kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± pH qT ¿=\e{²“¿ì
kÍsÁÇçÜ¿£ dŸÖº¿£ýË HquÉ{ì¼q ¿±ÐÔá+ –|ŸjîÖÐ+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
Ôá³dŸÆ+ ¿Œ±sÁ dŸÇuó²e+ ™|sÁT>·TÔáT+~

€eT¢ dŸÇuó²e+ ™|sÁT>·TÔáT+~
H
+
€jáÖHŽ >±&óƒÔá ™|sÁT>·T<Š\ H
+
€jáÖHŽ >±&óƒÔá Ôá>·TZ<Š\
|Ÿ³+ 2.6 H
+
(È.ç<‘) eT]jáTT OH (È.ç<‘) njáÖq¢ >±&óƒÔáýË“ eÖsÁTÎÔÃ eÖ¹s pH $\Te\T
-
55
■ Test the pH values of

solutions given in Table 1 Saliva (before meal)
2 Saliva (after meal)
2.2.
3 Lemon juice
■ Record your observations.
4 Colourless aerated
■ What is the nature of each drink
substance on the basis of 5 Carrot juice
your observations? 6 Coffee
7 Tomato juice
8 Tap water
9 1M NaOH
10 1M HCl
Figure 2.7 pH of some common substances shown on a pH paper (colours are only a rough guide)
The strength of acids and bases depends on 2.3.1 Importance of pH in Everyday Life
+ –
the number of H ions and OH ions produced, Are plants and animals pH sensitive?
respectively. If we take hydrochloric acid and Our body works within the pH range of
acetic acid of the same concentration, say one 7.0 to 7.8. Living organisms can survive only in
molar, then these produce different amounts of a narrow range of pH change. When pH of rain
hydrogen ions. Acids that give rise to more H+ water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain.
ions are said to be strong acids, and acids that When acid rain flows into the rivers, it lowers
+
give less H ions are said to be weak acids. Can the pH of the river water. The survival of
you now say what weak and strong bases are? aquatic life in such rivers becomes difficult.
56
|Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 2.2
¿£Ôá«+ 2.11 e. pH sÁeÖsÁ$T
¿±ÐÔá|ŸÚ pH |Ÿ<‘sÁœ
dŸ+. ç<‘eD+ dŸÇuó²e+
■ |Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 2.2 ýË ‚eÇ‹&q ç<‘eD²\ sÁ+>·T $\Te
pH $\Te\qT |Ÿ¯¿ìŒ+#á+&. 1 ý²ý²È\+ (uóËÈH“¿ì eTT+<ŠT)
■ MT |Ÿ]o\q\qT qyîÖ<ŠT #ûjáT+&. 2 ý²ý²È\+ (uóËÈq+ ÔásÁTyÔá)
■ MT |Ÿ ] o\q\ €<ó ‘ sÁ + >± ç | Ÿ Ü
3 “eTˆsÁdŸ+
4 sÁ+>·T ýñ“ kþ&† úsÁT
|Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ jîTT¿£Ø dŸÇuó²e+ @$T{ì?
5 ¿±«sÁ{Ù sÁdŸ+
6 ¿±|˜Ó
7 ³yîÖ{² sÁdŸ+
8 Å£”Þ²sTT úsÁT
9 1 M NaOH
10 1 M HCl
JsÁ’ sÁdŸ+ “eTˆsÁdŸ+ dŸÇ#áÌyîT®q úsÁT, $TýÙØ €|˜t yîT^•w¾jáÖ kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÂ¿Õà&Ž
(dŸTeÖsÁT>± 1.2) (dŸTeÖsÁT>± 2.2) sÁ¿£ï+ (7.4) (10) ç<‘eD+ (dŸTeÖsÁT>± 14)
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esÁTdŸ>±, –ÔáÎÜï #ûjáT‹&q H eT]jáTT OH

+ -
2.3.1 “Ôá«J$Ôá+ýË pH jîTT¿£Ø çbÍeTTK«Ôá
njáÖq¢ dŸ+K« ™|Õ €eÖ¢\ eT]jáTT ¿Œ±s\ ‹\+ €<ó‘sÁ|Ÿ& yîTT¿£Ø\T eT]jáTT È+ÔáTeÚ\T pH dŸT“•ÔáyîT®qy?
–+³T+~. eTqeTT ÿ¿£ yîÖý²sY >±&óƒÔá >·\ ™VÕ²ç&Ã¿Ã¢]¿ù €eT¢eTT eTq Xø¯sÁ+ pH 7.0 qT+& 7.8 |Ÿ]~óýË |Ÿ“#ûdŸTï+~.
eT]jáTT md¾{ì¿ù €eT¢eTT rdŸTÅ£”+fñ, n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ‚$ yûsÁT yûsÁT JesXø—\ú• pH $\TeýË“ nÜ dŸÇ\Î eÖsÁTÎ\Å£” ýË‹&
yîTTÔáï+ýË ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ njáÖHŽ\qT –ÔáÎÜï #ûkÍïsTT. mÅ£”Øe H +
eÖçÔáyûT J$+#á>·\eÚ. esÁü|ŸÚ ú{ì pH $\Te 5.6 ¿£+fñ
njáÖqT\qT ‚#ûÌ €eÖ¢\qT ‹\yîT®q €eÖ¢\T>±qÖ, ÔáÅ£”Øe ÔáÅ£”ØyîÕÔû <‘““ €eT¢ esÁü+ n+{²sÁT. ‡ €eT¢ esÁü|ŸÚ úsÁT qB
H €jáÖqT\qT ‚#ûÌ €eÖ¢\qT ‹\VÓ²q €eÖ¢\T>±qÖ
+ Èý²\ÔÃ ¿£*d¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ‚~ qB Èý²\ pH qT ÔáÐZdŸTï+~.
ný²+{ì q<ŠT\ýË –+&û È\#ás\ Jeq+ dŸ+¿£³+ýË
#î‹TÔsÁT. ‹\VÓ²qyîT®q eT]jáTT ‹\yîT®q ¿Œ±s\T n+fñ |Ÿ&ƒTÔáT+~.
@$T{Ë MTsÁT ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT #î|ŸÎ>·\s?
57
pH in our digestive system

It is very interesting to note that our
Acids in other planets stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It helps in
The atmosphere of venus is made up of the digestion of food without harming the
thick white and yellowish clouds of stomach. During indigestion the stomach
sulphuric acid. Do you think life can exist produces too much acid and this causes pain
on this planet? and irritation. To get rid of this pain, people use
bases called antacids. One such remedy must
have been suggested by you at the beginning of
this Chapter. These antacids neutralise the
What is the pH of the soil in your backyard? excess acid. Magnesium hydroxide (Milk of
Plants require a specific pH range for magnesia), a mild base, is often used for this
their healthy growth. To find out the pH purpose.
required for the healthy growth of a plant, you pH change as the cause of tooth decay
can collect the soil from various places and Tooth decay starts when the pH of the
check the pH in the manner described below in mouth is lower than 5.5. Tooth enamel, made up
Activity 2.12. Also, you can note down which of calcium hydroxyapatite (a crystalline form
plants are growing in the region from which of calcium phosphate) is the hardest substance
you have collected the soil. in the body. It does not dissolve in water, but is
corroded when the pH in the mouth is below
5.5. Bacteria present in the mouth produce
acids by degradation of sugar and food particles
remaining in the mouth after eating. The best
■ Put about 2 g soil in a test tube and add way to prevent this is to clean the mouth after
5 mL water to it. eating food. Using toothpastes, which are
generally basic, for cleaning the teeth can
■ Shake the contents of the test tube.
neutralise the excess acid and prevent tooth
■ Filter the contents and collect the decay.
filtrate in a test tube. Self defence by animals and plants through
■ Check the pH of this filtrate with the chemical warfare
Have you ever been stung by a honey-
help of universal indicator paper. bee? Bee-sting leaves an acid which causes
■ What can you conclude about the ideal pain and irritation. Use of a mild base like
baking soda on the stung area gives relief.
soil pH for the growth of plants in your
Stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic
region? acid causing burning pain.
58
eTq JsÁ’ e«edŸœýË pH

‚ÔásÁ ç>·VŸä\ýË €eÖ¢\T eTq Js’ X ø j á T + ™ V Õ ² ç & Ã¿Ã¢ ] ¿ù €eÖ¢ “ • –Ôá Î Üï
#ûdŸTï+<Š“ >·eT“+#á&ƒ+ #ý² €dŸ¿ìï¿£sÁyîT®q $wŸjáT+. ‚~
Xø—ç¿£ç>·VŸ²+ jîTT¿£Ø yÔesÁD+ dŸ\ÖÎÛ«]¿ù €eT¢+ Js’XøjáÖ“¿ì qwŸ¼+ ¿£\>·Å£”+&† €VŸäs“• JsÁ’+ #ûjáT&ƒ+ýË
jîTT¿£Ø eT+<ŠbÍ{ì Ôî\T|ŸÚ eT]jáTT |ŸdŸT|ŸÚ sÁ+>·T –|ŸjîÖ>·|Ÿ&ƒTÔáT+~. nJ]ï dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ýË eTq Js’XøjáT+ n~ó¿£
yûT|˜ŸÖ\ÔÃ sÁÖbõ+~+#á‹&+~. ‡ ç>·VŸ²+ MT<Š Je+ |Ÿ]eÖD+ýË €eÖ¢“• –ÔáÎÜï #ûjáTT³ e\q ¿£&ƒT|ŸÚýË eT+³,
–+³T+<Š“ MTsÁT nqTÅ£”+³TH•s? ndŸVŸ²q+ ¿£\T>·TÔsTT. ‡ H=|¾Î qT+& $eTT¿ìï bõ+<Š{²“¿ì,
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n<ó‘«jáT+ çbÍsÁ+uó„+ýË MTsÁT ný²+{ì ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]cÍØs“•
MT ™|sÁ{ìýË“ eT{ì¼ jîTT¿£Ø pH m+Ôá? Ôá|ŸÎ“dŸ]>± dŸÖº+º –+{²sÁT. ‡ jáÖ+{²d¾&Ž \T n~ó¿£yîT®q
yîTT¿£Ø\ €sÃ>·«e+ÔáyîT®q ™|sÁT>·T<Š\Å£” “]ÝwŸ¼ |Ÿ]~óýË €eÖ¢“• Ôá³dÓœ¿£]kÍïsTT. ‚+<ŠT¿ÃdŸ+ kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± yîT^•w¾jáT+
pH qT ¿£*Ð –q• eT{ì¼ nedŸsÁ+. yîTT¿£Ø\ €sÃ>·«e+ÔáyîT®q ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž ($TýÙØ €|˜t yîT^•w¾jáÖ), nHû ‹\VÓ²q ¿Œ±s“•
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MTsÁT eT{ì¼ qeTÖH\qT d¿£]+ºq çbÍ+Ôá+ýË @ yîTT¿£Ø\T HÃ{ì jîTT¿£Ø pH $\Te 5.5 ¿£+fñ ÔáÅ£”Øe nsTTÔû
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(¿±*üjáT+ b˜ÍdÎ{Ù jîTT¿£Ø dŸÎÛ{ì¿£ sÁÖ|Ÿ+) ÔÃ ÔájáÖÂsÕq , <Š+Ôá
|¾+>±D¡ bõsÁ Xø¯sÁ+ýË nÔá«+Ôá <Š&óƒyîT®q~. ‚~ ú{ìýË
¿£Ôá«+ 2.12 ¿£sÁ>·<ŠT, ¿±ú HÃ{ìýË pH $\Te 5.5 ¿£+fñ ÔáÅ£”ØyîÕq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT
<Š+Ô\T ¿£ŒjáÖ“¿ì >·TsÁeÚÔsTT. Üq• ÔásÇÔá HÃ{ìýË –q•
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rdŸT¿=“ <‘“¿ì 5 $T.©. ú{ì“ ¿£\|Ÿ+&. $ºÌÛ q + #î + ~+º €eÖ¢ \ qT –Ôá Î Üï #û k Íï s TT. B““
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<Š+Ôá ¿£ŒjáÖ“• “y]+#áe#áTÌ.
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ç<Še+ jîTT¿£Ø pH qT |Ÿ¯¿ìŒ+#á+&. yîTT¿£Ø\ dÓÇjáT sÁ¿£ŒD
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¿Œ±s“• –|ŸjîÖÐ+#á&ƒ+ e\¢ –|ŸXøeTq+ ¿£\T>·TÔáT+~.
<ŠTsÁ<Š>·T+{²Å£” yîTT¿£Ø €Å£”\ jîTT¿£Ø qÖ>·T ¿±*q³T¢>± H=|¾Î
¿£*Ð+#û $T<¸ŠHÃsTT¿ù €eÖ¢“• ‹\e+Ôá+>± #=|¾ÎkÍïsTT.
59
Nature provides neutralisation options

Nettle is a herbaceous plant which grows in the wild. Its leaves have stinging hair, which
cause painful stings when touched accidentally. This is due to the methanoic acid secreted by
them. A traditional remedy is rubbing the area with the leaf of the dock
plant, which often grows beside the nettle in the wild. Can you guess
the nature of the dock plant? So next time you know what to look out
for if you accidentally touch a nettle plant while trekking. Are you
aware of any other effective traditional remedies for such stings?
Table 2.3 Some naturally occurring acids
Vinegar Acetic acid Sour milk (Curd) Lactic acid

Orange Citric acid Lemon Citric acid
Tamarind Tartaric acid Ant sting Methanoic acid
Tomato Oxalic acid Nettle sting Methanoic acid
1. You have two solutions, A and B. The pH of solution A is 6 and pH of solution B is 8. Which
?
solution has more hydrogen ion concentration? Which of this is acidic and which one is basic?
2. What effect does the concentration of H+(aq) ions have on the nature of the solution?
3. Do basic solutions also have H+(aq) ions? If yes, then why are these basic?
4. Under what soil condition do you think a farmer would treat the soil of his fields with quick lime
(calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or chalk (calcium carbonate)?
2.4 MORE ABOUT SALTS

In the previous sections we have seen the formation of
salts during various reactions. Let us understand more about their
preparation, properties and uses.
2.4.1 Family of Salts
■ Write the chemical formulae of the salts given below.

Potassium sulphate, sodium sulphate, calcium sulphate,
magnesium sulphate, copper sulphate, sodium chloride,
sodium nitrate, sodium carbonate and ammonium chloride.
60
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¿£Ôá«+ 2.13
■ n ¿ì+<Š ‚eÇ‹&q \eD²\ jîTT¿£Ø sÁkÍjáTq kÍ+¹¿Ü¿±\qT sjáT+&.
bõ{²w¾jáT+ dŸýñÎÛ{Ù, kþ&jáT+ dŸýñÎÛ{Ù, ¿±*üjáT+ dŸýñÎÛ{Ù, yîT^•w¾jáT+
dŸýñÎÛ{Ù, ¿±|ŸsY dŸýñÎÛ{Ù, kþ&jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž, kþ&jáT+ HîÕçfñ{Ù, kþ&jáT+
¿±sÃÒHû{Ù eT]jáTT nyîÖˆ“jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž.
61
■ Identify the acids and bases from which

the above salts may be obtained.
■ Salts having the same positive or
negative radicals are said to belong to a
family. For example, NaCl and Na2SO4
belong to the family of sodium salts.
Similarly, NaCl and KCl belong to the
family of chloride salts. How many
2.4.3 Chemicals from Common Salt
families can you identify among the
salts given in this Activity? By now you have learnt that the salt
formed by the combination of hydrochloric
acid and sodium hydroxide solution is called
sodium chloride. This is the salt that you use in
2.4.2 pH of Salts
food. You must have observed in the above
Activity that it is a neutral salt.
Seawater contains many salts dissolved
■ Collect the following salt samples –
in it. Sodium chloride is separated from these
sodium chloride, potassium nitrate,
salts. Deposits of solid salt are also found in
aluminium chloride, zinc sulphate,
copper sulphate, sodium acetate, several parts of the world. These large crystals
sodium carbonate and sodium are often brown due to impurities. This is called
hydrogencarbonate (some other salts rock salt. Beds of rock salt were formed when
available can also be taken). seas of bygone ages dried up. Rock salt is
■ Check their solubility in water (use mined like coal.
distilled water only). You must have heard about Mahatma
■ Check the action of these solutions on Gandhi’s Dandi March. Did you know that
litmus and find the pH using a pH paper. sodium chloride was such an important symbol
■ Which of the salts are acidic, basic or
in our struggle for freedom?
neutral?
■ Identify the acid or base used to form
the salt.
■ Report your observations in Table 2.4.
Salts of a strong acid and a strong base

are neutral with pH value of 7. On the other
hand, salts of a strong acid and weak base are
acidic with pH value less than 7 and those of a
strong base and weak acid are basic in nature,
with pH value more than 7.
62
|Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 2.4
■ ™|Õq |s=Øq• \eD²\T \_ó+#û €eÖ¢\T eT]jáTT
¿Œ±s\qT >·T]ï+#á+&. \eD+ pH –|ŸjîÖÐ+#á‹&q –|ŸjîÖÐ+#á‹&q
■ ÿ¹¿ $<óŠyîT®q <óŠq ýñ<‘ ‹TTD²yûXø çbÍÜ|Ÿ~¿£\qT €eT¢+ ¿Œ±sÁ+
¿£*Ð –q• \eD²\qT ÿ¹¿ Å£”³T+u²“¿ì #î+~q$>±
|Ÿ]>·DìkÍï+. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” NaCl eT]jáTT
Na SO \T kþ&jáT+ \eD²\ Å£”³T+u²“¿ì
2 4
#î+<ŠTÔsTT. n<û$<óŠ+>± NaCl eT]jáTT KCl

\T ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž \eD²\ Å£”³T+u²“¿ì #î+<ŠTÔsTT. ‡
¿£Ôá«eTTýË ‚eÇ‹&q \eD²\ qT+& MTsÁT m“• 2.4.3 kÍ<ó‘sÁD –|ŸÚÎ qT+& @sÁÎ&û sÁkÍjáTH\T.
\eD Å£”³T+u²\qT >·T]ï+#á>·\sÁT? ‚|Ÿ Î {ì ¹ ¿ MTsÁ T ™ V Õ ² ç & Ã¿Ã¢ ] ¿ù €eT¢ e TT eT]já T T
kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž\ ¿£\sTT¿£ e\q @sÁÎ&q \eD²“•
kþ&jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž n+{²sÁ“ HûsÁTÌÅ£”H•sÁT. ‡ \eDyûT MTsÁT
2.4.2 \eD²\ jîTT¿£Ø pH €VŸäsÁ+ýË –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT. ‚~ Ôá³dŸœ \eD+ n“ ™|Õ ¿£Ôá«+ýË
¿£Ôá«+ 2.14 MTsÁT >·eT“+º –+{²sÁT.
■ ¿ì+~ \eD²\ qeTÖH\qT d¿£]+#á+& - kþ&jáT+ dŸeTTç<Š|ŸÚ ú{ìýË #ý² \eD²\T ¿£]Ð –+{²sTT. ‡
¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž, bõ{²w¾jáT+ HîÕçfñ{Ù, n\Ö«$T“jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž, \eD²\ qT+& kþ&jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž yûsÁT #ûjáT‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
›+¿ù dŸýñÎÛ{Ù, ¿±|ŸsY dŸýñÎÛ{Ù, kþ&jáT+ md¾fñ{Ù, ç|Ÿ|Ÿ+#á+ýË“ nHû¿£ çbÍ+Ô\ýË |˜ŸTq kþ&jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž “¹¿ŒbÍ\T
kþ&jáT+ ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù eT]jáTT kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ ¿£qT>=q‹&†¦sTT. ‡ ™|<ŠÝ dŸÎ{ì¿±\T eT*H\ÔÃ ¿£*d¾ –+&ƒ³+
¿±sÃÒHû{Ù (\uó„«ÔáqT ‹{ì¼ ¿=“• ‚ÔásÁ \eD²\qT e\q kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± >Ã<óŠTeT sÁ+>·TýË –+{²sTT. B““
Å£L&† rdŸT¿Ãe#áTÌ). sÜ –|Ÿ Ú Î n+{²sÁ T . |Ÿ Ú sÔá q ¿±\+H{ì dŸ e TTç < ‘\T
■ ú{ìýË y{ì ç<‘eD¡jáTÔáqT |Ÿ¯¿ìŒ+#á+&. (dÇ<Šq m+&bþsTTq|ŸÚ&ƒT sÜ –|ŸÚÎ yûT³\T @sÁÎ&†¦sTT. u¤>·TZ eýÉ
Èý²“• eÖçÔáyûT –|ŸjîÖÐ+#á+&) sÜ –|ŸðqT >·qT\ qT+& Ôá$Ç rkÍïsÁT.
■ ‡ ç<‘eD²\T *³ˆdt ¿±ÐÔá+™|Õ È]| #ásÁ«qT
|Ÿ ¯ ¿ì Œ + #á + & eT]já T T p H ¿±ÐÔá e TTqT eTVŸäÔˆ >±+Bó jîTT¿£Ø <Š+& dŸÔ«ç>·VŸ² ¿£yÔáT
–|ŸjîÖÐ+º pH qT ¿£qT>=q+&. >·T]+º MTsÁT $Hû –+{²sÁT. eTq kÍÇÔá+çÔá« dŸ+ç>±eT+ýË
■ ‡ \eD²\ýË €eT¢, ¿Œ±sÁ eT]jáTT Ôá³dŸœyîT®q$ @$? kþ&jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž ÿ¿£ eTTK« ºVŸ²•+>± “*º+<Š“ MTÅ£” Ôî\TkÍ?
■ \eD²“• @sÁÎsÁ#áT³Å£” –|ŸjîÖÐ+#á‹&q €eT¢eTT
ýñ<‘ ¿Œ±sÁeTTqT >·T]ï+#á+&.
■ MT |Ÿ]o\q\qT |Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 2.4 q+<ŠT bõ+<ŠT|ŸsÁ#á+&.
ÿ¿£ ‹\yîT®q €eT¢+ eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ ‹\yîT®q ¿Œ±sÁeTT

e\¢ @sÁ Î & q \eD²\ pH $\Te 7 ¿£ * Ð Ôá ³ dŸ œ + >±
–+{²sTT. eTsÃyîÕ|ŸÚ, ÿ¿£ ‹\yîT®q €eT¢eTT eT]jáTT ‹\VÓ²q
¿Œ±sÁeTT e\q @sÁÎ&q \eD²\T pH $\Te 7 ¿£H• ÔáÅ£”Øe ¿£*Ð
€eT¢ dŸÇuó²y“• eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ ‹\yîT®q ¿Œ±sÁeTT, ‹\VÓ²q €eT¢+
e\q @sÁÎ&q \eD²\ 7 ¿£H• mÅ£”Øe pH $\TeÔÃ ¿Œ±sÁ
dŸÇuó²y“• ¿£*Ð –+{²sTT.
63
Common salt — A raw material for Bleaching powder

chemicals You have already come to know that chlorine is
The common salt thus obtained is an important produced during the electrolysis of aqueous
raw material for various materials of daily use, sodium chloride (brine). This chlorine gas is
such as sodium hydroxide, baking soda, used for the manufacture of bleaching powder.
washing soda, bleaching powder and many Bleaching powder is produced by the action of
more. Let us see how one substance is used for chlorine on dry slaked lime [Ca(OH) 2 ].
making all these different substances. Bleaching powder is represented as CaOCl2,
Sodium hydroxide
though the actual composition is quite
When electricity is passed through an aqueous
complex.
solution of sodium chloride (called brine), it
decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. The
Ca(OH)2+ Cl2 ® CaOCl2 + H2O
process is called the chlor-alkali process
because of the products formed– chlor for
chlorine and alkali for sodium hydroxide.
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) ® 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
Chlorine gas is given off at the anode,
and hydrogen gas at the cathode. Sodium
hydroxide solution is formed near the cathode.
The three products produced in this process are
all useful. Figure 2.8 shows the different uses of
these products.
Figure 2.8 Important products from the chlor-alkali process
64
kÍ<ó‘sÁD –|ŸÚÎ - sÁkÍjáTH\Å£” ÿ¿£ eTT& |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ $sÁ+Èq #áÖsÁ’+

‡ $<óŠ+>± bõ+~q kÍ<ó‘sÁD –|ŸÚÎ eTq+ “Ôá«+ kþ&jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž È\ ç<‘eD+ (çuÉÕHŽ) jîTT¿£Ø $<ŠT«ÔY
–|ŸjîÖÐ+#û nHû¿£ sÁ¿±\ |Ÿ<‘sœýÉÕq kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž, $Xâ¢wŸD ÈsÁT>·Tq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ¿Ã¢]HŽ @sÁÎ&q³T¢ MTsÁT ‚|ŸÎ{ì¹¿
e+³ kþ&†, ‹³¼\ kþ&†, ;¢º+>´ bå&ƒsY ‚+¿± nHû¿£yîT®q y{ì¿ì Ôî\TdŸTÅ£”H•sÁT. ‡ ¿Ã¢]HŽ yjáTTeÚqT ;¢º+>´ bå&ƒsY ÔájáÖsÁT
ÿ¿£ eTTK«yîT®q eTT& |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+>± –+~. ‡ $_óq• |Ÿ<‘sœ\ #ûjáTT³Å£” –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT. bõ& dŸTq•+ [Ca(OH)2] ™|Õ ¿Ã¢]HŽ
ÔájáÖ¯¿ì ÿ¿£ |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ mý² –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÃ #áÖ<‘Ý+. yjáTTeÚ #ásÁ« e\q ;¢º+>´ bå&ƒsY @sÁÎ&ƒTÔáT+~. ndŸ\T
kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž dŸ+|˜ŸT³qeTT #ý² dŸ+¿ì¢wŸ¼yîT®q|ŸÎ{ì¿¡, ;¢º+>´ bå&ƒsYqT
CaOCl ÔÃ dŸÖºkÍïsÁT.
kþ&jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž È\ ç<‘eD+ (çuÉÕHŽ ç<‘eD+) >·T+&† 2
$<ŠT«ÔYqT ç|ŸdŸ]+|ŸCñd¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, n~ kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž Ca(OH)2+ Cl2 ® CaOCl2 + H2O

@sÁÎsÁ#áT³Å£” $jîÖ>·+ #î+<ŠTÔáT+~. ‡ ç|Ÿç¿ìjáTýË @sÁÎ&q
–ÔáÎH•ýÉÕq ¿Ã¢]HŽ qT+& ¿Ã¢sÃ eT]jáTT kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž
qT+& €\Ø© ¿±sÁD+>± ‡ ç|Ÿç¿ìjáTqT ¿Ã¢sY - €\Ø© ç|Ÿç¿ìjáT
n+{²sÁT.
2NaCl(È.ç<‘) + 2H2O(ç<Š) ® 2NaOH
(È.ç<‘) + Cl2(y) + H2(y)
¿Ã¢]HŽ yjáTTeÚ €HÃ&Ž e<ŠÝ, eT]jáTT ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ
yjáTTeÚ ¹¿<¸Ã&Ž e<ŠÝ $&ƒT<Š\eÚÔsTT. kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž
ç<‘eD+ ¿±<¸Ã&Ž e<ŠÝ @sÁÎ&ƒTÔáT+~. ‡ ç|Ÿç¿ìjáTýË @sÁÎ&ƒ¦ eTÖ&ƒT
–ÔáÎH•\T –|ŸjîÖ>·¿£sÁyîT®q$. |Ÿ³+ 2.8 ‡ –ÔáÎH•\ $$<óŠ
–|ŸjîÖ>±\qT #áÖ|ŸÚÔáT+~.
(ú{ì“ Xø—çuó„|ŸsÁ#áT³ €HÃ&Ž ¿±<óÃ&Ž
‡Ôá¿=\qT\T, PVC, (‚+<óŠH\T, eÖsÁZ¯HŽ,
ç¿ì$T dŸ+VŸäsÁ¿±\T, msÁTeÚ\ ¿=sÁÅ£” nyîÖˆ“jáÖ)
CFC\T |ŸÚsÁT>·TeT+<ŠT\T)
NaOH
çuÉÕHŽ ¿£*Ðq çuÉÕHŽ
(ýËVŸ ä \ qT+& ç ^ EqT
Ô=\Ð+#áT³, dŸ‹TÒ\T eT]jáTT
&³Âs¨+{Ù\T, ¿±ÐÔá+ ÔájáÖ¯,
|Ÿ\T#á“ bõsÁ ¿£çÜjáT <‘s\T)
|Ÿ³+ 2.8 ¿Ã¢sY-€\Ø© ç|Ÿç¿ìjáT qT+& @sÁÎ&û eTTK«yîT®q –ÔáÎH•\T
65
Bleaching powder is used – +

NaHCO3 + H ® CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt of acid
(i) for bleaching cotton and linen in (From any acid)
the textile industry, for bleaching wood Carbon dioxide produced during the reaction
pulp in paper factories and for can cause bread or cake to rise making them
bleaching washed clothes in laundry; soft and spongy.
(ii) as an oxidising agent in many (ii) Sodium hydrogencarbonate is also an
chemical industries; and ingredient in antacids. Being alkaline, it
(iii) to make drinking water free from neutralises excess acid in the stomach and
germs. provides relief.
Baking soda (iii) It is also used in soda-acid fire
The baking soda is commonly used in extinguishers.
the kitchen for making tasty crispy pakoras, etc.
Washing soda
Sometimes it is added for faster cooking. The
Another chemical that can be obtained
chemical name of the compound is sodium
from sodium chloride is Na 2 CO 3 .10H 2 O
hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3). It is produced
(washing soda). You have seen above that
using sodium chloride as one of the raw
sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating
materials.
baking soda; recrystallisation of sodium
NaCl + H2 O + CO2 + NH3 → NH4 Cl + NaHCO3 carbonate gives washing soda. It is also a basic
(Ammonium
chloride)
(Sodium
hydrogencarbonate)
salt.
Did you check the pH of sodium Na 2CO3 + 10 H2O → Na 2CO3 .10 H2 O
( Sodium
hydrogencarbonate in Activity 2.14? Can you carbonate )
correlate why it can be used to neutralise an
acid? It is a mild non-corrosive basic salt. The
following reaction takes place when it is heated
during cooking –
Heat
2NaHCO3 → Na 2 CO3 + H2 O + CO2
(Sodium (Sodium
hydrogencarbonate) carbonate)
Sodium hydrogencarbonate has got various

uses in the household.
Uses of Baking soda
(i) For making baking powder, which is
a mixture of baking soda (sodium
hydrogencarbonate) and a mild edible acid
such as tartaric acid. When baking powder is
heated or mixed in water, the following reaction
takes place –
66
;¢º+>´ bå&ƒsY –|ŸjîÖ>±\T ` NaHCO3 + H + ® CO2 + H2O + €eT¢eTT

i) eçdŸï |Ÿ]çXøeTýË |ŸÜï eT]jáTT HsÁ\qT $sÁ+Èq+ jîTT¿£Ø kþ&jáT+ \eD+ (@<îÕH €eT¢eTT qT+&)
#ûjáT{²“¿ì, ¿±ÐÔá+ |Ÿ]çXøeTýË ¿£\|Ÿ >·TE¨qT $sÁ+Èq+ ‡ #ásÁ« ÈsÁT>·Tq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT –ÔáÎq•yîT®q ¿±sÁÒHŽ
#ûjáT&†“¿ì eT]jáTT ý²+ç&žýË –Ü¿ìq ‹³¼\qT $sÁ+Èq+ &îÕ€Â¿Õà&Že\¢ s=fÉ¼ ýñ<‘ ¹¿¿ù –_Ò, n$ eT<ŠTeÚ>± eT]jáTT
#ûjáT&†“¿ì –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT. yîTÔáï>± ÔájáÖsÁe{²“¿ì ¿±sÁD+ neÚÔáT+~.
ii) #ý² sÁkÍjáTq |Ÿ]çXøeT\ýË €¿¡à¿£sÁDì>± –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁTÑ ii) jáÖ+{²d¾&Ž\ýË kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù Å£L&† ÿ¿£
eT]jáTT nqT|˜ŸT³¿£+. ¿Œ±sÁ dŸÇuó²e+ ¿£*Ð –+&ƒT³ e\q, ‚~
iii) çÔ¹> ú{ìýË ç¿ìeTT\qT dŸ+VŸ²]+#á&†“¿ì –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT. bõ³¼ ý Ë“ n~ó ¿ £ €eÖ¢ “ • Ôá ³ dÓ œ ¿ £ ] +º –|Ÿ X ø e TH“•
¿£\T>·CñdŸTï+~.
e+³ kþ&†
iii) kþ&† €eT¢eTTqT y&û €Ð• eÖ|Ÿ¿£ jáT+çÔ\ýË Å£L&†
e+³kþ&†qT kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± e+³ >·~ýË ¿£sÁ¿£sÁý²&û
B““ –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT.
sÁTº¿£sÁyîT®q |Ÿ¿Ã&ž\T yîTT<ŠýÉÕq y{ì“ ÔájáÖsÁT #ûjáT&†“¿ì
–|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT. ¿=“•kÍsÁT¢ Ô=+<ŠsÁ>± e+&ƒ³+ ¿ÃdŸ+ ‹³¼\ kþ&†
¿£\T|ŸÚÔsÁT. B“ sÁkÍjáTq HeT+ kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ kþ& j á T + ¿Ã¢ Â s Õ & Ž qT+& bõ+<Š > · \ eTs=¿£
¿±sÃÒHû{Ù (NaHCO3). kþ&jáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&ŽqT ÿ¿£ eTT& sÁkÍjáTq+ Na CO3.10 H O (yw¾+>´ kþ&†). uñ¿ì+>´
2 2
|Ÿ<‘sÁÆ+>± –|ŸjîÖÐ+º B““ –ÔáÎÜï #ûkÍïsÁT. kþ&†qT yû& #ûd¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT kþ&jáT+ ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù bõ+<Š>·\eT“
NaCl + H2 O + CO2 + NH3 → NH4 Cl + NaHCO3 ™ | Õ q MTsÁ T #á Ö XæsÁ T Ñ kþ& j á T + ¿±sÃÒHû { Ù jî T T¿£ Ø
(nyîÖˆ“jáT+ (kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ |ŸÚq:dŸÎÛ{ì¿¡¿£sÁD ‹³¼\ kþ&†qT ‚dŸTï+~. ‚~ Å£L&† ¿Œ±sÁ
¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž) ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù) \eDyûT.
¿£Ôá«+ 2.14 ýË kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù jîTT¿£Ø pH qT
|Ÿ¯¿ìŒ+#s? €eÖ¢“• Ôá³dÓœ¿£]+#á&†“¿ì B““ m+<ŠTÅ£” Na 2CO3 + 10 H2O → Na 2CO3 .10 H2 O
–|ŸjîÖÐ+#áe#ÃÌ dŸ+‹+<ó‘“• #î|ŸÎ>·\s? ‚~ ÿ¿£ ¿£ŒjáT+ (kþ&jáT+ ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù)
#î+~+#á“ ‹\VÓ²q ¿Œ±sÁ \eD+. e+&û³|ŸÚÎ&ƒT B““ yû& #ûdï
‡ ç¿ì+~ #ásÁ« ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+~.
–wŸ’+
2NaHCO3 → Na 2 CO3 + H2 O + CO2
(kþ&jáT+ (kþ&jáT+
™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù) ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù)
kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù >·VŸ² nedŸs\ýË nHû¿£
–|ŸjîÖ>±\qT ¿£*Ð –+~.
e+³ kþ&† –|ŸjîÖ>±\T
i) uñ¿ì+>´ kþ&†(kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ ¿±sÁÒHû{Ù) eT]jáTT
{²s¼]¿ù €eT¢+ e+{ì ÿ¿£ ‹\VÓ²qyîT®q Üq<ŠÐq €eT¢+ jîTT¿£Ø
$TçXøeTyîT®q uñ¿ì+>´ bå&ƒsY ÔájáÖ¯ýË –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT. uñ¿ì+>´
bå&ƒsYqT yû& #ûd¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ýñ<‘ ú{ìýË ¿£*|¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, ‡ ç¿ì+~
#ásÁ« ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+~`
67
What does 10H2O signify? Does it make

Na2CO3 wet? We will address this question in
the next section.
■ Heat a few crystals of copper sulphate
Sodium carbonate and sodium
in a dry boiling tube.
hydrogencarbonate are useful chemicals for
many industrial processes as well. ■ What is the colour of the copper
sulphate after heating?
Uses of washing soda
■ Do you notice water droplets in the
(i) Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is boiling tube? Where have these come
used in glass, soap and paper industries. from?
(ii) It is used in the manufacture of sodium ■ Add 2-3 drops of water on the sample
of copper sulphate obtained after
compounds such as borax.
heating.
(iii) Sodium carbonate can be used as a
■ What do you observe? Is the blue colour
cleaning agent for domestic purposes. of copper sulphate restored?
(iv) It is used for removing permanent
hardness of water.
Copper sulphate crystals which seem to be
2.4.4 Are the Crystals of Salts really Dry? dry contain water of crystallisation. When we
heat the crystals, this water is removed and the
salt turns white.
If you moisten the crystals again with
water, you will find that blue colour of the
crystals reappears.
Water of crystallisation is the fixed number
of water molecules present in one formula unit
of a salt. Five water molecules are present in
one formula unit of copper sulphate. Chemical
formula for hydrated copper sulphate is CuSO4.
5H2O. Now you would be able to answer the
question whether the molecule of
Na2CO3.10H2O is wet.
One other salt, which possesses water of
crystallisation is gypsum. It has two water
molecules as water of cyrstallisation. It has the
chemical formula CaSO4.2H2O. Let us look
Figure 2.9
Removing water of crystallisation
into the use of this salt.
Plaster of Paris
On heating gypsum at 373 K, it loses
water molecules and becomes calcium sulphate
hemihydrate (CaSO 12 . 2H O). This is called Plaster of
4 2
68
10H2O <û““ dŸÖºdŸTï+~? ‚~ Na2CO3qT Ôá&>± ¿£Ôá«+ 2.15

#ûdŸTï+<‘? eTq+ ‡ ç|ŸXø•qT Ôá<ŠT|Ÿ] $uó²>·+ýË #á]Ì<‘Ý+.
kþ&jáT+ ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù eT]jáTT kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ ■ ÿ¿£ bõ& |Ÿ ¯ ¿£ Œ H [¿£ ý Ë ¿=“• ¿±|Ÿ s Y dŸ ý ñ Î Û { Ù
¿±sÃÒHû{Ù\T nHû¿£ |Ÿ]çXøeT\ýË –|ŸjîÖ>·|Ÿ&û sÁkÍjáTH\T. dŸÎÛ{ì¿±\qT rdŸT¿=“ yû& #ûjáT+&.
‹³¼\ kþ&† –|ŸjîÖ>±\T ■ yû& #ûd¾q ÔásÇÔá ¿±|ŸsY dŸýñÎÛ{Ù sÁ+>·T @$T{ì?
i) kþ&jáT+ ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù (yw¾+>´ kþ&†) qT >±E, dŸ‹TÒ ■ |Ÿ¯¿£ŒH[¿£ýË ú{ì _+<ŠTeÚ\qT >·eT“+#s? ‚$
eT]jáTT ¿±ÐÔá+ |Ÿ]çXøeT\ýË –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT. m¿£Ø& qT+& e#ÌsTT?
ii) uËs¿ùà e+{ì kþ&jáT+ dŸyûTˆÞøH\ ÔájáÖ¯ýË B““ ■ yû& #ûd¾q ÔásÁTyÔá bõ+~q ¿±|ŸsY dŸýñÎÛ{ÙÅ£” 2-3
–|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT. #áT¿£Ø\ ú{ì“ ¿£\|Ÿ+&.
iii) kþ&jáT+ ¿±sÃÒHû{ÙqT >·VŸ² nedŸs\ýË Xø—çuó„|Ÿ]#û ■ MTsÁT @$T >·eT“+#sÁT? ¿±|ŸsY dŸýñÎÛ{Ù jîTT¿£Ø ú\+
¿±sÁ¿£+>± –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT.
sÁ+>·T Ü]Ð edŸTï+<‘?
iv ) ú{ì XæXø Ç Ôá ¿±]Ä q «Ôá q T Ô=\Ð+#á & †“¿ì B““
–|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT.
bõ&>± ¿£“|¾+#û ¿±|ŸsY dŸýñÎÛ{Ù dŸÎÛ{ì¿±\T dŸÎÛ{ì¿£
2.4.4 \eD dŸÎÛ{ì¿±\T “È+>± bõ&>±–+{²jáÖ? Èý²“• ¿£*Ð –+{²sTT. eTq+ dŸÎÛ{ì¿±\qT yû& #ûd¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, ‡
È\+ Ô=\Ð+#á‹& \eD+ Ôî\¢>± eÖsÁTÔáT+~.
eTq+ dŸÎÛ{ì¿±\qT eT°ß ú{ìÔÃ Ôá&|¾q|ŸÚ&ƒT, dŸÎÛ{ì¿±\
jîTT¿£Ø ú\+ sÁ+>·T eT°¢ ¿£“|¾dŸTï+~.
dŸÎÛ{ì¿£ È\+ nHû~ ÿ¿£ \eD+ jîTT¿£Ø b˜ÍsÁTˆý²
jáTÖ“{ÙýË “]ÝwŸ¼ dŸ+K«ýË –+&û ú{ì nDTeÚ\T. ¿±|ŸsY dŸýñÎÛ{Ù
|Ÿ³¼¿±sÁT
>·{ì¼ |Ÿ¯¿£ŒH[¿£ jîTT¿£Ø ÿ¿£ b˜ÍsÁTˆý² jáTÖ“{ÙýË ×<ŠT ú{ì nDTeÚ\T –+{²sTT.
ú{ì _+<ŠTeÚ\T €çsÁÝ ¿±|ŸsY dŸýñÎÛ{Ù sÁkÍjáTq b˜ÍsÁTˆý² CuSO .5H O. ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT
4 2
¿±|ŸsY dŸýñÎÛ³T dŸÎ{ì¿±\T
MTsÁT Na CO .10H O nDTeÚ Ôá&>± –+<‘ ýñ<‘ nHû ç|ŸXø•Å£”
2 3 2
dŸeÖ<ó‘q+ #î|ŸÎ>·\T>·TÔsÁT.
‹sÁ•sY dŸÎÛ{ì¿£ Èý²“• ¿£*Ð –+&û eTs=¿£ \eD+ ›|Ÿà+. ‚~
Âs+&ƒT ú{ì nDTeÚ\qT dŸÎÛ{ì¿£ È\+>± ¿£*Ð –+³T+~. ‚~
CaSO .2H O sÁkÍjáTq b˜ÍsÁTˆý²qT ¿£*Ð –+³T+~. ‡
4 2
\eD+ jîTT¿£Ø –|ŸjîÖ>±\qT ‚|Ÿð&ƒT eTq #áÖ<‘Ý+.

bÍ¢dŸ¼sY €|˜t bÍ]dt
|Ÿ³+ 2.9 ›|ŸàyŽTqT 373 K e<ŠÝ yû& #ûdï, n~ ú{ì nDTeÚ\qT
dŸÎÛ{ì¿£ Èý²“• Ô=\Ð+#á&ƒ+
¿ÃýËÎsTT ¿±*üjáT+ dŸýñÎÛ{Ù ™V²MT™VÕ²ç&û{Ù
(CaSO 1 . 2H O) >± eÖsÁTÔáT+~. B““ bÍ¢dŸ¼sY €|˜t bÍ]dt n+{²sÁT.
4 2
2
69
Paris, the substance which doctors use as Note that only half a water molecule is
plaster for supporting fractured bones in the shown to be attached as water of crystallisation.
right position. Plaster of Paris is a white powder How can you get half a water molecule? It is
and on mixing with water, it changes to gypsum written in this form because two formula units
once again giving a hard solid mass. of CaSO4 share one molecule of water. Plaster
1 1 of Paris is used for making toys, materials for
CaSO 4 . H2 O +1 H2 O → CaSO4 .2H2 O decoration and for making surfaces smooth.
2 2
(Plaster of Paris) (Gypsum) Try to find out why is calcium sulphate
hemihydrate called ‘Plaster of Paris’ ?
1. What is the common name of the compound CaOCl2?

2. Name the substance which on treatment with chlorine yields bleaching powder.
3. Name the sodium compound which is used for softening hard water.
?
4. What will happen if a solution of sodium hydrocarbonate is heated?
Give the equation of the reaction involved.
5. Write an equation to show the reaction between Plaster of Paris and water.
■ Acid-base indicators are dyes or mixtures of dyes which are used to indicate the
presence of acids and bases.
+
■ Acidic nature of a substance is due to the formation of H (aq) ions in solution.
Formation of OH–(aq) ions in solution is responsible for the basic nature of a
substance.
■ When an acid reacts with a metal, hydrogen gas is evolved and a corresponding salt is
formed.
■ When a base reacts with a metal, along with the evolution of hydrogen gas a salt is
formed which has a negative ion composed of the metal and oxygen.
■ When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate or metal hydrogencarbonate, it gives the
corresponding salt, carbon dioxide gas and water.
70
Xø¯sÁ+ýË $]Ðq meTT¿£\qT dŸÂsÕq kÍœq+ýË –+#á&†“¿ì #ûjáT‹&ƒ&†“• >·eT“+#á+&. dŸ>·+ ú{ì nDTeÚqT MTsÁT mý²
&†¿£¼sÁT¢ bÍ¢dŸ¼sY>± y&û |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ ‚<û. bÍ¢dŸ¼sY €|˜t bÍ]dt nqTq~ bõ+<Š>·\sÁT? CaSO jîTT¿£Ø Âs+&ƒT b˜ÍsÁTˆý² jáTÖ“³T¢ ÿ¿£
4
ÿ¿£ Ôî\¢“ #áÖsÁ’ |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ eT]jáTT ú{ìýË ¿£*d¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, ‚~ ú{ì nDTeÚqT |Ÿ + #á T ¿Ãe&ƒ + e\¢ ‚~ ‡ sÁ Ö |Ÿ + ýË
›|Ÿà+>± eTsÁ\ ÿ¿£ <Š&óƒyîT®q |˜ŸTq|Ÿ<‘sÁÆ+>± eÖsÁTÔáT+~. çyjáT‹&+~. bÍ¢dŸ¼sY €|˜t bÍ]dtqT u¤eTˆ\T ÔájáÖsÁT
#ûjáTT³Å£”, n\+¿£sÁD kÍeÖçÐ¿ì eT]jáTT –|Ÿ]Ôáý²\qT
1 1 qTqT|ŸÚ>± ÔájáÖsÁT #ûjáTT³Å£” –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT. ¿±*üjáT+
CaSO 4 . H2 O +1 H2 O → CaSO4 .2H2 O dŸýñÎÛ{Ù ™V²$T™VÕ²ç&û{ÙqT »bÍ¢dŸ¼sY €|˜t bÍ]dtµ >± m+<ŠTÅ£”
2 2
bÍ¢dŸ¼sY €|˜t bÍ]dt ›|Ÿà+ |¾\TkÍïsÃ ¿£qT>=q&†“¿ì ç|ŸjáTÜ•+#á+&.
¹¿e\+ dŸ>·+ ú{ì nDTeÚ eÖçÔáyûT dŸÎÛ{ì¿£ È\+>± ÈÔá
ç|ŸXø•\T
1. CaOCl2 dŸyûTˆÞøq+ jîTT¿£Ø kÍ<ó‘sÁD |sÁT @$T{ì?
2. ¿Ã¢]HŽÔÃ #ásÁ« È]|¾+#áT³ <‘Çs $sÁ+Èq #áÖsÁ’+qT @sÁÎ]#û |Ÿ<‘sÆ“• |s=Øq+&.
3. ¿£]Äq Èý²“• eT<ŠTÈ\+>± #ûjáTT³Å£” –|ŸjîÖÐ+#û kþ&jáT+ dŸyûTˆÞøH“• |s=Øq+&.
4. kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&Ã¿±sÃÒHû{Ù ç<‘eD²“• yû& #ûdï @$T ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+~? ‚$T& –q• #ásÁ« jîTT¿£Ø
dŸMT¿£sÁD+ çyjáT+&.
?
5. bÍ¢dŸ¼sY €|˜t bÍ]dt eT]jáTT úsÁT\ eT<óŠ« #ásÁ«qT #áÖ| ÿ¿£ dŸMT¿£sÁD²“• çyjáT+&.

■ €eT¢-¿Œ±sÁ dŸÖº¿£\T nqTq$ sÁ+ÈH\T ýñ<‘ sÁ+ÈH\ jîTT¿£Ø $TçXøeÖ\T, M{ì“ €eÖ¢\T eT]jáTT ¿Œ±s\qT
>·T]ï+#á{²“¿ì –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT.
■ ÿ¿£ |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ jîTT¿£Ø €eT¢ dŸÇuó²e+ ç<‘eD+ýË @sÁÎ&q H (È.ç<‘) njáÖqT\ e\q –+³T+~. ç<‘eD+ýË @sÁÎ&q
+
OH (È.ç<‘) njáÖqT\T ¿Œ±sÁ dŸÇuó²y“¿ì ¿±sÁDeTeÚÔsTT.

–
■ ÿ¿£ €eT¢eTT, ÿ¿£ ýËVŸ²+ÔÃ #ásÁ« È]|¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ yjáTTeÚ yî\Te&ƒTÔáT+~ eT]jáTT dŸ+‹+~óÔá \eD+
@sÁÎ&ƒTÔáT+~.
■ ÿ¿£ ¿Œ±sÁ+ ÿ¿£ ýËVŸ²+ÔÃ #ásÁ« È]|¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ yjáTTeÚ yî\Te&ƒ³+ÔÃ bÍ³T € ýËVŸ²+ eT]jáTT €¿ìàÈHŽ ¿£*d¾ ÿ¿£
sÁTD²Ôáˆ¿£ njáÖqTqT ¿£*Ðq ÿ¿£ \eD+ @sÁÎ&ƒTÔáT+~.
■ ÿ¿£ €eT¢+ ÿ¿£ ýËVŸ² ¿±sÃÒHû{Ù ýñ<‘ ýËVŸ² ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ¿±sÃÒHû{ÙÔÃ #ásÁ« È]|¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, n~ dŸ+‹+~óÔá \eD²“•, ¿±sÁÒHŽ
&ƒjáÖÂ¿Õà&Ž yjáTTeÚqT eT]jáTT ú{ì“ ‚dŸTï+~.
71
■ Acidic and basic solutions in water conduct electricity because they produce hydrogen
and hydroxide ions respectively.
■ The strength of an acid or an alkali can be tested by using a scale called the pH scale (0-
14) which gives the measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
■ A neutral solution has a pH of exactly 7, while an acidic solution has a pH less than 7
and a basic solution a pH more than 7.
■ Living beings carry out their metabolic activities within an optimal pH range.
■ Mixing concentrated acids or bases with water is a highly exothermic process.
■ Acids and bases neutralise each other to form corresponding salts and water.
■ Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula
unit of a salt.
■ Salts have various uses in everyday life and in industries.
1. A solution turns red litmus blue, its pH is likely to be

(a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 10
2. A solution reacts with crushed egg-shells to give a gas that turns lime-water milky. The
solution contains
(a) NaCl (b) HCl (c) LiCl (d) KCl
3. 10 mL of a solution of NaOH is found to be completely neutralised by 8 mL of a given
solution of HCl. If we take 20 mL of the same solution of NaOH, the amount HCl
solution (the same solution as before) required to neutralise it will be
(a) 4 mL (b) 8 mL (c) 12 mL (d) 16 mL
4. Which one of the following types of medicines is used for treating indigestion?
(a) Antibiotic
(b) Analgesic
(c) Antacid
(d) Antiseptic
5. Write word equations and then balanced equations for the reaction taking
place when –
(a) dilute sulphuric acid reacts with zinc granules.
(b) dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with magnesium ribbon.
(c) dilute sulphuric acid reacts with aluminium powder.
(d) dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with iron filings.
6. Compounds such as alcohols and glucose also contain hydrogen but are not
categorised as acids. Describe an Activity to prove it.
7. Why does distilled water not conduct electricity, whereas rain water does?
72
■ €eT¢ eT]jáTT ¿Œ±sÁ È\ ç<‘eD²\T esÁTdŸ>± ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ eT]jáTT ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž njáÖqT\qT –ÔáÎÜï #ûjáT&ƒ+ e\q n$
$<ŠT«ÔY yVŸ²¿£ÔáqT ¿£*Ð–+{²sTT.
■ ÿ¿£ €eT¢eTT ýñ<‘ ÿ¿£ ¿Œ±sÁ+ jîTT¿£Ø ‹ý²“• pH dØ\T (0 - 14) n“ |¾\e‹&û ÿ¿£ dØýÙqT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º |Ÿ¯¿ìŒ+#áe#áTÌ. ‡
dØ\T ÿ¿£ ç<‘eDeTTýË“ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ njáÖqT\ >±&óƒÔáqT ¿=\TdŸTï+~.
■ ÿ¿£ Ôá³dŸœ ç<‘eD+ pH KºÌÔá+>± 7 –+³T+~, ný²¹> ÿ¿£ €eT¢ ç<‘eD+ 7 ¿£H• ÔáÅ£”Øe pH qT eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ ¿Œ±sÁ
ç<‘eD+ 7 ¿£H• mÅ£”Øe pH qT ¿£*Ð –+{²sTT.
■ JesXø—\T y{ì Jeq ç¿ìjáT\qT ÿ¿£ “]ÝwŸ¼ pH |Ÿ]~óýË “sÁÇV¾²+#áTÅ£”+{²sTT.
■ >±&óƒ €eÖ¢\T ýñ<‘ ¿Œ±s\qT ú{ì¿ì ¿£\|Ÿ³+ ÿ¿£ n~ó¿£ –wŸ’yîÖ#á¿£ ç|Ÿç¿ìjáT.
■ €eÖ¢\T eT]jáTT ¿Œ±s\T ÿ¿£<‘“H=¿£{ì Ôá³dÓœ¿£]+#áT¿=“ dŸ+‹+~óÔá \eD²\qT eT]jáTT ú{ì“ @sÁÎsÁTkÍïsTT.
■ ÿ¿£ \eD+ jîTT¿£Ø b˜ÍsÁTˆý² jáTÖ“{ÙýË “]ÝwŸ¼ dŸ+K«ýË ¿£*Ð –+&û ú{ì nDTeÚ\qT dŸÎÛ{ì¿£ È\+ n+{²sÁT.
■ “Ôá«J$Ôá+ýË eT]jáTT |Ÿ]çXøeT\ýË \eD²\T nHû¿£ –|ŸjîÖ>±\qT ¿£*Ð –H•sTT.
nuó²«kÍ\T
1. ÿ¿£ ç<‘eD+ msÁT|ŸÚ *³ˆdtqT ú\+>± eÖ]Ì+~, <‘“ pH $\Te (dŸTeÖsÁT>±)
(m) 1 (_) 4 (d¾) 5 (&) 10
2. ÿ¿£ ç<‘eD+ |ŸÐ*q ¿Ã&>·T&ƒT¦ ™|+Å£”\ÔÃ #ásÁ« È]|¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT $&ƒT<Š\jûT« yjáTTeÚ dŸTq•|ŸÚ Ôû³qT bÍ\eýñ¢ Ôî\¢>±
eÖsÁTÌÔáT+~. € ç<‘eD+ B““ ¿£*Ð –+³T+~.
(m) NaCl (_) HCl (d¾) LiCl (&) KCl
3. 10 $T.©.\ NaOH ç<‘eD+, ‚eÇ‹&q 8 $T.©.\ HCl ç<‘eD+#û |ŸP]ï>± Ôá³dÓœ¿£]+|Ÿ‹& ¿£qT>=q‹&+~,
ÿ¿£yûÞø 20 $T.©.\ n<û NaOH ç<‘eD+ rdŸTÅ£”+fñ, <‘““ Ôá³dÓœ¿£]+#áT³Å£” ¿±e\d¾q HCl (‚+ÔáÅ£”eTT+<ŠT rdŸTÅ£”q•
n<û ç<‘eD+) |Ÿ]eÖD+
(m) 4 $T.© (_) 8 $T.© (d¾) 12 $T.©. (&) 16 $T.©
4. ‡ ç¿ì+~ @ sÁ¿£yîT®q eT+<ŠT\qT nJs’“¿ì º¿ìÔáà #ûjáTT³Å£” –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT?
(m) jáÖ+{ì ‹jîÖ{ì¿ù
(_) mH*¨d¾¿ù
(d¾) jáÖ+{²d¾&Ž
(&) jáÖ+{ì™d|¾¼¿ù
5. ‡ #ásÁ«Å£” |Ÿ<Š dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T eT]jáTT ÔáT\« dŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT çyjáTTeTT.
(m) dŸÈ\ dŸ\ÖÎÛ«]¿ù €eT¢+ ›+Å£” eTT¿£Ø\ÔÃ #ásÁ« ÈsÁT|ŸÚq|ŸÚ&ƒT
(_) dŸÈ\ ™VÕ²ç&Ã¿Ã¢]¿ù €eT¢+ yîT^•w¾jáT+ ]‹ÒqTÔÃ #ásÁ« ÈsÁT|ŸÚq|ŸÚ&ƒT
(d¾) dŸÈ\ dŸ\ÖÎÛ«]¿ù €eT¢+ n\Ö«$T“jáT+ #áÖsÁ’+ÔÃ #ásÁ« ÈsÁT|ŸÚq|ŸÚ&ƒT
(&) dŸÈ\ ™VÕ²ç&Ã¿Ã¢]¿ù €eT¢+ ‚qT|Ÿ sÁÈqTÔÃ #ásÁ« ÈsÁT|ŸÚq|ŸÚ&ƒT
6. €\ØVŸä\T, >·Ö¢¿ÃE e+{ì dŸyûTˆÞøH\T Å£L&† ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽqT ¿£*Ð –q•|ŸÎ{ì¿¡ €eÖ¢\T>± e¯Z¿£]+#á‹&ƒýñ<ŠT. B““
“sÁÖ|¾+#áT³Å£” ÿ¿£ ¿£Ô«“• $e]+#áTeTT.
7. esÁü|ŸÚ úsÁT $<ŠT«<‘ÇVŸ²¿£ÔáqT ç|Ÿ<Š]ôdŸTï+&ƒ>±, dÇ<Šq È\+ $<ŠT«ÔáTïqT ç|ŸdŸ]+|ŸújáT<ŠT. m+<ŠTÅ£”?
73
8. Why do acids not show acidic behaviour in the absence of water?

9. Five solutions A,B,C,D and E when tested with universal indicator showed pH
as 4,1,11,7 and 9, respectively. Which solution is
(a) neutral?
(b) strongly alkaline?
(c) strongly acidic?
(d) weakly acidic?
(e) weakly alkaline?
Arrange the pH in increasing order of hydrogen-ion concentration.
10. Equal lengths of magnesium ribbons are taken in test tubes A and B. Hydrochloric acid
(HCl) is added to test tube A, while acetic acid (CH3COOH) is added to test tube B.
Amount and concentration taken for both the acids are same. In which test tube will the
fizzing occur more vigorously and why?
11. Fresh milk has a pH of 6. How do you think the pH will change as it turns into curd?
Explain your answer.
12. A milkman adds a very small amount of baking soda to fresh milk.
(a) Why does he shift the pH of the fresh milk from 6 to slightly alkaline?
(b) Why does this milk take a long time to set as curd?
13. Plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture-proof container. Explain why?
14. What is a neutralisation reaction? Give two examples.
15. Give two important uses of washing soda and baking soda.
(I) Prepare your own indicator

■ Crush beetroot in a mortar.
■ Add sufficient water to obtain the extract.
■ Filter the extract by the procedure learnt by you in earlier classes.
■ Collect the filtrate to test the substances you may have tasted earlier.
■ Arrange four test tubes in a test tube stand and label them as A,B,C and D. Pour
2 mL each of lemon juice solution, soda-water, vinegar and baking soda solution in
them respectively.
■ Put 2-3 drops of the beetroot extract in each test tube and note the colour change if any.
Write your observation in a Table.
■ You can prepare indicators by using other natural materials like extracts of red
cabbage leaves, coloured petals of some flowers such as Petunia, Hydrangea and
Geranium.
74
8. ú{ìÔÃ ýñq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT €eÖ¢\T m+<ŠTÅ£” €eT¢ dŸÇuó²y“• #áÖ|¾+#áeÚ?

9. A,B,C,D eT]jáTT E nHû ×<ŠT ç<‘eD²\qT kÍsÁÇçÜ¿£ dŸÖº¿£ÔÃ |Ÿ¯¿ìŒ+ºq|ŸÚ&ƒT pH $\Te\T esÁTdŸ>±
4,1,11,7 eT]jáTT 9 >± #áÖ|¾HsTT. M{ìýË @~
(m) Ôá³dŸœ+?
(_) ‹\yîT®q ¿Œ±sÁ+ ?
(d¾) ‹\yîT®q €eT¢+?
(&) ‹\VÓ²q €eT¢+?
(‚) ‹\VÓ²q ¿Œ±sÁ+?
M{ì pH “ ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ njáÖHŽ >±&óƒÔá ™|]¹> ç¿£eT+ýË neTsÁÌ+&.
10. dŸeÖq bõ&ƒeÚ\T ¿£*Ðq yîT^•w¾jáT+ ]‹ÒqT\T A eT]jáTT B |Ÿ¯¿£Œ H[¿£\ýË rdŸT¿=q‹&†¦sTT. |Ÿ¯¿£ŒH[Å£A Å£”
™VÕ²ç&Ã¿Ã¢]¿ù €eT¢+ (HCl) ¿£\T|Ÿ>±, |Ÿ¯¿£ŒH[¿£ B Å£” md¾{ì¿ù €eT¢+ (CH COOH) ¿£\|Ÿ‹&+~. Âs+&ƒT €eÖ¢\T ÿ¹¿
3
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m+<ŠTÅ£”?
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75
(II) Preparing a soda-acid fire extinguisher

■ The reaction of acids with metal hydrogencarbonates is used in the fire extinguishers
which produce carbon dioxide.
■ Take 20 mL of sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3) solution in a wash-bottle.
■ Suspend an ignition tube containing dilute sulphuric acid in the wash-bottle
(Fig. 2.10).
■ Close the mouth of the wash-bottle.
■ Tilt the wash-bottle so that the acid from the ignition tube mixes with the sodium
hydrogencarbonate solution below.
■ You will notice discharge coming out of the nozzle.
■ Direct this discharge on a burning candle. What happens?
Figure 2.10(a) Ignition tube containing dilute sulphuric acid suspended in a wash-bottle containing
sodium hydrogencarbonate, (b) Discharge coming out of the nozzle
76
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3
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77
ANDHRA PRADESH | PHYSICAL SCIENCE : Metals and Non-metals
78
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79
I n Class IX you have learnt about various

elements. You have seen that elements can
be classified as metals or non-metals on the ■ Take small pieces of iron, copper,
basis of their properties. aluminium, and magnesium. Try to cut
• Think of some uses of metals and non-metals these metals with a sharp knife and note
in your daily life. your observations.
• What properties did you think of while ■ Hold a piece of sodium metal with a pair
categorising elements as metals or non- of tongs.
metals?
CAUTION: Always handle sodium metal
• How are these properties related to the uses of
with care. Dry it by pressing between the
these elements? Let us look at some of these
folds of a filter paper.
properties in detail.
■ Put it on a watch-glass and try to cut it
3.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES with a knife.
3.1.1 Metals
The easiest way to start grouping You will find that metals are generally
substances is by comparing their physical hard. The hardness varies from metal to metal.
properties. Let us study this with the help of the
following activities. For performing Activities
3.1 to 3.6, collect the samples of following
metals – iron, copper, aluminium, magnesium, ■ Take pieces of iron, zinc, lead and
sodium, lead, zinc and any other metal that is copper.
easily available. ■ Place any one metal on a block of iron
and strike it four or five times with a
hammer. What do you observe?
■ Repeat with other metals.
■ Ta k e s a m p l e s o f i r o n , c o p p e r,
■ Record the change in the shape of these
aluminium and magnesium. Note the
metals.
appearance of each sample.
■ Clean the surface of each sample by
You will find that some metals can be
rubbing them with sand paper and note
beaten into thin sheets. This property is called
their appearance again.
malleability. Did you know that gold and silver
are the most malleable metals?
Metals, in their pure state, have a

shining surface. This property is called metallic
lustre.
■ List the metals whose wires you have
seen in daily life.
80
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81
The ability of metals to be drawn into thin The above activity shows that metals are
wires is called ductility. Gold is the most ductile good conductors of heat and have high melting
metal. You will be surprised to know that a wire points. The best conductors of heat are silver
of about 2 km length can be drawn from one a n d c o p p e r. L e a d a n d m e r c u r y a r e
gram of gold. comparatively poor conductors of heat.
It is because of their malleability and Do metals also conduct electricity? Let us
ductility that metals can be given different find out.
shapes according to our needs.
Can you name some metals that are used for
making cooking vessels? Do you know why
■ Set up an electric circuit as shown in Fig.
these metals are used for making vessels? Let
3.2.
us do the following Activity to find out the
answer. ■ Place the metal to be tested in the circuit
between terminals A and B as shown.
■ Does the bulb glow? What does this
indicate?
Figure 3.1
Metals are good conductors of heat.
■ Take an aluminium or copper wire. Figure 3.2

Clamp this wire on a stand, as shown in Metals are good conductors of electricity.
Fig. 3.1.
You must have seen that the wires that carry
■ Fix a pin to the free end of the wire using current in your homes have a coating of
wax. polyvinylchloride (PVC) or a rubber-like
■ Heat the wire with a spirit lamp, candle or material. Why are electric wires coated with
a burner near the place where it is such substances?
clamped. What happens when metals strike a hard
surface? Do they produce a sound? The metals
■ What do you observe after some time?
that produce a sound on striking a hard surface
■ Note your observations. Does the metal are said to be sonorous. Can you now say why
wire melt? school bells are made of metals?
82
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83
3.1.2 Non-metals
In the previous Class you have learnt that
■ Collect samples of carbon (coal or
there are very few non-metals as compared to
graphite), sulphur and iodine.
metals. Some of the examples of non-metals are
carbon, sulphur, iodine, oxygen, hydrogen, etc. ■ Carry out the Activities 3.1 to 3.4 and 3.6
The non-metals are either solids or gases with these non-metals and record your
except bromine which is a liquid. observations.
Do non-metals also have physical properties
similar to that of metals? Let us find out. Compile your observations regarding
metals and non-metals in Table 3.1.
On the bases of the observations recorded in potassium) are so soft that they can be cut with a
Table 3.1, discuss the general physical knife. They have low densities and low melting
properties of metals and non-metals in the points.
class. You must have concluded that we cannot Elements can be more clearly classified as
group elements according to their physical metals and non-metals
properties alone, as there are many exceptions.
For example –
(i) All metals except mercury exist as solids ■ Take a magnesium ribbon and some
at room temperature. sulphur powder.
In Activity 3.5, you have observed that ■ Burn the magnesium ribbon. Collect the
metals have high melting points but gallium ashes formed and dissolve them in
and caesium have very low melting points. water.
These two metals will melt if you keep them on
■ Test the resultant solution with both red
your palm.
and blue litmus paper.
(ii) Iodine is a non-metal but it is lustrous.
■ Is the product formed on burning
(iii) Carbon is a non-metal that can exist in magnesium acidic or basic?
different forms. Each form is called an
■ Now burn sulphur powder. Place a test
allotrope. Diamond, an allotrope of carbon, is
tube over the burning sulphur to collect
the hardest natural substance known and has a
the fumes produced.
very high melting and boiling point. Graphite,
another allotrope of carbon, is a conductor of ■ Add some water to the above test tube
electricity. and shake.
(iv) Alkali metals (lithium, sodium,
84
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85
■ Test this solution with blue and red litmus

paper. ■ CAUTION: The following activity needs
■ Is the product formed on burning sulphur the teacher’s assistance. It would be
acidic or basic? better if students wear eye protection.
■ Can you write equations for these ■ Hold any of the samples taken above
reactions? with a pair of tongs and try burning over a
flame. Repeat with the other metal
Most non-metals produce acidic oxides samples.
when dissolve in water. On the other hand, most ■ Collect the product if formed.
metals, give rise to basic oxides. You will be ■ Let the products and the metal surface
learning more about these metal oxides in the cool down.
next section.
■ Which metals burn easily?
■ What flame colour did you observe when
the metal burnt?
1. Give an example of a metal which
■ How does the metal surface appear after
(i) is a liquid at room temperature.
burning?
?
(ii) can be easily cut with a knife.
■ Arrange the metals in the decreasing
(iii) is the best conductor of heat.
order of their reactivity towards oxygen.
(iv) is a poor conductor of heat.
2. Explain the meanings of malleable and ■ Are the products soluble in water?
ductile.
Almost all metals combine with oxygen to

3 . 2 C H E M I C A L P R O P E RT I E S O F
form metal oxides.
METALS
Metal + Oxygen ® Metal oxide
We will learn about the chemical properties For example, when copper is heated in air, it
of metals in the following Sections 3.2.1 to combines with oxygen to form copper(II)
3.2.4. For this, collect the samples of following oxide, a black oxide.
metals – aluminium, copper, iron, lead, 2Cu + O2 ® 2CuO
magnesium, zinc and sodium. (Copper) (Copper(II) oxide)
Similarly, aluminium forms aluminium oxide.
3.2.1 What happens when Metals are burnt
4Al + 3O2 ® 2Al2O3
in Air? (Aluminium) (Aluminium oxide)
You have seen in Activity 3.8 that Recall from Chapter 2, how copper oxide
magnesium burns in air with a dazzling white reacts with hydrochloric acid. We have learnt
flame. Do all metals react in the same manner? that metal oxides are basic in nature. But some
Let us check by performing the following metal oxides, such as aluminium oxide, zinc
Activity. oxide show both acidic as well as basic
86
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87
behaviour. Such metal oxides which react with We have observed in Activity 3.9 that all
both acids as well as bases to produce salts and metals do not react with oxygen at the same
water are known as amphoteric oxides. rate. Different metals show different
Aluminium oxide reacts in the following reactivities towards oxygen. Metals such as
manner with acids and bases – potassium and sodium react so vigorously that
Al2O3 + 6HCl ® 2AlCl3 + 3H2O they catch fire if kept in the open. Hence, to
Al2O3 + 2NaOH ® 2NaAlO2 + H2O protect them and to prevent accidental fires,
(Sodium they are kept immersed in kerosene oil. At
aluminate) ordinary temperature, the surfaces of metals
such as magnesium, aluminium, zinc, lead, etc.,
Most metal oxides are insoluble in water but are covered with a thin layer of oxide. The
some of these dissolve in water to form alkalis. protective oxide layer prevents the metal from
Sodium oxide and potassium oxide dissolve in further oxidation. Iron does not burn on heating
water to produce alkalis as follows – but iron filings burn vigorously when sprinkled
in the flame of the burner. Copper does not
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) ® 2NaOH(aq)
burn, but the hot metal is coated with a black
K2O(s) + H2O(l) ® 2KOH(aq)
coloured layer of copper(II) oxide. Silver and
gold do not react with oxygen even at high
temperatures.
Anodising is a process of forming a thick oxide layer of aluminium. Aluminium develops a thin
oxide layer when exposed to air. This aluminium oxide coat makes it resistant to further
corrosion. The resistance can be improved further by making the oxide layer thicker. During
anodising, a clean aluminium article is made the anode and is electrolysed with dilute
sulphuric acid. The oxygen gas evolved at the anode reacts with aluminium to make a thicker
protective oxide layer. This oxide layer can be dyed easily to give aluminium articles an
attractive finish.
After performing Activity 3.9, you must

have observed that sodium is the most reactive
of the samples of metals taken here. The
reaction of magnesium is less vigorous
implying that it is not as reactive as sodium. But
burning in oxygen does not help us to decide
about the reactivity of zinc, iron, copper or lead.
Let us see some more reactions to arrive at a
conclusion about the order of reactivity of these
metals.
88
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89
3.2.2 What happens when Metals react with Metals react with water and produce a
Water? metal oxide and hydrogen gas. Metal oxides
that are soluble in water dissolve in it to further
form metal hydroxide. But all metals do not
CAUTION: This Activity needs the react with water.
teacher’s assistance. Metal + Water ® Metal oxide + Hydrogen
■ Collect the samples of the same metals as Metal oxide + Water ® Metal hydroxide
in Activity 3.9. Metals like potassium and sodium react
violently with cold water. In case of sodium and
■ Put small pieces of the samples
potassium, the reaction is so violent and
separately in beakers half-filled with cold
exothermic that the evolved hydrogen
water.
immediately catches fire.
■ Which metals reacted with cold water?
Arrange them in the increasing order of 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) ® 2KOH(aq) + H2(g) + heat energy
their reactivity with cold water. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) ® 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + heat energy
■ Did any metal produce fire on water?
The reaction of calcium with water is less
■ Does any metal start floating after some violent. The heat evolved is not sufficient for
time? the hydrogen to catch fire.
■ Put the metals that did not react with cold
water in beakers half - filled with hot Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) ® Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
water.
Calcium starts floating because the bubbles
■ For the metals that did not react with hot of hydrogen gas formed stick to the surface of
water, arrange the apparatus as shown in the metal.
Fig. 3.3 and observe their reaction with Magnesium does not react with cold water.
steam. It reacts with hot water to form magnesium
■ Which metals did not react even with hydroxide and hydrogen. It also starts floating
steam? due to the bubbles of hydrogen gas sticking to
■ Arrange the metals in the decreasing its surface.
order of reactivity with water.
Figure 3.3 Action of steam on a metal

90
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91
Metals like aluminium, iron and zinc do not Write equations for the reactions of
react either with cold or hot water. But they magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron with
react with steam to form the metal oxide and dilute hydrochloric acid.
hydrogen. Hydrogen gas is not evolved when a metal
2Al(s) + 3H2O(g) ® Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g) reacts with nitric acid. It is because HNO3 is a
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) ® Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) strong oxidising agent. It oxidises the H2
Metals such as lead, copper, silver and gold produced to water and itself gets reduced to any
do not react with water at all. of the nitrogen oxides (N2O, NO, NO2). But
magnesium (Mg) and manganese (Mn) react
3.2.3 What happens when Metals react with with very dilute HNO3 to evolve H2 gas.
Acids? You must have observed in Activity 3.11,
You have already learnt that metals react that the rate of formation of bubbles was the
with acids to give a salt and hydrogen gas. fastest in the case of magnesium. The reaction
Metal + Dilute acid ® Salt + Hydrogen was also the most exothermic in this case. The
But do all metals react in the same manner? reactivity decreases in the order Mg > Al > Zn >
Let us find out. Fe. In the case of copper, no bubbles were seen
and the temperature also remained unchanged.
This shows that copper does not react with
■ Collect all the metal samples except dilute Hcl.
sodium and potassium again. If the
samples are tarnished, rub them clean
with sand paper.
Aqua regia, (Latin for ‘royal water’)
CAUTION: Do not take sodium and
is a freshly prepared mixture of
potassium as they react vigorously even
concentrated hydrochloric acid and
with cold water.
concentrated nitric acid in the ratio of
■ Put the samples separately in test tubes 3:1. It can dissolve gold, even though
containing dilute hydrochloric acid. neither of these acids can do so alone.
■ Suspend thermometers in the test tubes, Aqua regia is a highly corrosive, fuming
so that their bulbs are dipped in the acid. liquid. It is one of the few reagents that is
■ Observe the rate of formation of bubbles able to dissolve gold and platinum.
carefully.
■ Which metals reacted vigorously with 3.2.4 How do Metals react with Solutions of
dilute hydrochloric acid? other Metal Salts?
■ With which metal did you record the
highest temperature? ■ Take a clean wire of copper and an iron
■ Arrange the metals in the decreasing nail.
order of reactivity with dilute acids. ■ Put the copper wire in a solution of iron
sulphate and the iron nail in a solution of
copper sulphate taken in test tubes (Fig.
3.4).
92
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93
■ Record your observations after 20

minutes.
■ In which test tube did you find that a
reaction has occurred?
■ On what basis can you say that a
reaction has actually taken place?
■ Can you correlate your observations
for the Activities 3.9, 3.10 and 3.11?
■ Write a balanced chemical equation
for the reaction that has taken place.
Figure 3.4
■ Name the type of reaction. Reaction of metals with salt solutions
Reactive metals can displace less reactive Metal A + Salt solution of B ® Salt solution of
metals from their compounds in solution or A + Metal B
molten form. Which metal, copper or iron, is more
We have seen in the previous sections that reactive according to your observations in
all metals are not equally reactive. We checked Activity 3.12?
the reactivity of various metals with oxygen,
water and acids. But all metals do not react with 3.2.5 The Reactivity Series
these reagents. So we were not able to put all the
metal samples we had collected in decreasing The reactivity series is a list of metals
order of their reactivity. Displacement arranged in the order of their decreasing
reactions studied in Chapter 1 give better activities. After performing displacement
evidence about the reactivity of metals. It is experiments (Activities 1.9 and 3.12), the
simple and easy if metal A displaces metal B following series, (Table 3.2) known as the
from its solution, it is more reactive than B. reactivity or activity series has been developed.
Table 3.2 Activity series : Relative reactivities of metals
K Potassium Most reactive

Na Sodium
Ca Calcium
Mg Magnesium
Al Aluminium
Zn Zinc Reactivity decreases
Fe Iron
Pb Lead
[H] [Hydrogen]
Cu Copper
Hg Mercury
Ag Silver
Au Gold Least reactive
94
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95
1. Why is sodium kept immersed in kerosene oil?

2. Write equations for the reactions of
(i) iron with steam
(ii) calcium and potassium with water
3. Samples of four metals A, B, C and D were taken and added to the following solution one by
one. The results obtained have been tabulated as follows.
A No reaction Displacement
B Displacement No reaction
C No reaction No reaction No reaction Displacement
D No reaction No reaction No reaction No reaction
U s e t h e Ta b l e a b o v e t o a n s w e r t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s a b o u t m e t a l s
A, B, C and D.
(i) Which is the most reactive metal?
(ii) What would you observe if B is added to a solution of Copper(II) sulphate?
(iii) Arrange the metals A, B, C and D in the order of decreasing reactivity.
4. Which gas is produced when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a reactive metal? Write the
chemical reaction when iron reacts with dilute H2SO4.
?
5. What would you observe when zinc is added to a solution of iron(II) sulphate? Write the
chemical reaction that takes place.
3.3 HOW DO METALS AND NON- Let us have a look at the electronic
METALS REACT? configuration of noble gases and some metals
and non-metals.
In the above activities, you saw the reactions We can see from Table 3.3 that a sodium atom
of metals with a number of reagents. Why do has one electron in its outermost shell. If it loses
metals react in this manner? Let us recall what the electron from its M shell then its L shell now
we learnt about the electronic configuration of becomes the outermost shell and that has a
elements in Class IX. We learnt that noble stable octet. The nucleus of this atom still has
gases, which have a completely filled valence 11 protons but the number of electrons has
shell, show little chemical activity. We, become 10, so there is a net positive charge
therefore, explain the reactivity of elements as a giving us a sodium cation Na+. On the other
tendency to attain a completely filled valence hand chlorine has seven electrons in its
shell. outermost shell and it requires one more
96
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97
Table 3.3 Electronic configurations of some elements
Noble gases Helium (He) 2 2

Neon (Ne) 10 2 8
Argon (Ar) 18 2 8 8
Metals Sodium (Na) 11 2 8 1
Magnesium (Mg) 12 2 8 2
Aluminium (Al) 13 2 8 3
Potassium (K) 19 2 8 8 1
Calcium (Ca) 20 2 8 8 2
Non-metals Nitrogen (N) 7 2 5
Oxygen (O) 8 2 6
Fluorine (F) 9 2 7
Phosphorus (P) 15 2 8 5
Sulphur (S) 16 2 8 6
Chlorine (Cl) 17 2 8 7
electron to complete its octet. If sodium and Sodium and chloride ions, being oppositely
chlorine were to react, the electron lost by charged, attract each other and are held by
sodium could be taken up by chlorine. After strong electrostatic forces of attraction to exist
gaining an electron, the chlorine atom gets a as sodium chloride (NaCl). It should be noted
unit negative charge, because its nucleus has 17 that sodium chloride does not exist as
protons and there are 18 electrons in its K, L and molecules but aggregates of oppositely charged
–
M shells. This gives us a chloride anion C1 . So ions.
both these elements can have a give-and-take Let us see the formation of one more ionic
relation between them as follows (Fig. 3.5). compound, magnesium chloride (Fig. 3.6).
Figure 3.5 Formation of sodium chloride Figure 3.6 Formation of magnesium chloride
98
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99
The compounds formed in this manner by

the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-
metal are known as ionic compounds or
electrovalent compounds. Can you name the
cation and anion present in MgCl2?
3.3.1 Properties of Ionic Compounds
To learn about the properties of ionic Figure 3.7

compounds, let us perform the following Heating a salt sample
Activity: on a spatula
■ Take samples of sodium chloride,

potassium iodide, barium chloride or any
other salt from the science laboratory.
■ What is the physical state of these salts?
■ Take a small amount of a sample on a
metal spatula and heat directly on the
flame (Fig. 3.7). Repeat with other Figure 3.8
samples. Testing the conductivity
■ What did you observe? Did the samples of a salt solution
impart any colour to the flame? Do these
compounds melt? Table 3.4
Melting and boiling points of some
■ Try to dissolve the samples in water, ionic compounds
petrol and kerosene. Are they soluble?
■ Make a circuit as shown in Fig. 3.8 and
insert the electrodes into a solution of one
salt. What did you observe? Test the other
salt samples too in this manner.
NaCl 1074 1686
■ What is your inference about the nature
of these compounds? LiCl 887 1600
CaCl2 1045 1900
CaO 2850 3120
MgCl2 981 1685
100
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( K)
ç<‘eD+ýË –+#á+&. MTsÁT @$T |Ÿ]o*+#sÁT? ‚<û
$<ó Š + >± $TÐ*q \eD qeTÖH\ÔÃ Å£ L &† NaCl 1074 1686
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LiCl 887 1600
■ ‡ dŸ y û T ˆÞø H \ dŸ Ç uó ² e+ >· T ]+º MT¹ s +
}V¾²+#sÁT? CaCl2 1045 1900
CaO 2850 3120
MgCl2 981 1685
101
You may have observed the following

general properties for ionic compounds—
1. (i) Write the electron-dot structures for
(i) Physical nature: Ionic compounds are sodium, oxygen and magnesium.
solids and are somewhat hard because (ii) Show the formation of Na2O and
of the strong force of attraction between MgO by the transfer of electrons.
the positive and negative ions. These (iii) What are the ions present in these
compounds are generally brittle and compounds?
break into pieces when pressure is 2. Why do ionic compounds have high
applied.
?
melting points?
(ii) Melting and Boiling points: Ionic
compounds have high melting and
boiling points (see Table 3.4). This is 3.4 OCCURRENCE OF METALS
because a considerable amount of
energy is required to break the strong The earth’s crust is the major source of
inter-ionic attraction. metals. Seawater also contains some soluble
salts such as sodium chloride, magnesium
(iii) Solubility: Electrovalent compounds chloride, etc. The elements or compounds,
are generally soluble in water and which occur naturally in the earth’s crust, are
insoluble in solvents such as kerosene, known as minerals. At some places, minerals
petrol, etc. contain a very high percentage of a particular
metal and the metal can be profitably extracted
(iv) Conduction of Electricity: The from it. These minerals are called ores.
conduction of electricity through a
solution involves the movement of 3.4.1 Extraction of Metals
charged particles. A solution of an ionic
compound in water contains ions, which You have learnt about the reactivity series of
move to the opposite electrodes when metals. Having this knowledge, you can easily
electricity is passed through the understand how a metal is extracted from its
solution. Ionic compounds in the solid ore. Some metals are found in the earth’s crust
state do not conduct electricity because in the free state. Some are found in the form of
movement of ions in the solid is not their compounds. The metals at the bottom of
possible due to their rigid structure. But the activity series are the least reactive. They
ionic compounds conduct electricity in are often found in a free state. For example,
the molten state. This is possible in the gold, silver, platinum and copper are found in
molten state since the elecrostatic forces the free state. Copper and silver are also found
of attraction between the oppositely in the combined state as their sulphide or oxide
charged ions are overcome due to the ores. The metals at the top of the activity series
heat. Thus, the ions move freely and (K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al) are so reactive that they
conduct electricity. are never found in nature as free elements.
102
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103
Figure 3.9
Activity series and related metallurgy
The metals in the middle of the activity series (Zn,
Fe, Pb, etc.) are moderately reactive. They are
found in the earth’s crust mainly as oxides,
sulphides or carbonates. You will find that the ores
of many metals are oxides. This is because oxygen
is a very reactive element and is very abundant on
the earth.
Thus on the basis of reactivity, we can group the
metals into the following three categories (Fig. 3.9)
– (i) Metals of low reactivity; (ii) Metals of
medium reactivity; (iii) Metals of high reactivity.
Different techniques are to be used for obtaining
the metals falling in each category.
Several steps are involved in the extraction of
pure metal from ores. A summary of these steps is
given in Fig.3.10. Each step is explained in detail in
the following sections.
Figure 3.10
Steps involved in the
extraction of metals from ores
3.4.2 Enrichment of Ores used for removing the gangue from the ore are
Ores mined from the earth are usually based on the differences between the physical
contaminated with large amounts of impurities or chemical properties of the gangue and the
such as soil, sand, etc., called gangue. The ore. Different separation techniques are
impurities must be removed from the ore prior accordingly employed.
to the extraction of the metal. The processes
104
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105
3.4.3 Extracting Metals Low in the Activity Calcination

Series
Metals low in the activity series are very

unreactive. The oxides of these metals can be The metal oxides are then reduced to the
reduced to metals by heating alone. For corresponding metals by using suitable
example, cinnabar (HgS) is an ore of mercury. reducing agents such as carbon. For example,
When it is heated in air, it is first converted into when zinc oxide is heated with carbon, it is
mercuric oxide (HgO). Mercuric oxide is then reduced to metallic zinc.
reduced to mercury on further heating.
ZnO(s) + C(s) ® Zn(s) + CO(g)
You are already familiar with the process of

oxidation and reduction explained in the first
Similarly, copper which is found as Cu2S in Chapter. Obtaining metals from their
nature can be obtained from its ore by just compounds is also a reduction process.
heating in air. Besides using carbon (coke) to reduce metal
oxides to metals, sometimes displacement
reactions can also be used. The highly reactive
metals such as sodium, calcium, aluminium,
etc., are used as reducing agents because they
3.4.4 Extracting Metals in the Middle of the can displace metals of lower reactivity from
Activity Series their compounds. For example, when
manganese dioxide is heated with aluminium
The metals in the middle of the activity
powder, the following reaction takes place –
series such as iron, zinc, lead, copper, are
moderately reactive. These are usually present 3MnO2(s) + 4Al(s) ® 3Mn(l) + 2Al2O3(s) + Heat
as sulphides or carbonates in nature. It is easier
to obtain a metal from its oxide, as compared to
its sulphides and carbonates. Therefore, prior to
reduction, the metal sulphides and carbonates
must be converted into metal oxides. The
sulphide ores are converted into oxides by
heating strongly in the presence of excess air.
This process is known as roasting. The
carbonate ores are changed into oxides by
heating strongly in limited air. This process is
known as calcination. The chemical reaction Figure 3.11 Thermit process for joining railway tracks
that takes place during roasting and calcination
Can you identify the substances that are getting
of zinc ores can be shown as follows –
oxidised and reduced?
Roasting These displacement reactions are highly
exothermic. The amount of heat evolved is so large that
106
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107
the metals are produced in the molten state. In fact, the of pure metal is made the cathode. A solution of
reaction of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) with aluminium is the metal salt is used as an electrolyte. The
used to join railway tracks or cracked machine parts.
apparatus is set up as shown in Fig. 3.12. On
This reaction is known as the thermit reaction.
passing the current through the electrolyte, the
Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) ® 2Fe(l) + Al2O3(s) + Heat pure metal from the anode dissolves into
3.4.5 Extracting Metals towards the Top of

the Activity Series
The metals high up in the reactivity series

are very reactive. They cannot be obtained from
their compounds by heating with carbon. For
example, carbon cannot reduce the oxides of
sodium, magnesium, calcium, aluminium, etc.,
to the respective metals. This is because these
metals have more affinity for oxygen than
carbon. These metals are obtained by
electrolytic reduction. For example, sodium, Figure 3.12
magnesium and calcium are obtained by the Electrolytic refining of copper. The electrolyte is a
electrolysis of their molten chlorides. The solution of acidified copper sulphate. The anode is
impure copper, whereas, the cathode is a strip of
metals are deposited at the cathode (the pure copper. On passing electric current, pure
negatively charged electrode), whereas, copper is deposited on the cathode.
chlorine is liberated at the anode (the positively the electrolyte. An equivalent amount of pure
charged electrode). The reactions are – metal from the electrolyte is deposited on the
+ –
cathode. The soluble impurities go into the
At cathode Na + e ® Na solution, whereas, the insoluble impurities
At anode 2Cl– ® Cl2 + 2e– settle down at the bottom of the anode and are
known as anode mud.
Similarly, aluminium is obtained by the
electrolytic reduction of aluminium oxide.
3.4.6 Refining of Metals

1. Define the following terms.
The metals produced by various reduction (i) Mineral
processes described above are not very pure. (ii) Ore
They contain impurities, which must be (iii) Gangue
removed to obtain pure metals. The most 2. Name two metals which are found in
widely used method for refining impure metals nature in the free state.
is electrolytic refining. 3. What chemical process is used for
?
Electrolytic Refining: Many metals, such as obtaining a metal from its oxide?
copper, zinc, tin, nickel, silver, gold, etc., are
refined electrolytically. In this process, the
impure metal is made the anode and a thin strip
108
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109
3.5 CORROSION
You have learnt the following about corrosion ■ Take three test tubes and place clean iron
in Chapter 1 – nails in each of them.
• Silver articles become black after some time
■ Label these test tubes A, B and C. Pour
when exposed to air. This is because it reacts
some water in test tube A and cork it.
with sulphur in the air to form a coating of
silver sulphide. ■ Pour boiled distilled water in test tube B,
• Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in add about 1 mL of oil and cork it. The oil
the air and slowly loses its shiny brown will float on water and prevent the air
surface and gains a green coat. This green from dissolving in the water.
substance is basic copper carbonate. ■ Put some anhydrous calcium chloride in
• Iron when exposed to moist air for a long time test tube C and cork it. Anhydrous
acquires a coating of a brown flaky substance calcium chloride will absorb the
called rust. moisture, if any, from the air. Leave these
Let us find out the conditions under which test tubes for a few days and then observe
iron rusts. (Fig. 3.13).
You will observe that iron nails rust in test

tube A, but they do not rust in test tubes B and C.
In the test tube A, the nails are exposed to both
air and water. In the test tube B, the nails are
exposed to only water, and the nails in test tube
C are exposed to dry air. What does this tell us
about the conditions under which iron articles
rust?
3.5.1 Prevention of Corrosion
The rusting of iron can be prevented by

painting, oiling, greasing, galvanising, chrome
plating, anodising or making alloys.
Galvanisation is a method of protecting
steel and iron from rusting by coating them with
a thin layer of zinc. The galvanised article is
protected against rusting even if the zinc
coating is broken. Can you reason this out?
Alloying is a very good method of
Figure 3.13 improving the properties of a metal. We can get
Investigating the conditions under which iron rusts.
In tube A, both air and water are present. In tube B, the desired properties by this method. For
there is no air dissolved in the water. In tube C, example, iron is the most widely used metal.
the air is dry.
But it is never used in its pure state. This is
because pure iron is very soft and stretches
110
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111
easily when hot. But, if it is mixed with a small

amount of carbon (about 0.05 %), it becomes
hard and strong. When iron is mixed with
nickel and chromium, we get stainless steel,
which is hard and does not rust. Thus, if iron is
mixed with some other substance, its properties
change. In fact, the properties of any metal can
be changed if it is mixed with some other
substance. The substance added may be a metal
or a non-metal. An alloy is a homogeneous
mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a
non-metal. It is prepared by first melting the
primary metal, and then, dissolving the other
elements in it in definite proportions. It is then
cooled to room temperature. Iron pillar at Delhi
The wonder of ancient Indian metallurgy
Pure gold, known as 24 carat gold, is The iron pillar near the Qutub Minar in Delhi
very soft. It is, therefore, not suitable for was built more than 1600 years ago by the
making jewellery. It is alloyed with iron workers of India. They had developed a
either silver or copper to make it hard. process which prevented iron from rusting.
Generally, in India, 22 carat gold is used For its quality of rust resistance it has been
for making ornaments. It means that 22 examined by scientists from all parts of the
parts of pure gold is alloyed with 2 parts world. The iron pillar is 8 m high and weighs
of either copper or silver. 6 tonnes (6000 kg).
If one of the metals is mercury, then the

alloy is known as an amalgam. The electrical 1. Metallic oxides of zinc, magnesium and
conductivity and melting point of an alloy is copper were heated with the following
less than that of pure metals. For example, metals.
brass, an alloy of copper and zinc (Cu and Zn), Zinc oxide
and bronze, an alloy of copper and tin (Cu and Magnesium oxide
Sn), are not good conductors of electricity Copper oxide
whereas copper is used for making electrical
circuits. Solder, an alloy of lead and tin (Pb and
In which cases will you find
Sn), has a low melting point and is used for
displacement reactions taking place?
?
welding electrical wires together.
2. Which metals do not corrode easily?
3. What are alloys?
112
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?
113
■ Elements can be classified as metals and non-metals.

■ Metals are lustrous, malleable, ductile and are good conductors of heat and electricity.
They are solids at room temperature, except mercury which is a liquid.
■ Metals can form positive ions by losing electrons to non-metals.
■ Metals combine with oxygen to form basic oxides. Aluminium oxide and zinc oxide show
the properties of both basic as well as acidic oxides. These oxides are known as amphoteric
oxides.
■ Different metals have different reactivities with water and dilute acids.
■ A list of common metals arranged in order of their decreasing reactivity is known as an
activity series.
■ Metals above hydrogen in the Activity series can displace hydrogen from dilute acids.
■ A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt solution.
■ Metals occur in nature as free elements or in the form of their compounds.
■ The extraction of metals from their ores and then refining them for use is known as
metallurgy.
■ An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a
non-metal.
■ The surface of some metals, such as iron, is corroded when they are exposed to moist air for
a long period of time. This phenomenon is known as corrosion.
■ Non-metals have properties opposite to that of metals. They are neither malleable nor
ductile. They are bad conductors of heat and electricity, except for graphite, which
conducts electricity.
■ Non-metals form negatively charged ions by gaining electrons when reacting with metals.
■ Non-metals form oxides which are either acidic or neutral.
■ Non-metals do not displace hydrogen from dilute acids. They react with hydrogen to form
hydrides.
114

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115
1. Which of the following pairs will give displacement reactions?

(a) NaCl solution and copper metal
(b) MgCl2 solution and aluminium metal
(c) FeSO4 solution and silver metal
(d) AgNO3 solution and copper metal.
2. Which of the following methods is suitable for preventing an iron frying pan from
rusting?
(a) Applying grease
(b) Applying paint
(c) Applying a coating of zinc
(d) All of the above.
3. An element reacts with oxygen to give a compound with a high melting point. This
compound is also soluble in water. The element is likely to be
(a) calcium
(b) carbon
(c) silicon
(d) iron.
4. Food cans are coated with tin and not with zinc because
(a) zinc is costlier than tin.
(b) zinc has a higher melting point than tin.
(c) zinc is more reactive than tin.
(d) zinc is less reactive than tin.
5. You are given a hammer, a battery, a bulb, wires and a switch.
(a) How could you use them to distinguish between samples of metals
and non-metals?
(b) Assess the usefulness of these tests in distinguishing between metals
and non-metals.
6. What are amphoteric oxides? Give two examples of amphoteric oxides.
7. Name two metals which will displace hydrogen from dilute acids, and two metals
which will not.
8. In the electrolytic refining of a metal M, what would you take as the anode, the
cathode and the electrolyte?
116
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117
9. Pratyush took sulphur powder on a spatula and heated it. He collected the gas
evolved by inverting a test tube over it, as shown in figure below.
(a) What will be the action of gas on
(I) dry litmus paper?
(ii) moist litmus paper?
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction taking place.
10. State two ways to prevent the rusting of iron.
11. What type of oxides are formed when non-metals
combine with oxygen?
12. Give reasons
(a) Platinum, gold and silver are used to
make jewellery.
(b) Sodium, potassium and lithium are
stored under oil.
(c) Aluminium is a highly
reactive metal, yet it is used to
make utensils for cooking.
(d) Carbonate and sulphide
ores are usually converted into oxides
during the process of extraction.
13. You must have seen tarnished copper
vessels being cleaned with lemon or
tamarind juice. Explain why these sour
substances are effective in cleaning the vessels.
14. Differentiate between metal and non-metal on the basis of their chemical properties.
15. A man went door to door posing as a goldsmith. He promised to bring back the
glitter of old and dull gold ornaments. An unsuspecting lady gave a set of gold
bangles to him which he dipped in a particular solution. The bangles sparkled like
new but their weight was reduced drastically. The lady was upset but after a futile
argument the man beat a hasty retreat. Can you play the detective to find out the
nature of the solution he had used?
16. Give reasons why copper is used to make hot water tanks and not steel (an alloy of
iron).
118
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119
ANDHRA PRADESH | PHYSICAL SCIENCE : Carbon and its Compounds
O2
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n<ó‘«jáT+ 4
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O2
121
I
n the last Chapter, we came to know many
compounds of importance to us. In this
Chapter we will study about some more
Look at the items that come in the last
column of the above table filled by you – your
teacher will be able to tell you that most of them
interesting compounds and their properties. are made up of compounds of carbon. Can you
Also, we shall be learning about carbon, an think of a method to test this? What would be
element which is of immense significance to the product if a compound containing carbon is
us in both its elemental form and in the burnt? Do you know of any test to confirm this?
combined form. Food, clothes, medicines, books, or many
of the things that you listed are all based on this
versatile element carbon. In addition, all living
structures are carbon based. The amount of
• Make a list of ten things you have carbon present in the earth’s crust and in the
used or consumed since the atmosphere is quite meagre. The earth’s crust
morning. has only 0.02% carbon in the form of minerals
• Compile this list with the lists made (like carbonates, hydrogencarbonates, coal
by your classmates and then sort the and petroleum) and the atmosphere has 0.03%
items into the adjacent Table. of carbon dioxide. In spite of this small amount
• If there are items which are made up of carbon available in nature, the importance of
of more than one material, put them carbon seems to be immense. In this Chapter,
into both the relevant columns of we will know about the properties of carbon
the table. which make carbon so important to us.
4.1 BONDING IN CARBON – THE

COVALENT BOND
In the previous Chapter, we have studied
the properties of ionic compounds. We saw that
ionic compounds have high melting and boiling
points and conduct electricity in solution or in
the molten state. We also
122
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123
saw how the nature of bonding in ionic We know that the reactivity of elements
compounds explains these properties. Let us is explained as their tendency to attain a
now study the properties of some carbon completely filled outer shell, that is, attain
compounds. noble gas configuration. Elements forming
Most carbon compounds are poor ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining
conductors of electricity as we have seen in or losing electrons from the outermost shell. In
Chapter 2. From the data given in Table 4.1 on the case of carbon, it has four electrons in its
the boiling and melting points of the carbon outermost shell and needs to gain or lose four
compounds, we find that these compounds electrons to attain noble gas configuration. If it
have low melting and boiling points as were to gain or lose electrons –
compared to ionic compounds (Chapter 3). We (i) It could gain four electrons forming
4–
can conclude that the forces of attraction C anion. But it would be difficult for the
between the molecules are not very strong. nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten
Since these compounds are largely non- electrons, that is, four extra electrons.
conductors of electricity, we can conclude that (ii) It could lose four electrons forming
the bonding in these compounds does not give C4+cation. But it would require a large amount
rise to any ions. of energy to remove four electrons leaving
behind a carbon cation with six protons in its
Table 4.1
Melting points and boiling points of some compounds nucleus holding on to just two electrons.
of carbon Carbon overcomes this problem by
sharing its valence electrons with other atoms
of carbon or with atoms of other elements. Not
just carbon, but many other elements form
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) 290 391 molecules by sharing electrons in this manner.
The shared electrons ‘belong’ to the outermost
Chloroform (CHCl3) 209 334 shells of both the atoms and lead to both atoms
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) 156 351 attaining the noble gas configuration. Before
going on to compounds of carbon, let us look at
Methane (CH4) 90 111 some simple molecules formed by the sharing
of valence electrons.
The simplest molecule formed in this
manner is that of hydrogen. As you have learnt
In Class IX, we learnt about the earlier, the atomic number of hydrogen is 1.
combining capacity of various elements and Hence hydrogen has one electron in its K shell
how it depends on the number of valence and it requires one more electron to fill the K
electrons. Let us now look at the electronic shell. So two hydrogen atoms share their
configuration of carbon. The atomic number of electrons to form a molecule of hydrogen, H2.
carbon is 6. What would be the distribution of This allows each hydrogen atom to attain the
electrons in various shells of carbon? How
many valence electrons will carbon have?
124
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125
Figure 4.1 A molecule of hydrogen
electronic configuration of the nearest noble

gas, helium, which has two electrons in its K Figure 4.3
Double bond between two oxygen atoms
shell. We can depict this using dots or crosses to
represent valence electrons (Fig. 4.1). Can you now depict a molecule of water
The shared pair of electrons is said to showing the nature of bonding between one
constitute a single covalent bond between the oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms? Does
two hydrogen atoms. A single covalent bond is the molecule have single bonds or double
also represented by a line between the two bonds?
atoms, as shown in Fig. 4.2. What would happen in the case of a diatomic
molecule of nitrogen? Nitrogen has the atomic
number 7. What would be its electronic
configuration and its combining capacity? In
order to attain an octet, each nitrogen atom in a
molecule of nitrogen contributes three
Figure 4.2 Single bond between two hydrogen atoms
electrons giving rise to three shared pairs of
The atomic number of chlorine is 17. electrons. This is said to constitute a triple bond
What would be its electronic configuration and between the two atoms. The electron dot
its valency? Chlorine forms a diatomic structure of N2 and its triple bond can be
molecule, Cl2. Can you draw the electron dot depicted as in Fig. 4.4.
structure for this molecule? Note that only the
valence shell electrons need to be depicted.
In the case of oxygen, we see the
formation of a double bond between two
oxygen atoms. This is because an atom of
oxygen has six electrons in its L shell (the
atomic number of oxygen is eight) and it
requires two more electrons to complete its
octet. So each atom of oxygen shares two
electrons with another atom of oxygen to give Figure 4.4
us the structure shown in Fig. 4.3. The two Triple bond between two nitrogen atoms
electrons contributed by each oxygen atom A molecule of ammonia has the formula
give rise to two shared pairs of electrons. This is NH3. Can you draw the electron dot structure
said to constitute a double bond between the for this molecule showing how all four atoms
two atoms. achieve noble gas configuration? Will the
126
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127
molecule have single, double or triple bonds? four other carbon atoms forming a rigid
Let us now take a look at methane, which is
three-dimensional structure. In graphite,
a compound of carbon. Methane is widely used
as a fuel and is a major component of bio-gas each carbon atom is bonded to three other
and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). It is also carbon atoms in the same plane giving a
one of the simplest compounds formed by hexagonal array. One of these bonds is a
carbon. Methane has a formula CH4. Hydrogen, double-bond, and thus the valency of
as you know, has a valency of 1. Carbon is carbon is satisfied. Graphite structure is
tetravalent because it has four valence formed by the hexagonal arrays being
electrons. In order to achieve noble gas placed in layers one above the other.
configuration, carbon shares these electrons
with four atoms of hydrogen as shown in Fig.
4.5.
The structure of diamond
Figure 4.5
Electron dot structure for methane
Such bonds which are formed by the sharing
of an electron pair between two atoms are
known as covalent bonds. Covalently bonded
molecules are seen to have strong bonds within
The structure of graphite
the molecule, but inter-molecular forces are
weak. This gives rise to the low melting and
boiling points of these compounds. Since the
electrons are shared between atoms and no
charged particles are formed, such covalent
compounds are generally poor conductors of
electricity.
The structure of C-60

Allotropes of carbon Buckminsterfullerene
The element carbon occurs in different
forms in nature with widely varying These two different structures result in
physical properties. Both diamond and diamond and graphite having very different
graphite are formed by carbon atoms, the physical properties even though their
difference lies in the manner in which the chemical properties are the same. Diamond
carbon atoms are bonded to one another. In is the hardest substance known while
diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to graphite is smooth and slippery. Graphite is
128
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129
enables carbon to form a large number of

also a very good conductor of electricity compounds. Two factors noticed in the case of
unlike other non-metals that you studied in carbon are –
the previous Chapter.
Diamonds can be synthesised by subjecting (i) Carbon has the unique ability to form
bonds with other atoms of carbon, giving rise to
pure carbon to very high pressure and
large molecules. This property is called
temperature. These synthetic diamonds are catenation. These compounds may have long
small but are otherwise indistinguishable chains of carbon, branched chains of carbon or
from natural diamonds. even carbon atoms arranged in rings. In
Fullerenes form another class of carbon addition, carbon atoms may be linked by single,
allotropes. The first one to be identified was double or triple bonds. Compounds of carbon,
C-60 which has carbon atoms arranged in which are linked by only single bonds between
the shape of a football. Since this looked the carbon atoms are called saturated
like the geodesic dome designed by the US compounds. Compounds of carbon having
architect Buckminster Fuller, the molecule double or triple bonds between their carbon
was named fullerene. atoms are called unsaturated compounds.
No other element exhibits the property of
catenation to the extent seen in carbon
compounds. Silicon forms compounds with
1.What would be the electron dot structure hydrogen which have chains of upto seven or
of carbon dioxide which has the formula eight atoms, but these compounds are very
CO2? reactive. The carbon-carbon bond is very
2.What would be the electron dot structure strong and hence stable. This gives us the large
of a molecule of sulphur which is made number of compounds with many carbon atoms
up of eight atoms of sulphur? (Hint – The linked to each other.
eight atoms of sulphur are joined
(ii) Since carbon has a valency of four, it is
together in the form of a ring.)
? capable of bonding with four other atoms of
4.2 VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent
element. Compounds of carbon are formed
We have seen the formation of covalent with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur,
bonds by the sharing of electrons in various chlorine and many other elements giving rise to
elements and compounds. We have also seen compounds with specific properties which
the structure of a simple carbon compound, depend on the elements other than carbon
methane. In the beginning of the Chapter, we present in the molecule.
saw how many things we use contain carbon. In
fact, we ourselves are made up of carbon Again the bonds that carbon forms with
compounds. The numbers of carbon most other elements are very strong making
compounds whose formulae are known to these compounds exceptionally stable. One
chemists was recently estimated to be in reason for the formation of strong bonds by
millions! This outnumbers by a large margin carbon is its small size. This enables the
the compounds formed by all the other nucleus to hold on to the shared pairs of
elements put together. Why is it that this electrons strongly. The bonds formed by
property is seen in carbon and no other elements having bigger atoms are much
element? The nature of the covalent bond weaker.
130
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131
Organic compounds
The two characteristic features seen in
carbon, that is, tetravalency and catenation,
put together give rise to a large number of
compounds. Many have the same non-
carbon atom or group of atoms attached to
different carbon chains. These compounds
were initially extracted from natural Figure 4.6 (c)
Electron dot structure of ethane
substances and it was thought that these
carbon compounds or organic compounds The electron dot structure of ethane is shown in
could only be formed within a living Fig. 4.6(c).
system. That is, it was postulated that a Can you draw the structure of propane,
‘vital force’ was necessary for their which has the molecular formula C3H8 in a
synthesis. Friedrich Wöhler disproved this similar manner? You will see that the valencies
in 1828 by preparing urea from ammonium of all the atoms are satisfied by single bonds
cyanate. But carbon compounds, except for between them. Such carbon compounds are
carbides, oxides of carbon, carbonate and called saturated compounds. These compounds
are normally not very reactive.
hydrogencarbonate salts continue to be
However, another compound of carbon and
studied under organic chemistry. hydrogen has the formula C2H4 and is called
ethene. How can this molecule be depicted? We
4.2.1 Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon follow the same step-wise approach as above.
Compounds
Carbon-carbon atoms linked together with a
We have already seen the structure of single bond (Step 1).
methane. Another compound formed between We see that one valency per carbon atom
carbon and hydrogen is ethane with a formula remains unsatisfied (Step 2). This can be
of C2H6. In order to arrive at the structure of satisfied only if there is a double bond between
simple carbon compounds, the first step is to the two carbons (Step 3).
link the carbon atoms together with a single
bond (Fig. 4.6a) and then use the hydrogen
atoms to satisfy the remaining valencies of C—C Step 1
carbon (Fig. 4.6b). For example, the structure
of ethane is arrived in the following steps – Step 2
C—C Step 1
Figure 4.6 (a)
Carbon atoms linked together with a single bond
Three valencies of each carbon atom remain

unsatisfied, so each is bonded to three hydrogen
atoms giving:
Step 3
Step 2
Figure 4.6 (b)

Each carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms
132
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133
necessary between the two carbon atoms in

order to satisfy their valencies? Such
compounds of carbon having double or triple
bonds between the carbon atoms are known as
unsaturated carbon compounds and they are
more reactive than the saturated carbon
compounds.
Figure 4.7 Structure of ethene 4.2.2 Chains, Branches and Rings
The electron dot structure for ethene is In the earlier section, we mentioned the
given in Fig. 4.7. Yet another compound of carbon compounds methane, ethane and
hydrogen and carbon has the formula C2H2 and propane, containing respectively 1, 2 and 3
is called ethyne. Can you draw the electron dot carbon atoms. Such ‘chains’ of carbon atoms
can contain many more carbon atoms. The
structure for ethyne? How many bonds are
names and structures of six of these are given in
Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Formulae and structures of saturated compounds of carbon and hydrogen
1 Methane CH4
2 Ethane C2H6
3 Propane C3H8
4 Butane C4H10
5 Pentane C5H12
6 Hexane C6H14
134
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^jáT>·\s? y{ì yû\úà\qT dŸ+Ôá|¾ï |ŸsÁ#á&†“¿ì Âs+&ƒT 4.2 ýË ‚eÇ‹&†¦sTT.
|Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 4.2 ¿±sÁÒHŽ eT]jáTT ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽ jîTT¿£Ø dŸ+Ôá|Ÿï dŸyûTˆÞøH\ kÍ+¹¿Ü¿±\T eT]jáTT “sˆD²\T
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dŸ+K«
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6 ™V²¹¿àHŽ C6H14
135
But, let us take another look at butane. If we

make the carbon ‘skeleton’ with four carbon
atoms, we see that two different possible Benzene — C6H6
‘skeletons’ are –
C—C—C—C
Figure 4.8 (a) Two possible carbon-skeletons Figure 4.10 Structure of benzene
Filling the remaining valencies with hydrogen All these carbon compounds which contain
gives us – only carbon and hydrogen are called
hydrocarbons. Among these, the saturated
hydrocarbons are called alkanes. The
unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain one or
more double bonds are called alkenes. Those
containing one or more triple bonds are called
Figure 4.8 (b) Complete molecules for two structures
with formula C4H10 alkynes.
We see that both these structures have the 4.2.3 Will you be my Friend?
same formula C4H10. Such compounds with
Carbon seems to be a very friendly element.
identical molecular formula but different
So far we have been looking at compounds
structures are called structural isomers.
containing carbon and hydrogen only. But
In addition to straight and branched carbon
carbon also forms bonds with other elements
chains, some compounds have carbon atoms
such as halogens, oxygen, nitrogen and
arranged in the form of a ring. For example,
sulphur. In a hydrocarbon chain, one or more
cyclohexane has the formula C6H12 and the
hydrogens can be replaced by these elements,
following structure
such that the valency of carbon remains
satisfied. In such compounds, the element
replacing hydrogen is referred to as a
heteroatom. These heteroatoms are also present
(a) in some groups as given in Table 4.3. These
(b) heteroatoms and the group containing these
Figure 4.9 Structure of cyclohexane (a) carbon skeleton confer specific properties to the compound,
(b) complete molecule
regardless of the length and nature of the carbon
chain and hence are called functional groups.
Can you draw the electron dot structure for
Some important functional groups are given in
cyclohexane? Straight chain, branched chain
the Table 4.3. Free valency or valencies of the
and cyclic carbon compounds, all may be
group are shown by the single line. The
saturated or unsaturated. For example,
functional group is attached to the carbon chain
benzene, C6H6, has the following structure –
through this valency by replacing one hydrogen
atom or atoms.
136
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137
Table 4.3 Some functional groups in carbon compounds
Cl/Br Halo- (Chloro/bromo) —Cl, —Br

alkane (substitutes for
hydrogen atom)
Oxygen 1. Alcohol —OH
2. Aldehyde
3. Ketone
4. Carboxylic acid
4.2.4 Homologous Series masses between these pairs (the atomic mass of
You have seen that carbon atoms can be linked carbon is 12 u and the atomic mass of hydrogen
together to form chains of varying lengths. is 1 u)?
These chains can be branched also. In addition, Similarly, take the homologous series for
hydrogen atom or other atoms on these carbon alkenes. The first member of the series is ethene
chains can be replaced by any of the functional which we have already come across in
groups that we saw above. The presence of a Section 4.2.1. What is the formula for ethene?
functional group such as alcohol decides the The succeeding members have the formula
properties of the carbon compound, regardless C3H6, C4H8 and C5H10. Do these also differ by a
of the length of the carbon chain. For example, –CH2– unit?
the chemical properties of CH3OH, C2H5OH, Do you see any relation between the number
C3H7OH and C4H9OH are all very similar. of carbon and hydrogen atoms in these
Hence, such a series of compounds in which the compounds? The general formula for alkenes
same functional group substitutes for hydrogen can be written as CnH2n, where n = 2, 3, 4. Can
in a carbon chain is called a homologous series. you similarly generate the general formula for
Let us look at the homologous series that we alkanes and alkynes?
saw earlier in Table 4.2. If we look at the As the molecular mass increases in any
formulae of successive compounds, say – homologous series, a gradation in physical
CH4 and C2H6 — these differ by a –CH2- unit properties is seen. This is because the melting
C2H6 and C3H8 — these differ by a –CH2- unit and boiling points increase with increasing
What is the difference between the next pair – molecular mass. Other physical properties such
propane and butane (C4H10)? as solubility in a particular solvent also show a
Can you find out the difference in molecular
similar gradation. But the chemical properties,
138
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çXâDT\qT dŸeTC²Ôá çXâDT\T n+{²sÁT.
eTq+ ‚+ÔáÅ£” eTT+<ŠT |Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 4.2ýË bõ+<ŠT|Ÿ]ºq #ûjáT>·\s?
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CH eT]jáTT C H - M{ì eT<óŠ« uóñ<Š+ - CH jáTÖ“{Ù
4 2 6 2
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2 6 3 8 2 eT]jáTT uó²wÓÎuó„eq kÍœH\T ™|sÁT>·TÔsTT. ÿ¿£ “]ÝwŸ¼
Ôá<ŠT|Ÿ] ÈÔá - çbõ|HŽ eT]jáTT ‹Ö«fñHŽ (C4H10) \ eT<óŠ« ç<‘eDìýË ç<‘eD¡jáTÔá e+{ì ‚ÔásÁ uó…Ü¿£ <óŠsˆ\T Å£L&† ‚<û
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‡ ÈÔá\ eT<óŠ« nDT ç<Še«s¥ýË“ Ôû&†qT MTsÁT
139
which are determined solely by the functional of the alcohols taken in Activity 4.2 are
group, remain similar in a homologous series. methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol.
Naming a carbon compound can be done by the
following method –
(i) Identify the number of carbon atoms in
Calculate the difference in the formulae the compound. A compound having three
and molecular masses for (a) CH3OH carbon atoms would have the name propane.
and C2H5OH (b) C2H5OH and C3H7OH, (ii) In case a functional group is present, it is
and (c) C3H7OH and C4H9OH. indicated in the name of the compound with
Is there any similarity in these three? either a prefix or a suffix (as given in Table 4.4).
(iii) If the name of the functional group is to
Arrange these alcohols in the order of
be given as a suffix, and the suffix of the
increasing carbon atoms to get a family.
functional group begins with a vowel a, e, i, o,
Can we call this family a homologous
u, then the name of the carbon chain is modified
series?
by deleting the final ‘e’ and adding the
Generate the homologous series for appropriate suffix. For example, a three-carbon
compounds containing up to four chain with a ketone group would be named in
carbons for the other functional groups the following manner –
given in Table 4.3. Propane – ‘e’ = propan + ‘one’ = propanone.
(iv) If the carbon chain is unsaturated, then
the final ‘ane’ in the name of the carbon chain is
4.2.5 Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds substituted by ‘ene’ or ‘yne’ as given in Table
The names of compounds in a homologous
4.4. For example, a three-carbon chain with a
series are based on the name of the basic carbon
double bond would be called propene and if it
chain modified by a “prefix” “phrase before” or
has a triple bond, it would be called propyne.
“suffix” “phrase after” indicating the nature of
the functional group. For example, the names
140
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4.2.5 ¿±sÁÒHŽ dŸyûTˆÞøH\ HMT¿£sÁDeTT
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çbõ™|ÕHŽ n“ |¾\e‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
141
Table 4.4 Nomenclature of organic compounds
Chloropropane
Prefix-chloro,
1. Halo alkane
bromo, etc.
Bromopropane
2. Alcohol Suffix - ol Propanol
3. Aldehyde Suffix - al Propanal
4. Ketone Suffix - one Propanone
5. Carboxylic acid Suffix - oic acid Propanoic acid
6. Alkenes Suffix - ene Propene
7. Alkynes Suffix - yne Propyne
5. How would you name the following

compounds?
1. How many structural isomers can you (i) CH3—CH2—Br
draw for pentane?
?
2. What are the two properties of carbon (ii)
which lead to the huge number of carbon
compounds we see around us?
3. What will be the formula and electron dot (iii)
structure of cyclopentane?
4. Draw the structures for the following 4 . 3 C H E M I C A L P R O P E RT I E S O F
compounds. CARBON COMPOUNDS
(i) Ethanoic acid (ii) Bromopentane* In this section we will be studying about
(iii) Butanone (iv) Hexanal. some of the chemical properties of carbon
*Are structural isomers possible for compounds. Since most of the fuels we use are
bromopentane? either carbon or its compounds, we shall first
study combustion.
142
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6. €©ØHŽ\T |ŸsÁ|Ÿ<Š+`‡HŽ çbþ|ÓHŽ
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ç|Ÿ Xø• \T 5. úeÚ ‡ ç¿ì+~ dŸyûTˆÞøH\Å£” mý² |sÁT¢ ™|&ƒÔeÚ?

1. ™|+fñHŽÅ£” MTsÁT m“• “sˆD²Ôáˆ¿£ kÍ<ŠXæ«\qT (i) CH3—CH2—Br
^jáT>·\sÁT? (ii)
?
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(iii)
@$T{ì?
3. ™dÕ¿Ã¢ ™|+fñHŽ jîTT¿£Ø b˜ÍsÁTˆý² eT]jáTT m\ç¿±¼HŽ-
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(iii) ‹T«³HÃHŽ (iv) ™V²¿£àHýÙ –|ŸjîÖÐ+#û #ý² ‚+<óŠH\T ¿±sÁÒHŽ ýñ<‘ <‘“ dŸyûTˆÞøH\T
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kÍ<óŠ«yûTH?
143
4.3.1 Combustion the metal plate in Activity 4.3. However,

Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in limiting the supply of air results in incomplete
oxygen to give carbon dioxide along with the combustion of even saturated hydrocarbons
release of heat and light. Most carbon giving a sooty flame. The gas/kerosene stove
compounds also release a large amount of heat used at home has inlets for air so that a
and light on burning. These are the oxidation sufficiently oxygen-rich mixture is burnt to
reactions that you learnt about in the first give a clean blue flame. If you observe the
Chapter – bottoms of cooking vessels getting blackened,
it means that the air holes are blocked and fuel
(i) C + O2 ® CO2 + heat and light is getting wasted. Fuels such as coal and
(ii) CH4 + O2 ® CO2 + H2O + heat and light petroleum have some amount of nitrogen and
(iii) CH3CH2OH + O2 ® CO2 + H2O + heat sulphur in them. Their combustion results in the
and light formation of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen
Balance the latter two reactions like you which are major pollutants in the environment.
learnt in the first Chapter.
Why do substances burn with or
without a flame ?
CAUTION: This Activity needs the Have you ever observed either a coal or a
teacher’s assistance. wood fire? If not, the next time you get a
Ta k e s o m e c a r b o n c o m p o u n d s chance, take close note of what happens
(naphthalene, camphor, alcohol) one by when the wood or coal starts to burn. You
one on a spatula and burn them. have seen above that a candle or the LPG in
Observe the nature of the flame and note the gas stove burns with a flame. However,
whether smoke is produced. you will observe the coal or charcoal in an
‘angithi’ sometimes just glows red and
Place a metal plate above the flame. Is gives out heat without a flame. This is
there a deposition on the plate in case of because a flame is only produced when
any of the compounds? gaseous substances burn. When wood or
charcoal is ignited, the volatile substances
present vapourise and burn with a flame in
Light a bunsen burner and adjust the air the beginning.
hole at the base to get different types of A luminous flame is seen when the atoms
flames/presence of smoke. of the gaseous substance are heated and start
to glow. The colour produced by each
When do you get a yellow, sooty flame?
element is a characteristic property of that
When do you get a blue flame? element. Try and heat a copper wire in the
flame of a gas stove and observe its colour.
Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give You have seen that incomplete combustion
a clean flame while unsaturated carbon gives soot which is carbon. On this basis,
compounds will give a yellow flame with lots of what will you attribute the yellow colour of
black smoke. This results in a sooty deposit on a candle flame to?
144
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MTsÁT yîTT<Š{ì n<ó‘«jáT+ýË HûsÁTÌÅ£”q• €¿¡à¿£sÁD #ásÁ«\T. n&ƒT>·T uó²>·+ýË q\¢‹&ƒ³+ >·eT“+ºq³¢sTTÔû >±*
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145
You have learnt about oxidation reactions in

Formation of coal and petroleum the first Chapter. Carbon compounds can be
Coal and petroleum have been formed from
easily oxidised on combustion. In addition to
biomass which has been subjected to
this complete oxidation, we have reactions in
various biological and geological
which alcohols are converted to carboxylic
processes. Coal is the remains of trees,
acids –
ferns, and other plants that lived millions of
years ago. These were crushed into the
earth, perhaps by earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions. They were pressed down by We see that some substances are capable of
layers of earth and rock. They slowly adding oxygen to others. These substances are
decayed into coal. Oil and gas are the known as oxidising agents.
remains of millions of tiny plants and Alkaline potassium permanganate or
animals that lived in the sea. When they acidified potassium dichromate are oxidising
died, their bodies sank to the sea bed and alcohols to acids, that is, adding oxygen to the
were covered by silt. Bacteria attacked the starting material. Hence they are known as
dead remains, turning them into oil and gas oxidising agents.
under the high pressures they were being
subjected to. Meanwhile, the silt was slowly 4.3.3 Addition Reaction
compressed into rock. The oil and gas
seeped into the porous parts of the rock, and Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in
got trapped like water in a sponge. Can you the presence of catalysts such as palladium or
guess why coal and petroleum are called nickel to give saturated hydrocarbons.
fossil fuels? Catalysts are substances that cause a reaction to
occur or proceed at a different rate without the
4.3.2 Oxidation reaction itself being affected. This reaction is
commonly used in the hydrogenation of
vegetable oils using a nickel catalyst. Vegetable
oils generally have long unsaturated carbon
Take about 3 mL of ethanol in a test tube
chains while animal fats have saturated carbon
and warm it gently in a water bath.
chains.
Add a 5% solution of alkaline potassium
permanganate drop by drop to this
solution.
Does the colour of potassium
You must have seen advertisements stating
permanganate persist when it is added
that some vegetable oils are ‘healthy’. Animal
initially?
fats generally contain saturated fatty acids
Why does the colour of potassium which are said to be harmful for health. Oils
permanganate not disappear when containing unsaturated fatty acids should be
excess is added? chosen for cooking.
146
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147
4.3.4 Substitution Reaction good solvent, it is also used in medicines such

as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and many
Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly tonics. Ethanol is also soluble in water in all
unreactive and are inert in the presence of most proportions. Consumption of small quantities
reagents. However, in the presence of sunlight, of dilute ethanol causes drunkenness. Even
chlorine is added to hydrocarbons in a very fast though this practice is condemned, it is a
reaction. Chlorine can replace the hydrogen socially widespread practice. However, intake
atoms one by one. It is called a substitution of even a small quantity of pure ethanol (called
reaction because one type of atom or a group of absolute alcohol) can be lethal. Also, long-term
atoms takes the place of another. A number of consumption of alcohol leads to many health
products are usually formed with the higher problems.
homologues of alkanes.
CH4 + Cl2 ® CH3Cl + HCl (in the presence of

sunlight) Teacher’s demonstration –
Drop a small piece of sodium, about the
size of a couple of grains of rice, into
ethanol (absolute alcohol).
1. Why is the conversion of ethanol to
What do you observe?
ethanoic acid an oxidation reaction?
2. A mixture of oxygen and ethyne is How will you test the gas evolved?
burnt for welding. Can you tell why a
Reactions of Ethanol
mixture of ethyne and air is not used?
(i) Reaction with sodium –
4 . 4 S O M E I M P O RTA N T C A R B O N
? 2Na + 2CH3CH2OH ® 2CH3CH2O– Na+ + H2
(Sodium ethoxide)
Alcohols react with sodium leading to the
evolution of hydrogen. With ethanol, the other
COMPOUNDS – ETHANOL AND product is sodium ethoxide. Can you recall
ETHANOIC ACID which other substances produce hydrogen on
reacting with metals?
Many carbon compounds are invaluable to
us. But here we shall study the properties of two (ii) Reaction to give unsaturated
commercially important compounds – ethanol hydrocarbon: Heating ethanol at 443 K with
and ethanoic acid. excess concentrated sulphuric acid results in
the dehydration of ethanol to give ethene –
4.4.1 Properties of Ethanol
Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature
(refer to Table 4.1 for the melting and boiling
points of ethanol). Ethanol is commonly called The concentrated sulphuric acid can be
alcohol and is the active ingredient of all regarded as a dehydrating agent which removes
alcoholic drinks. In addition, because it is a water from ethanol.
148
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149
How do alcohols affect living beings?
When large quantities of ethanol are consumed, it tends to slow metabolic processes and to
depress the central nervous system. This results in lack of coordination, mental confusion,
drowsiness, lowering of the normal inhibitions, and finally stupor. The individual may feel
relaxed without realising that his sense of judgement, sense of timing, and muscular
coordination have been seriously impaired.
Unlike ethanol, intake of methanol in very small quantities can cause death. Methanol is
oxidised to methanal in the liver. Methanal reacts rapidly with the components of cells. It
coagulates the protoplasm, in much the same way an egg is coagulated by cooking. Methanol
also affects the optic nerve, causing blindness. Ethanol is an important industrial solvent. To
prevent the misuse of ethanol produced for industrial use, it is made unfit for drinking by
adding poisonous substances like methanol to it. Dyes are also added to colour the alcohol blue
so that it can be identified easily. This is called denatured alcohol.
Alcohol as a fuel
Sugarcane plants are one of the most efficient convertors of sunlight into chemical
energy. Sugarcane juice can be used to prepare molasses which is fermented to give alcohol
(ethanol). Some countries now use alcohol as an additive in petrol since it is a cleaner fuel
which gives rise to only carbon dioxide and water on burning in sufficient air (oxygen).
4.4.2 Properties of Ethanoic Acid
Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic Compare the pH of dilute acetic acid
acid and belongs to a group of acids called and dilute hydrochloric acid using both
carboxylic acids. 5-8% solution of acetic acid litmus paper and universal indicator.
in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a Are both acids indicated by the litmus
preservative in pickles. The melting point of test?
pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often
Does the universal indicator show them
freezes during winter in cold climates. This
as equally strong acids?
gave rise to its name glacial acetic acid.
The group of organic compounds called
carboxylic acids are obviously characterised by
their acidic nature. However, unlike mineral
acids like HCl, which are completely ionised,
carboxylic acids are weak acids.
150
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151
Take 1 mL ethanol (absolute alcohol)

and 1 mL glacial acetic acid along with a
few drops of concentrated sulphuric
acid in a test tube.
Warm in a water-bath for at least five
minutes as shown in Fig. 4.11.
Pour into a beaker containing
20-50 mL of water and smell the
resulting mixture. Figure 4.11
Formation of ester
Reactions of ethanoic acid:
(i) Esterification reaction: Esters are most
commonly formed by reaction of an acid and an Set up the apparatus as shown in
alcohol. Ethanoic acid reacts with absolute Chapter 2, Activity 2.5.
ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst to Take a spatula full of sodium carbonate
give an ester – in a test tube and add 2 mL of dilute
ethanoic acid.
What do you observe?
Generally, esters are sweet-smelling Pass the gas produced through freshly
substances. These are used in making perfumes prepared lime-water. What do you
and as flavouring agents. On treating with observe?
sodium hydroxide, which is an alkali, the ester
Can the gas produced by the reaction
is converted back to alcohol and sodium salt of
between ethanoic acid and sodium
carboxylic acid. This reaction is known as
carbonate be identified by this test?
saponification because it is used in the
preparation of soap. Soaps are sodium or Repeat this Activity with sodium
potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acid. hydrogencarbonate instead of sodium
carbonate.
(ii) Reaction with a base: Like mineral (iii) Reaction with carbonates and
acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as hydrogencarbonates: Ethanoic acid reacts with
sodium hydroxide to give a salt (sodium carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to give rise
ethanoate or commonly called sodium acetate) to a salt, carbon dioxide and water. The salt
and water: produced is commonly called sodium acetate.
NaOH + CH3COOH ® CH3COONa + H2O
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 ® 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
How does ethanoic acid react with
carbonates and hydrogencarbonates? CH3COOH + NaHCO3 ® CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Let us perform an activity to find out.
152
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153
1. H o w w o u l d y o u d i s t i n g u i s h
experimentally between an alcohol and
?
a carboxylic acid?
2. What are oxidising agents?
4.5 SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
Take about 10 mL of water each in two

test tubes.
Figure 4.12 Formation of micelles
Add a drop of oil (cooking oil) to both
the test tubes and label them as A and B.
To test tube B, add a few drops of soap
solution.
Now shake both the test tubes This activity demonstrates the effect of soap
vigourously for the same period of time. in cleaning. Most dirt is oily in nature and as
you know, oil does not dissolve in water. The
Can you see the oil and water layers
molecules of soap are sodium or potassium
separately in both the test tubes salts of long-chain carboxylic acids. The ionic-
immediately after you stop shaking end of soap interacts with water while the
them? carbon chain interacts with oil. The soap
molecules, thus form structures called micelles
Leave the test tubes undisturbed for
(see Fig. 4.12) where one end of the molecules
some time and observe. Does the oil is towards the oil droplet while the ionic-end
layer separate out? In which test tube faces outside. This forms an emulsion in water.
does this happen first? The soap micelle thus helps in pulling out the
dirt in water and we can wash our clothes clean
(Fig. 4.13).
Can you draw the structure of the micelle
that would be formed if you dissolve soap in a
hydrocarbon?
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155
Micelles
Soaps are molecules in which the two ends have differing properties, one is hydrophilic,
that is, it interacts with water, while the other end is hydrophobic, that is, it interacts with
hydrocarbons. When soap is at the surface of water, the hydrophobic ‘tail’ of soap will not
be soluble in water and the soap will align along the surface of water with the ionic end in
water and the hydrocarbon ‘tail’ protruding out of water. Inside water, these molecules
have a unique orientation that keeps the hydrocarbon portion out of the water. Thus,
clusters of molecules in which the hydrophobic

tails are in the interior of the cluster and the ionic
ends are on the surface of the cluster. This
formation is called a micelle. Soap in the form of a
micelle is able to clean, since the oily dirt will be
collected in the centre of the micelle. The micelles
stay in solution as a colloid and will not come
together to precipitate because of ion-ion
repulsion. Thus, the dirt suspended in the micelles
is also easily rinsed away. The soap micelles are
large enough to scatter light. Hence a soap solution
appears cloudy.
Figure 4.13 Effect of soap in cleaning
156
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157
Have you ever observed while bathing that

foam is formed with difficulty and an insoluble
Take about 10 mL of distilled water (or substance (scum) remains after washing with
rain water) and 10 mL of hard water water? This is caused by the reaction of soap
(from a tubewell or hand-pump) in with the calcium and magnesium salts, which
separate test tubes. cause the hardness of water. Hence you need to
Add a couple of drops of soap solution use a larger amount of soap. This problem is
to both. overcome by using another class of compounds
called detergents as cleansing agents.
Shake the test tubes vigorously for an
Detergents are generally sodium salts of
equal period of time and observe the
sulphonic acids or ammonium salts with
amount of foam formed.
chlorides or bromides ions, etc. Both have long
In which test tube do you get more hydrocarbon chain. The charged ends of these
foam? compounds do not form insoluble precipitates
In which test tube do you observe a with the calcium and magnesium ions in hard
white curdy precipitate? water. Thus, they remain effective in hard
Note for the teacher: If hard water is not water. Detergents are usually used to make
available in your locality, prepare some shampoos and products for cleaning clothes.
hard water by dissolving
hydrogencarbonates / sulphates /
chlorides of calcium or magnesium in
water. 1. Would you be able to check if water is
hard by using a detergent?
2. People use a variety of methods to
wash clothes. Usually after adding the
Take two test tubes with about 10 mL of soap, they ‘beat’ the clothes on a stone,
hard water in each. or beat it with a paddle, scrub with a
Add five drops of soap solution to one brush or the mixture is agitated in a
and five drops of detergent solution to washing machine. Why is agitation
the other.
necessary to get clean clothes?
Shake both test tubes for the same
period.
Do both test tubes have the same
amount of foam?
?
In which test tube is a curdy solid
formed?
158
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159
■ Carbon is a versatile element that forms the basis for all living organisms and many of
the things we use.
■ This large variety of compounds is formed by carbon because of its tetravalency and the
property of catenation that it exhibits.
■ Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms so that both
can achieve a completely filled outermost shell.
■ Carbon forms covalent bonds with itself and other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen,
sulphur, nitrogen and chlorine.
■ Carbon also forms compounds containing double and triple bonds between carbon
atoms. These carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or
rings.
■ The ability of carbon to form chains gives rise to a homologous series of compounds in
which the same functional group is attached to carbon chains of different lengths.
■ The functional groups such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids
bestow characteristic properties to the carbon compounds that contain them.
■ Carbon and its compounds are some of our major sources of fuels.
■ Ethanol and ethanoic acid are carbon compounds of importance in our daily lives.
■ The action of soaps and detergents is based on the presence of both hydrophobic and
hydrophilic groups in the molecule and this helps to emulsify the oily dirt and hence its
removal.
1. Ethane, with the molecular formula C2H6 has

(a) 6 covalent bonds.
(b) 7 covalent bonds.
(c) 8 covalent bonds.
(d) 9 covalent bonds.
2. Butanone is a four-carbon compound with the functional group
(a) carboxylic acid.
(b) aldehyde.
(c) ketone.
(d) alcohol.
3. While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is getting blackened on the outside, it means that
(a) the food is not cooked completely.
(b) the fuel is not burning completely.
(c) the fuel is wet.
(d) the fuel is burning completely.
160

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161
4. Explain the nature of the covalent bond using the bond formation in CH3Cl.
5. Draw the electron dot structures for
(a) ethanoic acid.
(b) H 2S
(c) propanone.
(d) F2
6. What is an homologous series? Explain with an example.
7. How can ethanol and ethanoic acid be differentiated on the basis of their physical
and chemical properties?
8. Why does micelle formation take place when soap is added to water? Will a micelle
be formed in other solvents such as ethanol also?
9. Why are carbon and its compounds used as fuels for most applications?
10. Explain the formation of scum when hard water is treated with soap.
11. What change will you observe if you test soap with litmus paper (red and blue)?
12. What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial application?
13. Which of the following hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions:
C2H6, C3H8, C3H6, C2H2 and CH4.
14. Give a test that can be used to differentiate between saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
15. Explain the mechanism of the cleaning action of soaps.
I Use molecular model kits to make models of the compounds you have learnt in this
Chapter.
II Take about 20 mL of castor oil/cotton seed oil/linseed oil/soyabean oil in a beaker.
Add 30 mL of 20 % sodium hydroxide solution. Heat the mixture with continuous
stirring for a few minutes till the mixture thickens. Add 5-10 g of common salt to
this. Stir the mixture well and allow it to cool.
You can cut out the soap in fancy shapes. You can also add perfume to the soap before
it sets.
162
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ANDHRA PRADESH | PHYSICAL SCIENCE : Light – Reflection and Refraction
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165
W e see a variety of objects in the world

around us. However, we are unable to
see anything in a dark room. On lighting up the
matter, and light often behaves somewhat
like a stream of particles. This confusion
room, things become visible. What makes about the true nature of light continued for
things visible? During the day, the sunlight some years till a modern quantum theory
helps us to see objects. An object reflects light of light emerged in which light is neither a
that falls on it. This reflected light, when ‘wave’ nor a ‘particle’ – the new theory
received by our eyes, enables us to see things.
reconciles the particle properties of light
We are able to see through a transparent
with the wave nature.
medium as light is transmitted through it. There
are a number of common wonderful
phenomena associated with light such as image In this Chapter, we shall study the phenomena
formation by mirrors, the twinkling of stars, the of reflection and refraction of light using the
beautiful colours of a rainbow, bending of light straight-line propagation of light. These basic
by a medium and so on. A study of the concepts will help us in the study of some of the
properties of light helps us to explore them. optical phenomena in nature. We shall try to
By observing the common optical understand in this Chapter the reflection of light
phenomena around us, we may conclude that by spherical mirrors and refraction of light and
light seems to travel in straight lines. The fact their application in real life situations.
that a small source of light casts a sharp shadow
of an opaque object points to this straight-line 9.1 REFLECTION OF LIGHT
path of light, usually indicated as a ray of light. A highly polished surface, such as a
mirror, reflects most of the light falling on it.
You are already familiar with the laws of
reflection of light.
If an opaque object on the path of light
becomes very small, light has a tendency Let us recall these laws –
to bend around it and not walk in a straight (i) The angle of incidence is equal to the
line – an effect known as the diffraction of angle of reflection, and
light. Then the straight-line treatment of (ii) The incident ray, the normal to the
optics using rays fails. To explain mirror at the point of incidence and the
phenomena such as diffraction, light is reflected ray, all lie in the same plane.
thought of as a wave, the details of which
These laws of reflection are applicable
you will study in higher classes. Again, at
to all types of reflecting surfaces including
the beginning of the 20th century, it
spherical surfaces. You are familiar with the
became known that the wave theory of
formation of image by a plane mirror. What are
light often becomes inadequate for
the properties of the image? Image formed by a
treatment of the interaction of light with
plane mirror is always virtual and erect.
166
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167
The size of the image is equal to that of the of the sphere, is called a concave mirror. A
object. The image formed is as far behind the spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is
mirror as the object is in front of it. Further, the curved outwards, is called a convex mirror. The
image is laterally inverted. How would the schematic representation of these mirrors is
images be when the reflecting surfaces are shown in Fig. 9.1. You may note in these
curved? Let us explore.
diagrams that the back of the mirror is shaded.
You may now understand that the surface
of the spoon curved inwards can be
approximated to a concave mirror and the
■ Take a large shining spoon. Try to surface of the spoon bulged outwards can be
view your face in its curved surface. approximated to a convex mirror.
■ Do you get the image? Is it smaller or Before we move further on spherical
larger?
mirrors, we need to recognise and understand
■ Move the spoon slowly away from
your face. Observe the image. How the meaning of a few terms. These terms are
does it change? commonly used in discussions about spherical
■ Reverse the spoon and repeat the mirrors. The centre of the reflecting surface of a
Activity. How does the image look spherical mirror is a point called the pole. It lies
like now? on the surface of the mirror. The pole is usually
■ Compare the characteristics of the represented by the letter P.
image on the two surfaces.
The curved surface of a shining spoon could be

considered as a curved mirror. The most
commonly used type of curved mirror is the
spherical mirror. The reflecting surface of such
mirrors can be considered to form a part of the
surface of a sphere. Such mirrors, whose
reflecting surfaces are spherical, are called
spherical mirrors. We shall now study about
spherical mirrors in some detail.
9.2 SPHERICAL MIRRORS

The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror
(a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror
may be curved inwards or outwards. A
spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is Figure 9.1
Schematic representation of spherical mirrors;
curved inwards, that is, faces towards the centre the shaded side is non-reflecting.
168
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169
The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror The paper at first begins to burn
forms a part of a sphere. This sphere has a producing smoke. Eventually it may even catch
centre. This point is called the centre of fire. Why does it burn? The light from the Sun is
curvature of the spherical mirror. It is converged at a point, as a sharp, bright spot
represented by the letter C. Please note that the bythe mirror. In fact, this spot of light is the
centre of curvature is not a part of the mirror. It image of the Sun on the sheet of paper. This
lies outside its reflecting surface. The centre of point is the focus of the concave mirror. The
curvature of a concave mirror lies in front of it. heat produced due to the concentration of
However, it lies behind the mirror in case of a sunlight ignites the paper. The distance of this
convex mirror. You may note this in Fig.9.2 (a) image from the position of the mirror gives the
and (b). The radius of the sphere of which the approximate value of focal length of the mirror.
reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a Let us try to understand this observation
part, is called the radius of curvature of the with the help of a ray diagram.
mirror. It is represented by the letter R. You may Observe Fig.9.2 (a) closely. A number of
note that the distance PC is equal to the radius rays parallel to the principal axis are falling on a
of curvature. Imagine a straight line passing concave mirror. Observe the reflected rays.
through the pole and the centre of curvature of a They are all meeting/intersecting at a point on
spherical mirror. This line is called the principal the principal axis of the mirror. This point is
axis. Remember that principal axis is normal to called the principal focus of the concave mirror.
the mirror at its pole. Let us understand an Similarly, observe Fig. 9.2 (b). How are the rays
important term related to mirrors, through an parallel to the principal axis, reflected by a
Activity. convex mirror? The reflected rays appear to
come from a point on the principal axis. This
point is called the principal focus of the convex
mirror. The principal focus is represented by
CAUTION: Do not look at the Sun
the letter F. The distance between the pole and
directly or even into a mirror reflecting the principal focus of a spherical mirror is
sunlight. It may damage your eyes. called the focal length. It is represented by the
■ Hold a concave mirror in your hand letter f.
and direct its reflecting surface
towards the Sun.
■ Direct the light reflected by the mirror
on to a sheet of paper held close to the
mirror. (a)
■ Move the sheet of paper back and
forth gradually until you find on the
paper sheet a bright, sharp spot of
light.
■ Hold the mirror and the paper in the
same position for a few minutes. What
(b)
do you observe? Why?
Figure 9.2
(a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror
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171
The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror

■ Take a concave mirror. Find out its
is by-and-large spherical. The surface, then, has
approximate focal length in the way
a circular outline. The diameter of the reflecting
described above. Note down the value
surface of spherical mirror is called its aperture.
of focal length. (You can also find it
In Fig.9.2, distance MN represents the aperture.
out by obtaining image of a distant
We shall consider in our discussion only such
object on a sheet of paper.)
spherical mirrors whose aperture is much
■ Mark a line on a Table with a chalk.
smaller than its radius of curvature.
Place the concave mirror on a stand.
Is there a relationship between the radius Place the stand over the line such that
of curvature R, and focal length f, of a spherical its pole lies over the line.
mirror? For spherical mirrors of small ■ Draw with a chalk two more lines
apertures, the radius of curvature is found to be parallel to the previous line such that
equal to twice the focal length. We put this as the distance between any two
R = 2f . This implies that the principal focus of a successive lines is equal to the focal
spherical mirror lies midway between the pole length of the mirror. These lines will
and centre of curvature. now correspond to the positions of the
points P, F and C, respectively.
9.2.1 Image Formation by Spherical Remember – For a spherical mirror of
Mirrors small aperture, the principal focus F
You have studied about the image lies mid-way between the pole P and
formation by plane mirrors. You also know the the centre of curvature C.
nature, position and relative size of the images ■ Keep a bright object, say a burning
formed by them. How about the images formed candle, at a position far beyond C.
by spherical mirrors? How can we locate the Place a paper screen and move it in
image formed by a concave mirror for different front of the mirror till you obtain a
positions of the object? Are the images real or sharp bright image of the candle flame
virtual? Are they enlarged, diminished or have on it.
the same size? We shall explore this with an ■ Observe the image carefully. Note
Activity. down its nature, position and relative
size with respect to the object size.
■ Repeat the activity by placing the
candle – (a) just beyond C,
You have already learnt a way of (b) at C, (c) between F and C, (d) at F,
determining the focal length of a concave and (e) between P and F.
mirror. In Activity 9.2, you have seen that ■ In one of the cases, you may not get
the sharp bright spot of light you got on the image on the screen. Identify the
the paper is, in fact, the image of the Sun. position of the object in such a case.
It was a tiny, real, inverted image. You got Then, look for its virtual image in the
the approximate focal length of the mirror itself.
concave mirror by measuring the distance ■ Note down and tabulate your
of the image from the mirror. observations.
172
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173
You will see in the above Activity that the object, an arbitrarily large number of rays
nature, position and size of the image formed emanating from a point could be considered.
by a concave mirror depends on the position of However, it is more convenient to consider
the object in relation to points P, F and C. The only two rays, for the sake of clarity of the ray
image formed is real for some positions of the diagram. These rays are so chosen that it is easy
object. It is found to be a virtual image for a to know their directions after reflection from
certain other position. The image is either the mirror.
magnified, reduced or has the same size, The intersection of at least two reflected
depending on the position of the object. A rays give the position of image of the point
summary of these observations is given for object. Any two of the following rays can be
your reference in Table 9.1. considered for locating the image.
Table 9.1 Image formation by a concave

mirror for different positions of the object
At infinity At the focus F Highly diminished, Real and

point-sized inverted
Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and
inverted
(a)
At C At C Same size Real and
inverted
Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and
inverted
At F At infinity Highly Real and
enlarged inverted
Between P and F Behind the Enlarged Virtual and
mirror erect
9.2.2 Representation of Images Formed by

Spherical Mirrors Using Ray Diagrams
We can also study the formation of images (b)
by spherical mirrors by drawing ray diagrams. Figure 9.3

Consider an extended object, of finite size,
(i) A ray parallel to the principal axis, after
placed in front of a spherical mirror. Each small
reflection, will pass through the principal focus
portion of the extended object acts like a point
in case of a concave mirror or appear to diverge
source. An infinite number of rays originate
fromthe principal focus in case of a convex
from each of these points. To construct the ray
mirror. This is illustrated in Fig.9.3 (a) and (b).
diagrams, in order to locate the image of an
174
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175
(ii) A ray passing through the principal focus

of a concave mirror or a ray which is directed
towards the principal focus of a convex mirror,
after reflection, will emerge parallel to the
principal axis. This is illustrated in Fig.9.4 (a)
and (b). (b)
Figure 9.5
(iv) A ray incident obliquely to the principal

axis, towards a point P (pole of the mirror), on
the concave mirror [Fig. 9.6 (a)] or a convex
(a) mirror [Fig. 9.6 (b)], is reflected obliquely. The
incident and reflected rays follow the laws of
reflection at the point of incidence (point P),
making equal angles with the principal axis.
(b)
(a)
Figure 9.4
(iii) A ray passing through the centre of

curvature of a concave mirror or directed in the
direction of the centre of curvature of a convex
mirror, after reflection, is reflected back along
the same path. This is illustrated in Fig.9.5 (a) (b)
and (b). The light rays come back along the
Figure 9.6
same path because the incident rays fall on the
mirror along the normal to the reflecting Remember that in all the above cases the
surface. laws of reflection are followed. At the point of
incidence, the incident ray is reflected in such a
way that the angle of reflection equals the angle
of incidence.
(a) Image formation by Concave Mirror
Figure 9.7 illustrates the ray diagrams for the
formation of image by a concave mirror for
(a) various positions of the object.
176
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177
Figure 9.7 Ray diagrams for the image formation by a concave mirror
Uses of concave mirrors

Concave mirrors are commonly used in
■ Draw neat ray diagrams for each torches, search-lights and vehicles headlights
position of the object shown in Table to get powerful parallel beams of light. They
9.1. are often used as shaving mirrors to see a larger
■ You may take any two of the rays
image of the face. The dentists use concave
mentioned in the previous section for
mirrors to see large images of the teeth of
locating the image.
patients. Large concave mirrors are used to
■ Compare your diagram with those
concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar
given in Fig. 9.7.
■ Describe the nature, position and furnaces.
relative size of the image formed in (b) Image formation by a Convex Mirror
each case.
■ Tabulate the results in a convenient We studied the image formation by a concave
format. mirror. Now we shall study the formation of
image by a convex mirror.
178
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179
■ Take a convex mirror. Hold it in one

hand.
■ Hold a pencil in the upright position in
the other hand.
■ Observe the image of the pencil in the
mirror. Is the image erect or inverted?
Is it diminished or enlarged? Figure 9.8 Formation of image by a convex mirror
■ Move the pencil away from the mirror
Table 9.2 Nature, position and relative size of
slowly. Does the image become
the image formed by a convex mirror
smaller or larger?
■ Repeat this Activity carefully. State
whether the image will move closer to
or farther away from the focus as the
At infinity At the focus F, Highly diminished, Virtual and
object is moved away from the mirror?
behind the mirror point-sized erect
Between Between P and F, Diminished Virtual and
infinity behind the mirror erect
and the pole P
We consider two positions of the object for of the mirror
studying the image formed by a convex mirror.
First is when the object is at infinity and the You have so far studied the image formation
second position is when the object is at a finite by a plane mirror, a concave mirror and a
distance from the mirror. The ray diagrams for convex mirror. Which of these mirrors will give
the formation of image by a convex mirror for the full image of a large object? Let us explore
these two positions of the object are shown in through an Activity.
Fig.9.8 (a) and (b), respectively. The results are
summarised in Table 9.2.
■ Observe the image of a distant object,
say a distant tree, in a plane mirror.
■ Could you see a full-length image?
■ Try with plane mirrors of different
sizes. Did you see the entire object in
the image?
■ Repeat this Activity with a concave
mirror. Did the mirror show full
length image of the object?
■ Now try using a convex mirror. Did
you succeed? Explain your
observations with reason.
180
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181
You can see a full-length image of a tall 9.2.3 Sign Convention for Reflection by
building/tree in a small convex mirror. One Spherical Mirrors
such mirror is fitted in a wall of Agra Fort facing
Taj Mahal. If you visit the Agra Fort, try to While dealing with the reflection of light
observe the full image of Taj Mahal. To view by spherical mirrors, we shall follow a set of
distinctly, you should stand suitably at the sign conventions called the New Cartesian Sign
terrace adjoining the wall. Convention. In this convention, the pole (P) of
Uses of convex mirrors the mirror is taken as the origin (Fig. 9.9). The
principal axis of the mirror is taken as the x-axis
Convex mirrors are commonly used as
(X’X) of the coordinate system. The
rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles. These
mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle, conventions are as follows –
enabling the driver to see traffic behind him/her (i) The object is always placed to the left of
to facilitate safe driving. Convex mirrors are
the mirror. This implies that the light from
preferred because they always give an erect,
the object falls on the mirror from the left-
though diminished, image. Also, they have a
wider field of view as they are curved outwards. hand side.
Thus, convex mirrors enable the driver to view (ii) All distances parallel to the principal axis
much larger area than would be possible with a
are measured from the pole of the mirror.
plane mirror.
(iii) All the distances measured to the right of
the origin (along + x-axis) are taken as
positive while those measured to the left
of the origin (along – x-axis) are taken as
1. Define the principal focus of a concave
negative.
mirror.
(iv) Distances measured perpendicular to and
2. The radius of curvature of a spherical above the principal axis (along + y-axis)
mirror is 20 cm. What is its focal are taken as positive.
length? (v) Distances measured perpendicular to and
3. Name a mirror that can give an erect below the principal axis (along –y-axis)
are taken as negative.
and enlarged image of an object.
The New Cartesian Sign Convention
4. Why do we prefer a convex mirror as a
?
described above is illustrated in Fig.9.9 for
rear-view mirror in vehicles? your reference. These sign conventions are
applied to obtain the mirror formula and solve
related numerical problems.
182
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Å£”+uó²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD²\ –|ŸjîÖ>±\T eTÖ\_+<ŠTeÚ>± rdŸT¿=+{²eTT (|Ÿ³+ 9.9). <ŠsÁÎD+ jîTT¿£Ø
Å£”+uó²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD²\qT kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± yVŸ²qeTT\ýË ç|Ÿ<ó‘H¿Œ±“• “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ C²«$TÜýË X - n¿£ŒeTT (X’X)>±
yîqT¿£`M¿£ŒD (¹ssYeP«) n<ŠÝeTT\T>± –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT. ç&îÕesY Ôáq rdŸTÅ£”+{²eTT. ‡ kÍ+ç|Ÿ<‘jáÖ\T ç¿ì+~ $<óŠeTT>±
yîqT¿£ –q• ç{²|˜¾¿ù >·eT“dŸÖï dŸTsÁ¿ìŒÔáeTT>± yVŸ²qeTTqT
–+{²sTT.
q&ƒT|ŸÚ³Å£” M\T>± yVŸ²H“¿ì ‚sÁTyîÕ|ŸÚ\ ‡ <ŠsÁÎD²\qT
neTsÁTÌÔsÁT. Å£”+uó²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD²\T m\¢|Ÿð&ƒÖ “{²sÁT>± –q•, (i) edŸTïeÚ m\¢|ŸÚ&ƒÖ <ŠsÁÎDeTTqÅ£” m&ƒeTyîÕ|ŸÚq –+#*.
ºq• ç|ŸÜ_+u²“• @sÁÎsÁTkÍïsTT. ¿£qT¿£ ‚$ nqTÅ£L\yîT®q$. edŸTïeÚ qT+& e#áTÌ ¿±+Ü m&ƒeTyîÕ|ŸÚ qT+& <ŠsÁÎD+™|Õ
M{ì eç¿£Ôá\eTT yî\T|Ÿ* yîÕ|ŸÚqÅ£” –q•+<ŠTq ‚$ mÅ£”Øe <óŠ¿ù
¹¿ŒçÔ“• ¿£*Ð –+{²sTT. dŸeTÔá\ <ŠsÁÎDeTT\ýË ¿£H• Å£”+uó²¿±sÁ |Ÿ&ƒ{²“• ‚~ dŸÖºdŸTï+~.
<ŠsÁÎDeTT\ýË yVŸ²q #óÃ<ŠÅ£”&ƒT mÅ£”Øe ç|Ÿ<ûXæ“• #áÖ#áT³Å£” (ii) ç|Ÿ<ó‘H¿£ŒeTTqÅ£” dŸeÖ+ÔásÁeTT>± –q• n“• <ŠÖs\qT
M\TeÚÔáT+~. <ŠsÁÎD <óŠe+ qT+&û ¿=\y*.
ç|ŸXø•\T (iii) eTÖ\_+<ŠTeÚqÅ£” Å£”&yîÕ|ŸÚq (+X-n¿£Œ+ ~XøýË) ¿=*ºq

n“• <ŠÖs\qT <óŠHÔáˆ¿£+>±qT, eTÖ\_+<ŠTeÚqÅ£”
1. |ŸÚ³¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD+ jîTT¿£Ø ç|Ÿ<ó‘q H_ó“ m&ƒeT yîÕ|ŸÚq (+X-n¿£Œ+ ~XøýË) ¿=*ºq <ŠÖs\qT
“sÁÇº+#á+&? ‹TTD²Ôáˆ¿£+>±qT |Ÿ]>·Dì+#*.
2. ÿ¿£ >ÃÞ²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD+ jîTT¿£Ø eç¿£Ôy«kÍsÁœeTT (iv) ç|Ÿ<ó‘H¿Œ±“¿ì \+‹+>± ™|ÕyîÕ|ŸÚ>± (-Y- n¿£Œ+ ~XøýË)
20 ™d+.MT nsTTÔû Huó„«+ÔásÁ+ m+Ôá? ¿=\e‹&ƒT <ŠÖs\qT <óŠHÔáˆ¿£+>± |Ÿ]>·Dì+#*.
3. “{²ÂsÕq, eBóÝ¿£sÁD+ #î+~q ç|ŸÜ_+u²“• (v) ç|Ÿ<ó‘H¿Œ±“¿ì \+‹+>± ¿ì+~yîÕ|ŸÚ>± (-Y-n¿£Œ+ ~XøýË)
@sÁÎsÁ#á>·\ <ŠsÁÎD+ |sÁT Ôî\Î+&? ¿=\e‹&ƒT <ŠÖs\qT ‹TTD²Ôáˆ¿£+>± |Ÿ]>·Dì+#*.
™|Õq $e]+ºq qÖÔáq ¿±¯¼w¾jáTHŽ dŸ+C²ã kÍ+ç|Ÿ<‘jáT+
4. yVŸ²qeTT\ýË yîqT¿£ M¿£ŒD n<ŠÝ+>± Å£”+uó²¿±sÁ
MT ne>±VŸ²q ¿=sÁÅ£” |Ÿ³+ 9.9 ýË $e]+#á‹&+~.
?
<ŠsÁÎDeTTqT –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïeTT, m+<ŠTÅ£”? <ŠsÁÎDdŸÖçÔáeTTqT s‹³T¼³Å£” eT]jáTT dŸ+‹+~óÔá dŸeTdŸ«\
kÍ<óŠqÅ£” ‡ dŸ+C²ã kÍ+ç|Ÿ<‘jáÖ\T e]ï+|Ÿ#ûjáT‹&ƒÔsTT.
183
the object size. It is expressed as the ratio of the

height of the image to the height of the object. It
is usually represented by the letter m.
I
If h is the height of the object and h is the
height of the image, then the magnification m
produced by a spherical mirror is given by
Height of the image (h ′ )
m=
Height of the object (h )
h′
m= (9.2)
Figure 9.9 h
The New Cartesian Sign Convention for
spherical mirrors The magnification m is also related to the
object distance (u) and image distance (v). It can
9.2.4 Mirror Formula and Magnification be expressed as:
In a spherical mirror, the distance of the h′ v
Magnification (m) = = − (9.3)
object from its pole is called the object distance h u
(u). The distance of the image from the pole of
the mirror is called the image distance (v). You You may note that the height of the object is
already know that the distance of the principal taken to be positive as the object is usually
focus from the pole is called the focal length (f). placed above the principal axis. The height of
There is a relationship between these three the image should be taken as positive for virtual
quantities given by the mirror formula which is images. However, it is to be taken as negative
expressed as for real images. A negative sign in the value of
the magnification indicates that the image is real.
A positive sign in the value of the magnification
1 1 1 indicates that the image is virtual.
+ = (9.1)
v u f
Example 9.1
This formula is valid in all situations for all A convex mirror used for rear-view on an
spherical mirrors for all positions of the object. automobile has a radius of curvature of 3.00 m. If
You must use the New Cartesian Sign a bus is located at 5.00 m from this mirror, find
Convention while substituting numerical the position, nature and size of the image.
values for u, v, f, and R in the mirror formula for
Solution
solving problems.
Radius of curvature, R = + 3.00 m;
Magnification Object-distance, u = – 5.00 m;
Magnification produced by a spherical Image-distance, v = ?
mirror gives the relative extent to which the Height of the image, hI = ?
image of an object is magnified with respect to
184
m&ƒeTyîÕ|ŸÚqTq• edŸTïeÚ
kÍ<ó‘sÁDeTT>± m n¿£ŒsÁ+ÔÃ dŸÖºkÍïsÁT.
|ŸÔáq¿±+Ü ~Xø
edŸTïeÚ mÔáTï h, ç|ŸÜ_+‹ mÔáTï hI nsTTÔû >ÃÞ²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD+
mÔáTï
™|ÕyîÕ|ŸÚ>± <ŠÖsÁ+, ¿£*Ð+#û €esÁÆq+ m qT ç¿ì+~ $<óŠeTT>± Ôî\T|ŸÚÔsÁT.
<ŠÖsÁ+,
m&ƒeTyîÕ|ŸÚ>± Å£”&yîÕ|ŸÚ>±
mÔáTï m= ç|ŸÜ_+‹ mÔáTï ( h ) I
ç¿ì+~yîÕ|ŸÚ>± edŸTïeÚ mÔáTï ( h )

<ŠsÁÎD+ m = h′ (9.2)
h
|Ÿ³+ 9.9 €esÁÆq+ m qT edŸTï<ŠÖsÁ+ (u) ç|ŸÜ_+‹ <ŠÖsÁ+ (v)\ eT<óŠ«
>ÃÞ²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD²\ qÖÔáq ¿±¯¼w¾jáTHŽ dŸ+C²ã kÍ+ç|Ÿ<‘jáT+ dŸ+‹+<óŠ+>± Å£L&† e«¿£ï|ŸsÁTkÍï+.
9.2.4 <ŠsÁÎDdŸÖçÔá+ eT]jáTT €esÁÆq+

€esÁÆq+ (m) = h′
= −
v (9.3)
>ÃÞ²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD²\ýË <ŠsÁÎD<óŠe+ qT+& edŸTïeÚÅ£” >·\ h u
<ŠÖsÁ+qT edŸTï<ŠÖsÁ+(u) n+{²sÁT. <ŠsÁÎD <óŠe+ qT+&
ç|ŸÜ_+‹eTTqÅ£” >·\ <ŠÖsÁ+qT ç|ŸÜ_+‹<ŠÖsÁ+(v) n+{²sÁT. kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± edŸTïeÚqT ç|Ÿ<ó‘H¿£ŒeTTqÅ£” ™|Õ uó²>±q
–+#á&ƒ+ e\q edŸTïeÚ\ mÔáTïqT <óŠHÔáˆ¿£+>± rdŸT¿Ãy*.
<ŠsÁÎD<óŠe+ qT+& ç|Ÿ<ó‘q H_ó¿ì>·\ <ŠÖs“• Huó„«+ÔásÁ+(f)
n+{²sÁ“ MTÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. ‡ eTÖ&ƒT sXø—\ eT<óŠ« dŸ+‹+<óŠ+qT $T<¸‘« ç|ŸÜ_+u²\ mÔáTïqT <óŠHÔáˆ¿£+>± rdŸT¿Ãy*. nsTTÔû,
dŸÖº+#áT <ŠsÁÎD dŸÖçÔá+qT ç¿ì+~ $<óŠ+>± çykÍïsÁT. “È ç|ŸÜ _+u²\ mÔáTïqT ‹TTD²ÔáˆÅ£+>± rdŸT¿Ãy*. €esÁÆq+
$\TeýË ‹TTD²Ôáˆ¿£ dŸ+Èã “È ç|ŸÜ _+u²“• Ôî*jáTCñjáTTqT.
€esÁÆq+ $\TeýË <óŠHÔáˆ¿£ dŸ+Èã $T<ó‘« ç|ŸÜ_+u²“•
1 1 1 dŸÖºdŸTï+~.
+ = (9.1)
v u f –<‘VŸ²sÁD 9.1
ÿ¿£ yîÖ{²sÁT yVŸ²qeTT q+<ŠT ]jáTsY eP« $TçsÁsY>±
‡ dŸÖçÔá+ edŸTïeÚ jîTT¿£Ø n“• kÍœqeTT\Å£” n“• sÁ¿±\ –|ŸjîÖÐ+ºq Å£”+uó²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD+ jîTT¿£Ø eç¿£Ô y«kÍsÁÆ+
>ÃÞ²¿±sÁ <Š s Á Î DeTT\Å£ ” n“• |Ÿ ] d¾ œ Ô á T \ýË e]ï d Ÿ T ï + ~. 3.00 MT. ‡ <ŠsÁÎD+ qT+& ÿ¿£ ‹dŸTà 5.00 MT <ŠÖsÁ+ýË
dŸeTdŸ«\qT kÍ~ó+#á&†“¿ì <ŠsÁÎDdŸÖçÔá+ýË u, v, f, eT]jáTT –q•³T¢ >·T]ï+#á‹&Ôû, ç|ŸÜ_+‹+ jîTT¿£Ø kÍœH“•, \¿£ŒD²“•
R \ dŸ+U²« $\Te\qT ç|ŸÜ¹¿Œ|¾+ºq|ŸÚ&ƒT qÖÔáq ¿±¯¼w¾jáTHŽ eT]jáTT |Ÿ]eÖD²“• ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
dŸ+C²ã kÍ+ç|Ÿ<‘jáÖ“• bÍ{ì+#*. kÍ<óŠq :
eç¿£Ô y«kÍsÁÆ+, R = + 3.00 MT;
€esÁÆq+ edŸTï <ŠÖsÁ+, u = – 5.00 MT;
>ÃÞ²¿±sÁ <Š s Á Î D²\ <‘Çs e#û Ì €esÁ Æ q + nHû ~ ç|ŸÜ_+‹ <ŠÖsÁeTT, v = ?
edŸ T ï | Ÿ ] eÖD+ ¿£ + fñ ç | Ÿ Ü _+‹ |Ÿ ] eÖD+ m+Ôá ç|ŸÜ_+u+ mÔáTï, hI = ?
eBóÝ¿£ÔáyîT®q<Ã Ôî*jáTCñdŸTï+~. €esÁÆq+qT ç|ŸÜ_+‹ mÔáTï
eT]jáTT edŸTïeÚ mÔáTï\ “wŸÎÜï>± e«¿£ï|ŸsÁTkÍïsÁT. B““
185
3.00 m 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Focal length, f = R/2 = + = + 1.50 m (as or, v = f - u = - 15.0 - - 25.0 = - 15.0 + 25.0
2
the principal focus of a convex mirror is behind
the mirror)
1 - 5.0 + 3.0 - 2.0
1 1 1 or, = = or, v = – 37.5 cm
Since + = v 75.0 75.0
v u f
The screen should be placed at 37.5 cm in front
of the mirror. The image is real.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
or, = - = + 1.50 – = + h' v
v f u ( - 5.00) 1.50 5.00 Also, magnification, m = =-
h u
5.00 +1.50
= vh (- 37.5cm) (+4.0 cm)
7.50 or, h ' = – = -
(- 25.0 cm)
u
+7.50
v= 6.50 = + 1.15 m Height of the image, h ' = – 6.0 cm
The image is 1.15 m at the back of the mirror. The image is inverted and enlarged.
h' v 1.15 m
Magnification, m = =- =–
h u - 5.00 m
= + 0.23
1. Find the focal length of a convex
The image is virtual, erect and smaller in size by mirror whose radius of curvature is
a factor of 0.23.
32 cm.
Example 9.2 2. A concave mirror produces three
An object, 4.0 cm in size, is placed at 25.0 cm in times magnified (enlarged) real
front of a concave mirror of focal length 15.0 image of an object placed at 10 cm in
cm. At what distance from the mirror should a
front of it. Where is the image
screen be placed in order to obtain a sharp
?
image? Find the nature and the size of the located?
image.
Solution
Object-size, h = + 4.0 cm;
9.3 REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Object-distance, u = – 25.0 cm;
Focal length, f = –15.0 cm; Light seems to travel along straight-line
Image-distance, v = ? paths in a transparent medium. What happens
Image-size, h ' = ?
when light enters from one transparent medium
From Eq. (10.1):
to another? Does it still move along a straight-
1 1 1 line path or change its direction? We shall recall
+ = some of our day-to-day experiences.
v u f
186
3.00 M
mT 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Huó„«+ÔásÁ+ f = R/2 = + 2 = + 1.50 MT (Å£”+uó²¿±sÁ ýñ<‘ v = f -
u
= - 15.0 - - 25.0 = - 15.0 + 25.0
<ŠsÁÎD ç|Ÿ<ó‘q H_ó <ŠsÁÎDeTTqÅ£” yîqT¿£ yîÕ|ŸÚ –q•+<ŠTq)
- 5.0 + 3.0 - 2.0
‚+¿± 1 + 1 = 1 1
ýñ<‘ v = 75.0 = 75.0 ýñ<‘, v = – 37.5 ™d+.MT
v u f
1 1 1 1
ýñ<‘ 1v = 1f - u1 = + 1.50 – ( - 5.00)
= 1.50
+ 5.00 <ŠsÁÎD+ eTT+<ŠT 37.5 ™d+.MT \ <ŠÖsÁ+ýË ÔîsÁqT –+#*. “È
5.00 +1.50
ç|ŸÜ_+‹+ @sÁÎ&ƒTÔáT+~.
= 7.50
h' v
+7.50 ný²¹>, €esÁÆq+ m = h = - u
v= 6.50 = + 1.15 MT
vh (- 37.5cm)
™d+.MT (+4.0 cm)
™d+.MT
ç|ŸÜ_+‹eTT, <ŠsÁÎD+ yîqT¿£ 1.15 MT <ŠÖsÁ+ýË @sÁÎ&ƒTÔáT+~. ýñ<‘, h ' = – =- (- 25.0 ™dcm)
+.MT
u
h' v 1.15 MT
m ç|ŸÜ_+‹+ mÔáTï h ' = – 6.0 ™d+.MT
€esÁÆqeTT m = h
=-
u
=– MT
- 5.00 m ‚~ Ôá\ç¿ì+<ŠT\T>± –q• eBÆ¿£sÁD+ #î+~q ç|ŸÜ_+‹+
= + 0.23
ç|ŸXø•\T
ç|ŸÜ_+‹eTT, 0.23 €esÁœq+ >·\ ºq•<îÕq, “{²ÂsÕq $T<ó‘«
ç|ŸÜ_+‹+. 1. ÿ¿£ Å£”+uó²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD+ jîTT¿£Ø eç¿£Ô y«kÍsÁÆ+
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 9.2 32 ™d+.MT nsTTÔû <‘“ Huó „ « +Ôá s Á +
15 ™d+.MT Huó„«+ÔásÁ+ >·\ |ŸÚ{²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD+ eTT+<ŠT 25 ¿£qT>=q+&.
™d+.MT <ŠÖsÁ+ýË >·\ edŸTïeÚ jîTT¿£Ø |Ÿ]eÖD+ 4 ™d+.MT 2. ÿ¿£ |ŸÚ{²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD+ eTT+<ŠT 10™d+.MT
nsTTÔû <ŠsÁÎD+ qT+& m+Ôá <ŠÖsÁ+ýË ÔîsÁqT –+ºq|ŸÚ&ƒT, <ŠÖsÁ+ýË edŸTïeÚqT –+ºq|ŸÚ&ƒT edŸTïeÚ ¿£+fñ
dŸÎwŸ¼yîT®q ç|ŸÜ_+‹eTT @sÁÎ&ƒTÔáT+~? ç|ŸÜ_+u \¿£ŒD²“• eTÖ&ƒT Âs³¢ eBóÝ¿£sÁD+ýË “È ç|ŸÜ_+‹+
eT]jáTT |Ÿ]eÖD²“• ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
@sÁÎ&+~. ç|ŸÜ_+‹+ m¿£Ø&ƒ –+~?
kÍ<óŠq :
edŸTï |Ÿ]eÖD+, h = + 4.0 ™d+.MTÑ
edŸTï <ŠÖsÁeTT, u = – 25.0 ™d+.MTÑ
Huó„«+ÔásÁ+, f = –15.0 ™d+.MTÑ
?
9.3 ¿±+Ü eç¿¡uó„eq+
ç|ŸÜ_+‹<ŠÖsÁ+, v = ? ¿±+Ü bÍsÁ<ŠsÁô¿£ jáÖq¿£+ýË dŸsÁÞø ¹sU² eÖsÁZ+ýË
ç|ŸÜ_+u+ |Ÿ]eÖD+, h ' = ? ç|ŸjáÖDìdŸTïq•³T¢ n“|¾dŸTï+~. ¿±+Ü ÿ¿£ bÍsÁ<ŠsÁô¿£ jáÖq¿£+
dŸMT¿£sÁD+ (10.1) qT+& :
qT+& yûs=¿£ bÍsÁ<ŠsÁô¿£ jáÖq¿£+ýË“¿ì ç|ŸjáÖDìdï @$T
1 1 1 ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+~? dŸsÁÞø¹sU² eÖsÁZeTTýËHû ç|ŸjáÖDìdŸTï+<‘ ýñ<‘
+ =
v u f Ôá q ~Xø q T eÖsÁ T ÌÅ£ ” +³T+<‘? eTq+ ¿=“• sÃEy]
nqTuó„y\qT >·TsÁTï #ûdŸTÅ£”+<‘+.
187
You might have observed that the bottom

of a tank or a pond containing water appears to
■ Place a coin at the bottom of a bucket
be raised. Similarly, when a thick glass slab is filled with water.
placed over some printed matter, the letters ■ With your eye to a side above water, try
appear raised when viewed through the glass to pick up the coin in one go. Did you
slab. Why does it happen? Have you seen a succeed in picking up the coin?
■ Repeat the Activity. Why did you not
pencil partly immersed in water in a glass
succeed in doing it in one go?
tumbler? It appears to be displaced at the ■ Ask your friends to do this. Compare
interface of air and water. You might have your experience with theirs.
observed that a lemon kept in water in a glass
tumbler appears to be bigger than its actual size,
when viewed from the sides. How can you ■ Place a large shallow bowl on a Table
and put a coin in it.
account for such experiences? ■ Move away slowly from the bowl. Stop
Let us consider the case of the apparent when the coin just disappears from your
displacement of a pencil, partly immersed in sight.
■ Ask a friend to pour water gently into
water. The light reaching you from the portion the bowl without disturbing the coin.
of the pencil inside water seems to come from a ■ Keep looking for the coin from your
different direction, compared to the part above position. Does the coin becomes visible
water. This makes the pencil appear to be again from your position? How could
this happen?
displaced at the interface. For similar reasons,
the letters appear to be raised, when seen The coin becomes visible again on
through a glass slab placed over it. pouring water into the bowl. The coin appears
slightly raised above its actual position due to
Does a pencil appear to be displaced to the
refraction of light.
same extent, if instead of water, we use liquids
like kerosene or turpentine? Will the letters
appear to rise to the same height if we replace a ■ Draw a thick straight line in ink, over a
sheet of white paper placed on a Table.
glass slab with a transparent plastic slab? You ■ Place a glass slab over the line in such a
will find that the extent of the effect is different way that one of its edges makes an angle
for different pair of media. These observations with the line.
indicate that light does not travel in the same ■ Look at the portion of the line under the
slab from the sides. What do you
direction in all media. It appears that when observe? Does the line under the glass
travelling obliquely from one medium to slab appear to be bent at the edges?
another, the direction of propagation of light in ■ Next, place the glass slab such that it is
the second medium changes. This phenomenon normal to the line. What do you observe
now? Does the part of the line under the
is known as refraction of light. Let us glass slab appear bent?
understand this phenomenon further by doing a ■ Look at the line from the top of the glass
few activities. slab. Does the part of the line, beneath
the slab, appear to be raised? Why does
this happen?
188
ÿ¿£ ú{ìÔÃ “+&q {²«+¿ù ýñ<‘ ¿=\qT jîTT¿£Ø n&ƒT>·T ¿£Ôá«+ 9.7
uó²>·+ ™|Õ¿ì ¿=+Ôá mÔáTïýË ¿£q‹&ƒ³+ MTsÁT >·eT“+º –+{²sÁT. ■ ÿ¿£ HD²“• ú{ìÔÃ “+|¾q ‹Â¿{Ù n&ƒT>·T uó²>·eTTq
¿±ÐÔá+™|Õ sd¾q n¿£Œs\™|Õ ÿ¿£ eT+<ŠbÍ{ì >±E~yîTˆqT –+º –+#á+&.
#áÖdï € n¿£Œs\T ¿±ÐÔá+™|Õ qT+& ¿=+Ôá mÔáTïýË ¿£q‹&ƒÔsTT. ■ MT ¿£+{ì“ ú{ì™|Õ ÿ¿£ yîÕ|ŸÚq –+º, HD²“• ÿ¿£ØkÍ]>±
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9.3.1 Refraction through a Rectangular I

the normal. At O , the light ray has entered from
Glass Slab glass to air, that is, from a denser medium to a
To understand the phenomenon of refraction of rarer medium. The light here has bent away
light through a glass slab, let us do an Activity. from the normal. Compare the angle of
incidence with the angle of refraction at both
refracting surfaces AB and CD.
■ Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing In Fig. 9.10, a ray EO is obliquely incident
board using drawing pins. on surface AB, called incident ray. OOI is the
■ Place a rectangular glass slab over the
refracted ray and OI H is the emergent ray. You
sheet in the middle.
■ Draw the outline of the slab with a may observe that the emergent ray is parallel to
pencil. Let us name the outline as the direction of the incident ray. Why does it
ABCD. happen so? The extent of bending of the ray of
■ Take four identical pins. light at the opposite parallel faces AB (air-glass
■ Fix two pins, say E and F, vertically interface) and CD (glass-air interface) of the
such that the line joining the pins is rectangular glass slab is equal and opposite.
inclined to the edge AB. This is why the ray emerges parallel to the
■ Look for the images of the pins E and F incident ray. However, the light ray is shifted
through the opposite edge. Fix two sideward slightly. What happens when a light
other pins, say G and H, such that these ray is incident normally to the interface of two
pins and the images of E and F lie on a
media? Try and find out.
straight line.
■ Remove the pins and the slab.
■ Join the positions of tip of the pins E and
F and produce the line up to AB. Let EF
meet AB at O. Similarly, join the
positions of tip of the pins G and H and
produce it up to the edge CD. Let HG
I
meet CD at O .
■ Join O and OI. Also produce EF up to P,
as shown by a dotted line in Fig. 9.10.
In this Activity, you will note, the light ray

I
has changed its direction at points O and O .
Note that both the points O and OI lie on
Figure 9.10
surfaces separating two transparent media. Refraction of light through a rectangular glass slab
Draw a perpendicular NN’ to AB at O and
another perpendicular MMI to CD at OI. The Now you are familiar with the refraction of
light ray at point O has entered from a rarer light. Refraction is due to change in the speed of
medium to a denser medium, that is, from air to light as it enters from one transparent medium
glass. Note that the light ray has bent towards to another. Experiments show that refraction of
light occurs according to certain laws.
190
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191
The following are the laws of refraction of to that in vacuum. It reduces considerably in
light. glass or water. The value of the refractive index
for a given pair of media depends upon the
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the
speed of light in the two media, as given below.
normal to the interface of two transparent
media at the point of incidence, all lie in the Consider a ray of light travelling from
same plane. medium 1 into medium 2, as shown in Fig.9.11.
Let v1 be the speed of light in medium 1 and v2
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the be the speed of light in medium 2. The
sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for refractive index of medium 2 with respect to
the light of a given colour and for the given medium 1 is given by the ratio of the speed of
pair of media. This law is also known as light in medium 1 and the speed of light in
Snell’s law of refraction. (This is true for medium 2. This is usually represented by the
angle 0 < i < 90o) symbol n21 . This can be expressed in an
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of equation form as
refraction, then,
Speed of light in medium 1 v1
sin i n21= = (9.5)
= constant (9.4) Speed of light in medium 2 v 2
sin r
This constant value is called the refractive
index of the second medium with respect to the
first. Let us study about refractive index in
some detail.
9.3.2 The Refractive Index
You have already studied that a ray of

light that travels obliquely from one transparent
medium into another will change its direction
in the second medium. The extent of the change Figure 9.11
in direction that takes place in a given pair of
media may be expressed in terms of the
refractive index, the “constant” appearing on By the same argument, the refractive index
the right-hand side of Eq.(9.4). of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 is
represented as n12. It is given by
The refractive index can be linked to an
Speed of light in medium 2 v 2
important physical quantity, the relative speed n12= = (9.6)
Speed of light in medium 1 v1
of propagation of light in different media. It
If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then the
turns out that light propagates with different
refractive index of medium 2 is considered with
speeds in different media. Light travels fastest
8 –1 respect to vacuum. This is called the absolute
in vacuum with speed of 3×10 m s . In air, the
refractive index of the medium. It is simply
speed of light is only marginally less, compared
represented as n2. If c is the speed of light in air
192
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jáÖq¿±\ýË ‡ ~XøýË“ eÖsÁTÎ @ yûTsÁÅ£” ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+~ nHû~ |Ÿ³+ 9.11
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yîTT<Š{ì jáÖq¿£eTTýË ¿±+Ü e& v1
ýË Å£”&yîÕ|ŸÚq #áÖ|Ÿ‹&q d¾œs+¿£eTT.
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eTTK«yî T ® q uó … Ü¿£ s¥ÔÃ eç ¿ ¡ u ó „ e q >· T D¿£ + qT n21= (9.5)
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jáÖq¿£+ 1 nqTq~ XøSq«+ ýñ<‘ >±* nsTTÔû, 2e
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dŸÖº+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~. >±*ýË ¿±+Ü e& C.
193
and v is the speed of light in the medium, then,

the refractive index of the medium nm is given
by The ability of a medium to refract light is
also expressed in terms of its optical density.
Speed of light in air c Optical density has a definite connotation. It
nm = = (9.7)
Speed of light in the medium v is not the same as mass density. We have
been using the terms ‘rarer medium’ and
The absolute refractive index of a medium is ‘denser medium’ in this Chapter. It actually
simply called its refractive index. The means ‘optically rarer medium’ and
refractive index of several media is given in ‘optically denser medium’, respectively.
Table 9.3. From the Table you can know that the When can we say that a medium is optically
refractive index of water, nw = 1.33. This means denser than the other? In comparing two
that the ratio of the speed of light in air and the media, the one with the larger refractive
speed of light in water is equal to 1.33. index is optically denser medium than the
Similarly, the refractive index of crown glass, other. The other medium of lower refractive
ng =1.52. Such data are helpful in many places. index is optically rarer. The speed of light is
However, you need not memorise the data. higher in a rarer medium than a denser
medium. Thus, a ray of light travelling from
Table 9.3 Absolute refractive index of some a rarer medium to a denser medium slows
material media down and bends towards the normal. When
it travels from a denser medium to a rarer
Material
medium, it speeds up and bends away from
Refractive Material Refractive
medium index medium index the normal.
Air 1.0003 Canada 1.53

Balsam
Ice 131 1. A ray of light travelling in air enters
Water 1.33 Rock salt 1.54
Alcohol 1.36
obliquely into water. Does the light ray
Kerosene 1.44 Carbon 1.63 bend towards the normal or away from
disulphide
Fused 1.46 the normal? Why?
quartz Dense 1.65 2. Light enters from air to glass having
flint glass
Turpentine 1.47 refractive index 1.50. What is the speed
oil Ruby 1.71 of light in the glass? The speed of light in
Benzene 1.50
Sapphire 1.77 vacuum is 3 × 108 m s–1.
Crown 1.52 3. Find out, from Table 9.3, the medium
glass Diamond 2.42
having highest optical density. Also find
the medium with lowest optical density.
4. You are given kerosene, turpentine and
Note from Table 9.3 that an optically denser water. In which of these does the light
medium may not possess greater mass density. travel fastest? Use the information given
For example, kerosene having higher refractive
?
in Table 9.3.
index, is optically denser than water, although 5. The refractive index of diamond is 2.42.
its mass density is less than water. What is the meaning of this statement?
194
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nm = = (9.7)
jáÖq¿£+ýË ¿±+Ü e& v ÿ¿£ “]œwŸ¼yîT®q nsÁœ+ –+~. ‚~ ç<Še«s¥ kÍ+ç<ŠÔáÅ£”
dŸeÖq+ ¿±<ŠT. eTqeTT ‡ n<ó‘«jáT+ýË $sÁÞøjáÖq¿£+
jáÖq¿£+ jîTT¿£Ø |ŸsÁeT eç¿¡uó„eq >·TD¿±“• kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± eT]já T T kÍ+ç < Š Ô á s Á já Ö q¿£ + nqT |Ÿ < ‘\qT
eç¿¡uó„eq >·TD¿£+ n+{²sÁT. $$<óŠ jáÖq¿±\ eç¿¡uó„eq –|ŸjîÖÐdŸTïH•+. ydŸïe+>± B“ nsÁÆ+ esÁTdŸ>± <Š¿ù $sÁÞø
>·TD¿£eTT\T |Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 9.3ýË ‚eÇ‹&q$. |Ÿ{ì¼¿£ qT+& ú{ì jáÖq¿£eTT eT]jáTT <Š¿ù kÍ+ç<ŠÔásÁ jáÖq¿£+. ÿ¿£
jîTT¿£Ø eç¿¡uó„eq >·TD¿£+, nw = 1.33. B“ nsÁœ+ >±*ýË ¿±+Ü jáÖq¿£+ eTs=¿£ <‘“ ¿£+fñ <Š¿ù kÍ+ç<ŠÔásÁ jáÖq¿£eT“
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195
9.3.3 Refraction by Spherical Lenses
You might have seen watchmakers

using a small magnifying glass to see tiny parts.
Have you ever touched the surface of a
magnifying glass with your hand? Is it plane
surface or curved? Is it thicker in the middle or
(b)
at the edges? The glasses used in spectacles and
that by a watchmaker are examples of lenses.
Figure 9.12
What is a lens? How does it bend light rays? We
(a) Converging action of a convex lens,
shall discuss these in this section. (b) diverging action of a concave lens
A transparent material bound by two

surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are A lens, either a convex lens or a concave lens,
spherical, forms a lens. This means that a lens is has two spherical surfaces. Each of these
bound by at least one spherical surface. In such surfaces forms a part of a sphere. The centres of
lenses, the other surface would be plane. A lens these spheres are called centres of curvature of
may have two spherical surfaces, bulging the lens. The centre of curvature of a lens is
outwards. Such a lens is called a double convex usually represented by the letter C. Since there
lens. It is simply called a convex lens. It is
are two centres of curvature, we may represent
thicker at the middle as compared to the edges.
them as C1 and C2. An imaginary straight line
Convex lens converges light rays as shown in
Fig. 9.12 (a). Hence convex lenses are also passing through the two centres of curvature of
called converging lenses. Similarly, a double a lens is called its principal axis. The central
concave lens is bounded by two spherical point of a lens is its optical centre. It is usually
surfaces, curved inwards. It is thicker at the represented by the letter O. A ray of light
edges than at the middle. Such lenses diverge through the optical centre of a lens passes
light rays as shown in Fig. 9.12 (b). Such lenses without suffering any deviation. The effective
are also called diverging lenses. A double diameter of the circular outline of a spherical
concave lens is simply called a concave lens. lens is called its aperture. We shall confine our
discussion in this Chapter to such lenses whose
aperture is much less than its radius of
curvature and the two centres of curvatures are
equidistant from the optical centre O. Such
lenses are called thin lenses with small
apertures. What happens when parallel rays of
light are incident on a lens? Let us do an
Activity to understand this.
(a)
196
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(b)
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–<‘VŸ²sÁD\T. ¿£³¿£+ n+fñ @$T{ì? ‚~ ¿±+Ü ¿ìsÁDeTT\qT
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(a)
197
Observe Fig.9.12 (b) carefully. Several

rays of light parallel to the principal axis are
CAUTION: Do not look at the Sun directly falling on a concave lens. These rays, after
or through a lens while doing this Activity refraction from the lens, are appearing to
or otherwise. You may damage your eyes if diverge from a point on the principal axis. This
you do so. point on the principal axis is called the principal
■ Hold a convex lens in your hand. Direct focus of the concave lens.
it towards the Sun.
■ Focus the light from the Sun on a sheet If you pass parallel rays from the opposite
of paper. Obtain a sharp bright image of surface of the lens, you get another principal
focus on the opposite side. Letter F is usually
the Sun.
used to represent principal focus. However, a
■ Hold the paper and the lens in the same
lens has two principal foci. They are
position for a while. Keep observing
represented by F1 and F2. The distance of the
the paper. What happened? Why?
principal focus from the optical centre of a lens
Recall your experience in Activity 9.2. is called its focal length. The letter f is used to
represent the focal length. How can you find the
The paper begins to burn producing focal length of a convex lens? Recall the
smoke. It may even catch fire after a while. Activity 9.11. In this Activity, the distance
Why does this happen? The light from the Sun between the position of the lens and the position
constitutes parallel rays of light. These rays of the image of the Sun gives the approximate
were converged by the lens at the sharp bright focal length of the lens.
spot formed on the paper. In fact, the bright
spot you got on the paper is a real image of the 9.3.4 Image Formation by Lenses
Sun. The concentration of the sunlight at a point Lenses form images by refracting light. How do
generated heat. This caused the paper to burn. lenses form images? What is their nature? Let
us study this for a convex lens first.
Now, we shall consider rays of light
parallel to the principal axis of a lens. What
happens when you pass such rays of light
through a lens? This is illustrated for a convex ■ Ta k e a c o n v e x l e n s . F i n d i t s
lens in Fig.9.12 (a) and for a concave lens in approximate focal length in a way
Fig.9.12 (b). described in Activity 9.11.
■ Draw five parallel straight lines, using
Observe Fig.9.12 (a) carefully. Several
chalk, on a long Table such that the
rays of light parallel to the principal axis are
distance between the successive lines is
falling on a convex lens. These rays, after
equal to the focal length of the lens.
refraction from the lens, are converging to a
■ Place the lens on a lens stand. Place it
point on the principal axis. This point on the
principal axis is called the principal focus of the on the central line such that the optical
lens. Let us see now the action of a concave centre of the lens lies just over the line.
lens.
198
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199
Let us now do an Activity to study the

■ The two lines on either side of the lens nature, position and relative size of the image
correspond to F and 2F of the lens formed by a concave lens.
respectively. Mark them with
appropriate letters such as 2F1, F1, F2
and 2F2, respectively. ■ Take a concave lens. Place it on a
■ Place a burning candle, far beyond 2F1 lens stand.
to the left. Obtain a clear sharp image on ■ Place a burning candle on one side of
a screen on the opposite side of the lens. the lens.
■ Note down the nature, position and ■ Look through the lens from the other
side and observe the image. Try to
relative size of the image. get the image on a screen, if possible.
■ Repeat this Activity by placing object If not, observe the image directly
just behind 2F1, between F1 and 2F1 at through the lens.
F1, between F1 and O. Note down and ■ Note down the nature, relative size
tabulate your observations. and approximate position of the
image.
■ Move the candle away from the lens.
The nature, position and relative size of the Note the change in the size of the
image. What happens to the size of
image formed by convex lens for various
the image when the candle is placed
positions of the object is summarised in Table too far away from the lens.
9.4.
Table 9.4 Nature, position and relative size of The summary of the above Activity is given in
the image formed by a convex lens for various Table 9.5 below.
positions of the object
Table 9.5 Nature, position and relative size of
the image formed by a concave lens for various
positions of the object
At infinity At the focus F2 Highly diminished, Real and inverted

point-sized
Beyond 2F Between F2 and 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At infinity At focus F1 Highly diminished, Virtual

At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted
point-sized and erect
Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
At Focus F1 At infinity Infinitely large or Real and inverted Between infinity Between focus F1 Diminished Virtual and erect
Highly enlarged and and optical centre O
Between P and Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect optical centre O
and optical of the lens of the lens
centre O as the object
200
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201
What conclusion can you draw from this (ii) A ray of light passing through a principal
Activity? A concave lens will always give a focus, after refraction from a convex lens,
virtual, erect and diminished image, will emerge parallel to the principal axis.
irrespective of the position of the object. This is shown in Fig. 9.14 (a). A ray of
light appearing to meet at the principal
9.3.5 Image Formation in Lenses Using Ray focus of a concave lens, after refraction,
Diagrams will emerge parallel to the principal axis.
We can represent image formation by lenses This is shown in Fig.9.14 (b).
using ray diagrams. Ray diagrams will also
help us to study the nature, position and relative
size of the image formed by lenses. For drawing (a)
ray diagrams in lenses, alike of spherical
mirrors, we consider any two of the following
rays –
(i) A ray of light from the object, parallel to (b)
the principal axis, after refraction from a
convex lens, passes through the principal
focus on the other side of the lens, as Figure 9.14
shown in Fig. 9.13 (a). In case of a
concave lens, the ray appears to diverge (iii) A ray of light passing through the optical
from the principal focus located on the centre of a lens will emerge without any
same side of the lens, as shown in Fig. deviation. This is illustrated in Fig.9.15(a)
9.13 (b). and Fig.9.15 (b).
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.15
The ray diagrams for the image formation
in a convex lens for a few positions of the object
are shown in Fig. 9.16. The ray diagrams
(b) representing the image formation in a concave
Figure 9.13 lens for various positions of the object are
shown in Fig. 9.17.
202
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edŸTïeÚ jîTT¿£Ø ¿=“• kÍœH\Å£” Å£”+uó²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿£+ e\q

(b) @sÁÎ&ƒT ç|ŸÜ_+‹eTT\Å£” ¿ìsÁD ºçÔáeTT\T |Ÿ³+ 9.16 ýË
#áÖ|Ÿ‹&q$. edŸTïeÚ jîTT¿£Ø $$<óŠ kÍœH\Å£” |ŸÚ{²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿£+
|Ÿ³+ 9.13 e\q @sÁÎ&ƒT ç|ŸÜ_+u²\ ¿ìsÁDºçÔáeTT\T |Ÿ³eTT 9.17 ýË
#áÖ|Ÿ‹&q$.
203
Figure 9.16 The position, size and the nature of the image formed by
a convex lens for various positions of the object
Figure 9.17 Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a concave lens
204
|Ÿ³+ 9.16 edŸTïeÚ jîTT¿£Ø $$<óŠ kÍœH\Å£” Å£”+uó²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿£+ e\q @sÁÎ&ƒT
ç|ŸÜ_+u\ kÍœq+, |Ÿ]eÖD+ eT]jáTT dŸÇuó²e+.
|Ÿ³+ 9.17 |ŸÚ{²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿£+ e\q @sÁÎ&ƒT ç|ŸÜ_+u dŸÇuó²e+, kÍœq+ eT]jáTT |Ÿ]eÖD+.
205
9.3.6 Sign Convention for Spherical Lenses Magnification produced by a lens is also
related to the object-distance u, and the image-
For lenses, we follow sign convention, similar distance v. This relationship is given by
to the one used for spherical mirrors. We apply
the rules for signs of distances, except that all I
Magnification (m) = h / h = v/u (9.10)
measurements are taken from the optical centre
of the lens. According to the convention, the Example 9.3
focal length of a convex lens is positive and that
of a concave lens is negative. You must take A concave lens has focal length of 15 cm. At
care to apply appropriate signs for the values of what distance should the object from the lens be
I
u, v, f, object height h and image height h . placed so that it forms an image at 10 cm from
the lens? Also, find the magnification produced
by the lens.
9.3.7 Lens Formula and Magnification
Solution
As we have a formula for spherical mirrors, we
also have formula for spherical lenses. This A concave lens always forms a virtual, erect
formula gives the relationship between object- image on the same side of the object.
distance (u), image-distance (v) and the focal Image-distance v = –10 cm;
length (f). The lens formula is expressed as Focal length f = –15 cm;
Object-distance u = ?
1 1 1
− = (9.8)
v u f 1 1 1
Since - =
The lens formula given above is general v u f
and is valid in all situations for any spherical
or, 1 - 1 = 1
lens. Take proper care of the signs of different
u v f
quantities, while putting numerical values for
solving problems relating to lenses. 1 1 1 1 1
= - =- +
u -10 (-15) 10 15
Magnification 1
1
The magnification produced by a lens, similar = -3+2 =
u 30 -30
to that for spherical mirrors, is defined as the
or, u = – 30 cm
ratio of the height of the image and the height of
Thus, the object-distance is 30 cm.
the object. Magnification is represented by the
Magnification m = v/u
letter m. If h is the height of the object and hI is
the height of the image given by a lens, then the m = -10cm =
1 @ + 0.33
magnification produced by the lens is given by, -30cm 3
The positive sign shows that the image is erect
Height of the Image h ′
m= = (9.9) and virtual. The image is one-third of the size of
Height of the object h
the object.
206
9.3.6 >ÃÞ²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿±\Å£” dŸ+C²ã kÍ+ç|Ÿ<‘jáT+ >ÃÞ²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿£+ €esÁÆq+qT edŸTï<ŠÖsÁ+ u, ç|ŸÜ_+‹ <ŠÖsÁ+ v
>ÃÞ²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD²\ýË dŸ+C²ã kÍ+ç|Ÿ<‘jáT+ bÍ{ì+ºq³T¢>±Hû \eT<óŠ« dŸ+‹+<óŠ+>± Å£L&† e«¿£ï|ŸsÁTkÍïsÁT.
>ÃÞ²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿±\Å£” Å£L&† bÍ{ìkÍï+. <ŠÖsÁeTT\Å£” dŸ+Cã\qT
I
nqTe]ï+|Ÿ#ûkÍï+.¿±ú n“• <ŠÖs\qT ¿£³¿£ <Š¿ù¹¿+ç<ŠeTT €esÁÆq+ (m) = h / h = v/u (9.10)
qT+& ¿=\y*. dŸ+C²ã kÍ+ç|Ÿ<‘jáT+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+, Å£”+uó²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿£
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eV¾²+#*. ¿£³¿£+ qT+& m+Ôá <ŠÖsÁ+ýË –+#*? ç|ŸÜ_+‹+ jîTT¿£Ø
9.3.7 ¿£³¿£dŸÖçÔá+ eT]jáTT €esÁÆq+ €esÁÆH“• Å£L&† ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
>ÃÞ²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎDeTT\ dŸÖçÔá+ eýÉ eTqÅ£” >ÃÞ²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿±\Å£” kÍ<óŠq :
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edŸTïeÚ –q• yîÕ|ŸÚHû @sÁÎsÁTdŸTï+~.
dŸ+‹+<ó‘“• dŸÖºdŸTï+~. ¿£³¿£dŸÖçÔáeTTqT ‚ý² e«¿£ï|ŸsÁTkÍïsÁT.
ç|ŸÜ_+‹<ŠÖsÁ+ v R `10 ™d+.MT.
1 1 1 Huó„«+ÔásÁ+ f R ` 15 ™d+.MT.
− = (9.8)
v u f edŸTï <ŠÖsÁ+ u R ?
™|Õq ‚eÇ‹&q ¿£³¿£dŸÖçÔá+ kÍ<ó‘sÁDyîT®q~ eT]jáTT @
¿£qT¿£ 1 - 1 = 1
>ÃÞ²¿£sÁ ¿£³¿£eTTqÅ£” nsTTH n“• dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\ýË #î\T¢u²³T v u f
neÚÔá T +~. ¿£ ³ ¿£ e TT\Å£ ” dŸ + ‹+~ó + ºq dŸ e TdŸ « \qT
kÍ~ó+#áTq|ŸÚ&ƒT $$<óŠ uó…Ü¿£sXø—\ dŸ+U²«$\Te\ eTT+<ŠT 1 1 1
Ôá>·T dŸ+Èã\T –+&ƒTq³T¢ C²ç>·Ôáï eV¾²+#*. ýñ<‘, u - v = f
1 1 1 1 1
€esÁÆq+ = - =- +
u -10 (-15) 10 15
>ÃÞ²¿±sÁ <ŠsÁÎD²\ eýÉ >ÃÞ²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿±\ e\¢ @sÁÎ&û €esÁÆH“•, 1
1
ç|ŸÜ_+‹ mÔáTï eT]jáTT edŸTïeÚ mÔáTï\ “wŸÎÜï>± “sÁÇºkÍïsÁT. = -3+2 =
u 30 -30
B““ kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± m nqT n¿£ŒsÁeTTÔÃ dŸÖºkÍïsÁT. edŸTïeÚ
mÔáTï h ç|ŸÜ_+‹+ mÔáTï hI nsTTÔû, >ÃÞ²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿£+ jîTT¿£Ø ýñ<‘, u = – 30 ™d+.MT.
€esÁÆq+ m qT ç¿ì+~ $<óŠ+>± Ôî\T|ŸÚÔsÁT. n+<ŠTe\q, edŸTïeÚ <ŠÖsÁ+ 30 ™d+.MT.
€esÁÆq+ m = v/u
ç|ŸÜ_+‹ mÔáTï h′ -10™d+.MT = 1 @ + 0.33
m= = (9.9) m=
edŸTïeÚ mÔáTï h -30™d+.MT 3
ç|ŸÜ_+‹ “{²sÁT eT]jáTT $T<ó‘« ç|ŸÜ_+‹eTT nqT $wŸjáÖ“•
<óŠq dŸ+Cã Ôî*jáTCñdŸTï+~. ç|ŸÜ_+‹+ edŸTï |Ÿ]eÖD+ýË
eTÖ&ƒe e+ÔáT –+³T+~.
207
Example 9.4 The negative signs of m and h I show that the

A 2.0 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to image is inverted and real. It is formed below
the principal axis of a convex lens of focal the principal axis. Thus, a real, inverted image,
4 cm tall, is formed at a distance of 30 cm on the
length 10 cm. The distance of the object from
other side of the lens. The image is two times
the lens is 15 cm. Find the nature, position and enlarged.
size of the image. Also find its magnification.
Solution 9.3.8 Power of a Lens
Height of the object h = + 2.0 cm; You have already learnt that the ability of a lens
Focal length f = + 10 cm; to converge or diverge light rays depends on its
object-distance u = –15 cm; focal length. For example, a convex lens of
Image-distance v = ? short focal length bends the light rays through
Height of the image hI = ? large angles, by focussing them closer to the
optical centre. Similarly, concave lens of very
1 1 1 short focal length causes higher divergence
Since - = than the one with longer focal length. The
v u f degree of convergence or divergence of light
rays achieved by a lens is expressed in terms of
1 1 1
or, = + its power. The power of a lens is defined as the
v u f reciprocal of its focal length. It is represented
1 1 1 1 1 by the letter P. The power P of a lens of focal
= + =- +
v (-15) 10 15 10 length f is given by
1 1
= -2+3 = 1
v 30 30 P= (9.11)
f
or, v = +30 cm
The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’.
The positive sign of v shows that the image is
It is denoted by the letter D. If f is expressed in
formed at a distance of 30 cm on the other side
metres, then, power is expressed in dioptres.
of the optical centre. The image is real and
Thus, 1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose
inverted. –1
focal length is 1 metre. 1D = 1m . You may note
hI v that the power of a convex lens is positive and
Magnification m = =
h u that of a concave lens is negative.
I Opticians prescribe corrective lenses
or, h = h (v / u)
indicating their powers. Let us say the lens
Height of the image, hI= (2.0) (+30/–15) = – 4.0 cm prescribed has power equal to + 2.0 D. This
means the lens prescribed is convex. The focal
Magnification m = v/u length of the lens is + 0.50 m. Similarly, a lens
+30 cm = -2 of power – 2.5 D has a focal length of – 0.40 m.
or, m= The lens is concave.
-15 cm
208
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I
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Huó„«+ÔásÁ+ f R 10 ™d+.MT Ñ
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edŸTï <ŠÖsÁ+ u R ` 15 ™d+.MT Ñ
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|ŸÚ{²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿£+ ¿£+fñ n~ó¿£ $¹¿+çB¿£sÁD²“• ¿£*ÐdŸTï+~. ÿ¿£
1 1 1 ¿£³¿£+ e\¢ bõ+<û ¿±+Ü ¿ìsÁD²\ ýñ<‘ $¹¿+çB¿£sÁD kÍœsTT“
¿£qT¿£ - =
v u f ¿£³¿£+ jîTT¿£Ø kÍeTsÁÆ«+>± e«¿£ï+ #ûkÍïsÁT. ¿£³¿£ Huó„«+ÔásÁ+
jîTT¿£Ø $ýËeÖ“• ¿£³¿£ kÍeTsÁœ«+>± “sÁÇºkÍïsÁT. B““ P ÔÃ
1 1 1
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v u f <‘Çs e«¿£ï+ #ûkÍïsÁT.
1 1 1 1 1
= + =- +
v (-15) 10 15 10
P=
1 (9.11)
1 1
= -2+3 = f
v 30 30
¿£³¿£ kÍeTsÆ«“¿ì SI ç|ŸeÖD+ »&ƒjáÖ|Ÿ¼sYµ. B““ D ÔÃ
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v jîTT¿£Ø <óŠq dŸ+Èã ç|ŸÜ_+‹eTT <Š¿ù¹¿+ç<‘“¿ì neÔá\ yîÕ|ŸÚq &ƒjáÖ|Ÿ¼sÁ¢ýË e«¿£ï+ #ûkÍïsÁT. ÿ¿£ &ƒjáÖ|Ÿ¼sY kÍeTsÁœ«+ >·\ ¿£³¿£+
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“ÈyîT®q~ eT]jáTT Ôá\ç¿ì+<ŠT\T>± –+³T+~. Å£”+uó²¿±sÁ ¿£³¿£+ jîTT¿£Ø Huó„«+ÔásÁ+ <óŠHÔáˆ¿£+ eT]jáTT
I
h v |Ÿ Ú {²¿±sÁ ¿£ ³ ¿£ + jî T T¿£ Ø Huó „ « +Ôá s Á + ‹TTD²Ôá ˆ ¿£ e T“
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-15 ™d+.MT
209
The simple additive property of the

powers of lenses can be used to design
Many optical instruments consist of a lens systems to minimise certain defects
number of lenses. They are combined to in images produced by a single lens. Such
increase the magnification and sharpness a lens system, consisting of several lenses,
of the image. The net power (P) of the in contact, is commonly used in the design
lenses placed in contact is given by the of lenses of camera, microscopes and
algebraic sum of the individual powers P1, telescopes.
P2, P3, … as
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
The use of powers, instead of focal
lengths, for lenses is quite convenient for
opticians. During eye-testing, an optician
puts several different combinations of 1. Define 1 dioptre of power of a lens.
2. A convex lens forms a real and inverted
corrective lenses of known power, in
image of a needle at a distance of 50 cm
contact, inside the testing spectacles’
from it. Where is the needle placed in
frame. The optician calculates the power
of the lens required by simple algebraic front of the convex lens if the image is
addition. For example, a combination of equal to the size of the object? Also, find
?
two lenses of power + 2.0 D and + 0.25 D the power of the lens.
3. Find the power of a concave lens of focal
is equivalent to a single lens of power
length 2 m.
+ 2.25 D.
■ Light seems to travel in straight lines.

■ Mirrors and lenses form images of objects. Images can be either real or virtual,
depending on the position of the object.
■ The reflecting surfaces, of all types, obey the laws of reflection. The refracting surfaces
obey the laws of refraction.
■ New Cartesian Sign Conventions are followed for spherical mirrors and lenses.
1 1 1
■ Mirror formula, + = , gives the relationship between the object-distance (u),
v u f
image-distance (v), and focal length (f) of a spherical mirror.
■ The focal length of a spherical mirror is equal to half its radius of curvature.
■ The magnification produced by a spherical mirror is the ratio of the height of the image
to the height of the object.
■ A light ray travelling obliquely from a denser medium to a rarer medium bends away
from the normal. A light ray bends towards the normal when it travels obliquely from a
rarer to a denser medium.
210
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211
■ Light travels in vacuum with an enormous speed of 3×108 m s-1. The speed of light is
different in different media.
■ The refractive index of a transparent medium is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum
to that in the medium.
■ In case of a rectangular glass slab, the refraction takes place at both air-glass interface and
glass-air interface. The emergent ray is parallel to the direction of incident ray.
■ Lens formula, 1 - 1 = 1 , gives the relationship between the object-distance (u),
v u f
image-distance (v), and the focal length (f) of a spherical lens.
■ Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length. The SI unit of power of a lens is
dioptre.
1. Which one of the following materials cannot be used to make a lens?

(a) Water (b) Glass (c) Plastic (d) Clay
2. The image formed by a concave mirror is observed to be virtual, erect and
larger than the object. Where should be the position of the object?
(a) Between the principal focus and the centre of curvature
(b) At the centre of curvature
(c) Beyond the centre of curvature
(d) Between the pole of the mirror and its principal focus.
3. Where should an object be placed in front of a convex lens to get a real
image of the size of the object?
(a) At the principal focus of the lens
(b) At twice the focal length
(c) At infinity
(d) Between the optical centre of the lens and its principal focus.
4. A spherical mirror and a thin spherical lens have each a focal length of
–15 cm. The mirror and the lens are likely to be
(a) both concave.
(b) both convex.
(c) the mirror is concave and the lens is convex.
(d) the mirror is convex, but the lens is concave.
5. No matter how far you stand from a mirror, your image appears erect.
The mirror is likely to be
(a) only plane.
(b) only concave.
(c) only convex.
(d) either plane or convex.
212
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213
6. Which of the following lenses would you prefer to use while reading
small letters found in a dictionary?
(a) A convex lens of focal length 50 cm.
(b) A concave lens of focal length 50 cm.
(c) A convex lens of focal length 5 cm.
(d) A concave lens of focal length 5 cm.
7. We wish to obtain an erect image of an object, using a concave mirror of
focal length 15 cm. What should be the range of distance of the object
from the mirror? What is the nature of the image? Is the image larger or
smaller than the object? Draw a ray diagram to show the image formation
in this case.
8. Name the type of mirror used in the following situations.
(a) Headlights of a car.
(b) Side/rear-view mirror of a vehicle.
(c) Solar furnace.
Support your answer with reason.
9. One-half of a convex lens is covered with a black paper. Will this lens
produce a complete image of the object? Verify your answer
experimentally. Explain your observations.
10. An object 5 cm in length is held 25 cm away from a converging lens of
focal length 10 cm. Draw the ray diagram and find the position, size and
the nature of the image formed.
11. A concave lens of focal length 15 cm forms an image 10 cm from the
lens. How far is the object placed from the lens? Draw the ray diagram.
12. An object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from a convex mirror of focal
length 15 cm. Find the position and nature of the image.
13. The magnification produced by a plane mirror is +1. What does this
mean?
14. An object 5.0 cm in length is placed at a distance of 20 cm in front of a
convex mirror of radius of curvature 30 cm. Find the position of the
image, its nature and size.
15. An object of size 7.0 cm is placed at 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of
focal length 18 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be
placed, so that a sharp focussed image can be obtained? Find the size and
the nature of the image.
16. Find the focal length of a lens of power – 2.0 D. What type of lens is this?
17. A doctor has prescribed a corrective lens of power +1.5 D. Find the focal
length of the lens. Is the prescribed lens diverging or converging?
214
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ANDHRA PRADESH | PHYSICAL SCIENCE : The Human Eye and the Colourful World
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217
Y ou have studied in the previous chapter

about refraction of light by lenses. You
also studied the nature, position and relative
distances on the retina. We find a structure
called iris behind the cornea. Iris is a dark
muscular diaphragm that controls the size of
size of images formed by lenses. How can these the pupil. The pupil regulates and controls the
ideas help us in the study of the human eye? The amount of light entering the eye. The eye lens
human eye uses light and enables us to see forms an inverted real image of the object on
objects around us. It has a lens in its structure. the retina. The retina is a delicate membrane
What is the function of the lens in a human eye? having enormous number of light-sensitive
How do the lenses used in spectacles correct cells. The light-sensitive cells get activated
defects of vision? Let us consider these upon illumination and generate electrical
questions in this chapter. signals. These signals are sent to the brain via
We have learnt in the previous chapter the optic nerves. The brain interprets these
about light and some of its properties. In this signals, and finally, processes the information
chapter, we shall use these ideas to study some so that we perceive objects as they are.
of the optical phenomena in nature. We shall
also discuss about rainbow formation, splitting
of white light and blue colour of the sky.
10.1 THE HUMAN EYE
The human eye is one of the most valuable
and sensitive sense organs. It enables us to see
the wonderful world and the colours around us.
On closing the eyes, we can identify objects to
some extent by their smell, taste, sound they
make or by touch. It is, however, impossible to
Figure 10.1 The human eye
identify colours while closing the eyes. Thus, of
all the sense organs, the human eye is the most
10.1.1 Power of Accommodation
significant one as it enables us to see the
beautiful, colourful world around us. The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly-like
material. Its curvature can be modified to some
The human eye is like a camera. Its lens
extent by the ciliary muscles. The change in the
system forms an image on a light-sensitive
curvature of the eye lens can thus change its
screen called the retina. Light enters the eye
focal length. When the muscles are relaxed, the
through a thin membrane called the cornea. It
lens becomes thin. Thus, its focal length
forms the transparent bulge on the front surface
increases. This enables us to see distant objects
of the eyeball as shown in Fig. 10.1. The eyeball
clearly. When you are looking at objects closer
is approximately spherical in shape with a
to the eye, the ciliary muscles contract. This
diameter of about 2.3 cm. Most of the refraction
increases the curvature of the eye lens. The eye
for the light rays entering the eye occurs at the
lens then becomes thicker. Consequently, the
outer surface of the cornea. The crystalline lens
focal length of the eye lens decreases. This
merely provides the finer adjustment of focal
enables us to see nearby objects clearly.
length required to focus objects at different
218
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219
The ability of the eye lens to adjust its (a) Myopia

focal length is called accommodation. Myopia is also known as near-
However, the focal length of the eye lens cannot sightedness. A person with myopia can see
be decreased below a certain minimum limit. nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant
Try to read a printed page by holding it very objects distinctly. A person with this defect has
close to your eyes. You may see the image being the far point nearer than infinity. Such a person
blurred or feel strain in the eye. To see an object may see clearly upto a distance of a few metres.
comfortably and distinctly, you must hold it at In a myopic eye, the image of a distant object is
about 25 cm from the eyes. The minimum formed in front of the retina [Fig. 10.2 (b)] and
distance, at which objects can be seen most not at the retina itself. This defect may arise
distinctly without strain, is called the least due to (i) excessive curvature of the eye lens, or
distance of distinct vision. It is also called the (ii) elongation of the eyeball. This defect can be
near point of the eye. For a young adult with corrected by using a concave lens of suitable
normal vision, the near point is about power. This is illustrated in Fig. 10.2 (c). A
25 cm. The farthest point upto which the eye concave lens of suitable power will bring the
can see objects clearly is called the far point of image back on to the retina and thus the defect
the eye. It is infinity for a normal eye. You may is corrected.
note here a normal eye can see objects clearly
that are between 25 cm and infinity.
Sometimes, the crystalline lens of people
at old age becomes milky and cloudy. This
condition is called cataract. This causes partial
or complete loss of vision. It is possible to
restore vision through a cataract surgery.
10.2 DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR
CORRECTION
Sometimes, the eye may gradually lose
its power of accommodation. In such Figure 10.2
(a), (b) The myopic eye, and (c) correction
conditions, the person cannot see the objects for myopia with a concave lens
distinctly and comfortably. The vision becomes (b) Hypermetropia
blurred due to the refractive defects of the eye.
Hypermetropia is also known as far-
There are mainly three common refractive sightedness. A person with hypermetropia can
defects of vision. These are (i) myopia or near- see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby
sightedness, (ii) Hypermetropia or far- objects distinctly. The near point, for the
sightedness, and (iii) Presbyopia. These person, is farther away from the normal near
defects can be corrected by the use of suitable point (25 cm). Such a person has to keep a
spherical lenses. We discuss below these reading material much beyond 25 cm from the
defects and their correction. eye for comfortable reading. This is because the
220
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221
light rays from a closeby object are focussed at ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of
a point behind the retina as shown in Fig. 10.3 the eye lens. Sometimes, a person may suffer
(b). This defect arises either because (i) the from both myopia and hypermetropia. Such
focal length of the eye lens is too long, or (ii) the people often require bi-focal lenses. A common
eyeball has become too small. This defect can type of bi-focal lenses consists of both concave
be corrected by using a convex lens of and convex lenses. The upper portion consists
appropriate power. This is illustrated in Fig. of a concave lens. It facilitates distant vision.
10.3 (c). Eye-glasses with converging lenses The lower part is a convex lens. It facilitates
provide the additional focussing power near vision.
required for forming the image on the retina. These days, it is possible to correct the
refractive defects with contact lenses or
through surgical interventions.
1. W h a t i s m e a n t b y p o w e r o f
accommodation of the eye?
2. A person with a myopic eye cannot
see objects beyond 1.2 m distinctly.
What should be the type of the
corrective lens used to restore proper
vision?
3. What is the far point and near point of
the human eye with normal vision?
4. A student has difficulty reading the
blackboard while sitting in the last
Figure 10.3
(a), (b) The hypermetropic eye, and
(c) correction for hypermetropia
N = Near point of a
hypermetropic eye.
N’ = Near point of a
row. What could be the defect the
corrected? ?
child is suffering from? How can it be
normal eye.
(c) Presbyopia
The power of accommodation of the eye
usually decreases with ageing. For most
people, the near point gradually recedes away.
You talk of wondrous things you see,
They find it difficult to see nearby objects You say the sun shines bright;
comfortably and distinctly without corrective I feel him warm, but how can he
eye-glasses. This defect is called Presbyopia. Or make it day or night?
It arises due to the gradual weakening of the – C. CIBBER
222
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223
Do you know that our eyes can live even An eye bank collects, evaluates and
after our death? By donating our eyes after distributes the donated eyes. All eyes
we die, we can light the life of a blind donated are evaluated using strict medical
person. standards. Those donated eyes found
About 35 million people in the developing unsuitable for transplantation are used for
world are blind and most of them can be valuable research and medical education.
cured. About 4.5 million people with The identities of both the donor and the
corneal blindness can be cured through recipient remain confidential.
corneal transplantation of donated eyes. One pair of eyes gives vision to up to
Out of these 4.5 million, 60% are children FOUR CORNEAL BLIND PEOPLE.
below the age of 12. So, if we have got the
gift of vision, why not pass it on to
somebody who does not have it? What do 10.3 REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH
we have to keep in mind when eyes have to A PRISM
be donated? You have learnt how light gets refracted
■ Eye donors can belong to any age group through a rectangular glass slab. For parallel
or sex. People who use spectacles, or refracting surfaces, as in a glass slab, the
those operated for cataract, can still emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
donate the eyes. People who are However, it is slightly displaced laterally. How
diabetic, have hypertension, asthma would light get refracted through a transparent
patients and those without prism? Consider a triangular glass prism. It has
communicable diseases can also two triangular bases and three rectangular
donate eyes. lateral surfaces. These surfaces are inclined to
■ Eyes must be removed within 4-6 hours each other. The angle between its two lateral
after death. Inform the nearest eye bank faces is called the angle of the prism. Let us now
immediately. do an activity to study the refraction of light
■ The eye bank team will remove the through a triangular glass prism.
eyes at the home of the deceased or at a
hospital.
■ Eye removal takes only 10-15 minutes. ■ Fix a sheet of white paper on a
It is a simple process and does not lead drawing board using drawing pins.
to any disfigurement. ■ Place a glass prism on it in such a way
■ Persons who were infected with or died that it rests on its triangular base.
because of AIDS, Hepatitis B or C, Trace the outline of the prism using a
rabies, acute leukaemia, tetanus, pencil.
cholera, meningitis or encephalitis ■ Draw a straight line PE inclined to one
cannot donate eyes. of the refracting surfaces, say AB, of
the prism.
224
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225
Here PE is the incident ray, EF is the refracted

■ Fix two pins, say at points P and Q, on
ray and FS is the emergent ray. You may note
the line PE as shown in
that a ray of light is entering from air to glass at
Fig. 10.4.
the first surface AB. The light ray on refraction
■ Look for the images of the pins, fixed
has bent towards the normal. At the second
at P and Q, through the other face AC.
surface AC, the light ray has entered from glass
■ Fix two more pins, at points R and S,
to air. Hence it has bent away from normal.
such that the pins at R and S and the
Compare the angle of incidence and the angle
images of the pins at P and Q lie on the
of refraction at each refracting surface of the
same straight line.
■ Remove the pins and the glass prism. prism. Is this similar to the kind of bending that
■ The line PE meets the boundary of the occurs in a glass slab? The peculiar shape of the
prism at point (see Fig. 10.4). prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle
Similarly, join and produce the points to the direction of the incident ray. This angle is
R and S. Let these lines meet the called the angle of deviation. In this case ÐD is
boundary of the prism at E and F, the angle of deviation. Mark the angle of
respectively. Join E and F. deviation in the above activity and measure it.
■ Draw perpendiculars to the refracting 10.4 DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY
surfaces AB and AC of the prism at A GLASS PRISM
points E and F, respectively. You must have seen and appreciated the
■ Mark the angle of incidence (Ði), the spectacular colours in a rainbow. How could
angle of refraction (Ðr) and the angle the white light of the Sun give us various
of emergence (Ðe) as shown in Fig. colours of the rainbow? Before we take up this
10.4. question, we shall first go back to the refraction
of light through a prism. The inclined refracting
surfaces of a glass prism show exciting
phenomenon. Let us find it out through an
activity.
■ Take a thick sheet of cardboard and

make a small hole or narrow slit in its
middle.
■ Allow sunlight to fall on the narrow
slit. This gives a narrow beam of white
light.
■ Now, take a glass prism and allow the
light from the slit to fall on one of its
faces as shown in Fig. 10.5.
226
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227
violet the most. Thus the rays of each colour

■ Turn the prism slowly until the light emerge along different paths and thus become
that comes out of it appears on a distinct. It is the band of distinct colours that we
nearby screen. see in a spectrum.
■ What do you observe? You will find a
Isaac Newton was the first to use a glass
beautiful band of colours. Why does
prism to obtain the spectrum of sunlight. He
this happen?
tried to split the colours of the spectrum of
white light further by using another similar
The prism has probably split the incident prism. However, he could not get any more
white light into a band of colours. Note the colours. He then placed a second identical
colours that appear at the two ends of the colour prism in an inverted position with respect to the
band. What is the sequence of colours that you first prism, as shown in Fig. 10.6. This allowed
see on the screen? The various colours seen are all the colours of the spectrum to pass through
Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange the second prism. He found a beam of white
and Red, as shown in Fig. 10.5. The acronym light emerging from the other side of the second
VIBGYOR will help you to remember the prism. This observation gave Newton the idea
sequence of colours. The band of the coloured that the sunlight is made up of seven colours.
components of a light beam is called its
spectrum. You might not be able to see all the
colours separately. Yet something makes each
colour distinct from the other. The splitting of
light into its component colours is called
dispersion.
Figure 10.6 Recombination of the spectrum

of white light
Any light that gives a spectrum similar to

that of sunlight is often referred to as white
light.
Figure 10.5 Dispersion of white light by

the glass prism
You have seen that white light is dispersed

into its seven-colour components by a prism.
Why do we get these colours? Different colours
of light bend through different angles with
respect to the incident ray, as they pass through
a prism. The red light bends the least while the Figure 10.7 Rainbow in the sky
228
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A rainbow is a natural spectrum less than that of the cooler air. Since the
appearing in the sky after a rain shower (Fig. physical conditions of the refracting medium
10.7). It is caused by dispersion of sunlight by (air) are not stationary, the apparent position of
tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere. the object, as seen through the hot air,
A rainbow is always formed in a direction fluctuates. This wavering is thus an effect of
opposite to that of the Sun. The water droplets atmospheric refraction (refraction of light by
act like small prisms. They refract and disperse the earth’s atmosphere) on a small scale in our
the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, local environment. The twinkling of stars is a
and finally refract it again when it comes out of
similar phenomenon on a much larger scale.
the raindrop (Fig. 10.8). Due to the dispersion
Let us see how we can explain it.
of light and internal reflection, different colours
reach the observer’s eye.
Twinkling of stars
The twinkling of a star is due to
atmospheric refraction of starlight. The
starlight, on entering the earth’s atmosphere,
undergoes refraction continuously before it
reaches the earth. The atmospheric refraction
occurs in a medium of gradually changing
refractive index. Since the atmosphere bends
starlight towards the normal, the apparent
position of the star is slightly different from its
actual position. The star appears slightly higher
(above) than its actual position when viewed
Figure 10.8 Rainbow formation near the horizon (Fig. 10.9). Further, this
apparent position of the star is not stationary,
but keeps on changing slightly, since the
You can also see a rainbow on a sunny physical conditions of the earth’s atmosphere
day when you look at the sky through a are not stationary, as was the case in the
waterfall or through a water fountain, with the
previous paragraph. Since the stars are very
Sun behind you.
distant, they approximate point-sized sources
10.5 ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION of light. As the path of rays of light coming from
You might have observed the apparent the star goes on varying slightly, the apparent
random wavering or flickering of objects seen position of the star fluctuates and the amount of
through a turbulent stream of hot air rising starlight entering the eye flickers – the star
above a fire or a radiator. The air just above the sometimes appears brighter, and at some other
fire becomes hotter than the air further up. The time, fainter, which is the twinkling effect.
hotter air is lighter (less dense) than the cooler
air above it, and has a refractive index slightly
230
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231
10.6 SCATTERING OF LIGHT

The interplay of light with objects around us
gives rise to several spectacular phenomena in
nature. The blue colour of the sky, colour of
water in deep sea, the reddening of the sun at
sunrise and the sunset are some of the
wonderful phenomena we are familiar with. In
the previous class, you have learnt about the
Figure 10.9
scattering of light by colloidal particles. The
Apparent star position due to path of a beam of light passing through a true
atmospheric refraction solution is not visible. However, its path
Why don’t the planets twinkle? The planets becomes visible through a colloidal solution
are much closer to the earth, and are thus seen as where the size of the particles is relatively
extended sources. If we consider a planet as a larger.
collection of a large number of point-sized 10.6.1 Tyndall Effect
sources of light, the total variation in the
T h e e a r t h ’s a t m o s p h e r e i s a
amount of light entering our eye from all the
heterogeneous mixture of minute particles.
individual point-sized sources will average out
These particles include smoke, tiny water
to zero, thereby nullifying the twinkling effect.
droplets, suspended particles of dust and
Advance sunrise and delayed sunset molecules of air. When a beam of light strikes
The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before such fine particles, the path of the beam
the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the becomes visible. The light reaches us, after
actual sunset because of atmospheric being reflected diffusely by these particles. The
refraction. By actual sunrise, we mean the phenomenon of scattering of light by the
actual crossing of the horizon by the Sun. Fig. colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect
10.10 shows the actual and apparent positions which you have studied in Class IX. This
of the Sun with respect to the horizon. The time phenomenon is seen when a fine beam of
difference between actual sunset and the sunlight enters a smoke-filled room through a
apparent sunset is about 2 minutes. The small hole. Thus, scattering of light makes the
apparent flattening of the Sun’s disc at sunrise particles visible. Tyndall effect can also be
and sunset is also due to the same phenomenon. observed when sunlight passes through a
canopy of a dense forest. Here, tiny water
droplets in the mist scatter light.
The colour of the scattered light depends
on the size of the scattering particles. Very fine
particles scatter mainly blue light while
particles of larger size scatter light of longer
wavelengths. If the size of the scattering
particles is large enough, then, the scattered
Figure 10.10 light may even appear white.
Atmospheric refraction effects at sunrise and sunset
232
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233
10.6.2 Why is the colour of the clear Sky Blue? enters our eyes. If the earth had no atmosphere,
there would not have been any scattering.
The molecules of air and other fine particles
Then, the sky would have looked dark. The
in the atmosphere have size smaller than the
sky appears dark to passengers flying at very
wavelength of visible light. These are more
high altitudes, as scattering is not prominent at
effective in scattering light of shorter
such heights.
wavelengths at the blue end than light of longer
wavelengths at the red end. The red light has a You might have observed that ‘danger’
wavelength about 1.8 times greater than blue signal lights are red in colour. Do you know
light. Thus, when sunlight passes through the why? The red is least scattered by fog or
atmosphere, the fine particles in air scatter the smoke. Therefore, it can be seen in the same
blue colour (shorter wavelengths) more colour at a distance.
strongly than red. The scattered blue light
■ The ability of the eye to focus on both near and distant objects, by adjusting its focal
length, is called the accommodation of the eye.
■ The smallest distance, at which the eye can see objects clearly without strain, is called
the near point of the eye or the least distance of distinct vision. For a young adult with
normal vision, it is about 25 cm.
■ The common refractive defects of vision include myopia, hypermetropia and
presbyopia. Myopia (short-sightedness – the image of distant objects is focussed before
the retina) is corrected by using a concave lens of suitable power. Hypermetropia (far-
sightedness – the image of nearby objects is focussed beyond the retina) is corrected by
using a convex lens of suitable power. The eye loses its power of accommodation at old
age.
■ The splitting of white light into its component colours is called dispersion.
■ Scattering of light causes the blue colour of sky.
1. The human eye can focus on objects at different distances by adjusting the focal
length of the eye lens. This is due to
(a) presbyopia. (b) accommodation.
(c) near-sightedness. (d) far-sightedness.
2. The human eye forms the image of an object at its
(a) cornea. (b) iris. (c) pupil. (d) retina.
3. The least distance of distinct vision for a young adult with normal vision is about
(a) 25 m. (b) 2.5 cm. (c) 25 cm. (d) 2.5 m.
234
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235
4. The change in focal length of an eye lens is caused by the action of the
(a)pupil. (b) retina. (c) ciliary muscles. (d) iris.
5. A person needs a lens of power –5.5 dioptres for correcting his distant vision. For
correcting his near vision he needs a lens of power +1.5 dioptre. What is the focal
length of the lens required for correcting (i) distant vision, and (ii) near vision?
6. The far point of a myopic person is 80 cm in front of the eye. What is the nature and
power of the lens required to correct the problem?
7. Make a diagram to show how hypermetropia is corrected. The near point of a
hypermetropic eye is 1 m. What is the power of the lens required to correct this
defect? Assume that the near point of the normal eye is 25 cm.
8. Why is a normal eye not able to see clearly the objects placed closer than 25 cm?
9. What happens to the image distance in the eye when we increase the distance of an
object from the eye?
10. Why do stars twinkle?
11. Explain why the planets do not twinkle.
12. Why does the sky appear dark instead of blue to an astronaut?
236
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237
ANDHRA PRADESH | PHYSICAL SCIENCE : Electricity
238
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n<ó‘«jáT+ 11
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239
E lectricity has an important place in modern

society. It is a controllable and convenient
form of energy for a variety of uses in homes,
an electric circuit the direction of electric
current is taken as opposite to the direction of
the flow of electrons, which are negative
schools, hospitals, industries and so on. What charges.
constitutes electricity? How does it flow in an If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-
electric circuit? What are the factors that section of a conductor in time t, then the current
control or regulate the current through an I, through the cross-section is
electric circuit? In this Chapter, we shall Q
attempt to answer such questions. We shall also I = (11.1)
t
discuss the heating effect of electric current and
The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb
its applications.
(C), which is equivalent to the charge contained
11.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT AND CIRCUIT in nearly 6 × 1018 electrons. (We know that an
electron possesses a negative charge of 1.6 ×
We are familiar with air current and water –19
10 C.) The electric current is expressed by a
current. We know that flowing water constitute unit called ampere (A), named after the French
water current in rivers. Similarly, if the electric scientist, Andre-Marie Ampere (1775–1836).
charge flows through a conductor (for example, One ampere is constituted by the flow of one
through a metallic wire), we say that there is an coulomb of charge per second, that is,
electric current in the conductor. In a torch, we 1 A = 1 C/1 s. Small quantities of current are
know that the cells (or a battery, when placed in –3
expressed in milliampere (1 µA = 10 A) or in
proper order) provide flow of charges or an microampere (1 µA = 10–6 A). An instrument
electric current through the torch bulb to glow. called ammeter measures electric current in a
We have also seen that the torch gives light only circuit. It is always connected in series in a
when its switch is on. What does a switch do? A circuit through which the current is to be
switch makes a conducting link between the measured. Figure 11.1 shows the schematic
cell and the bulb. A continuous and closed path diagram of a typical electric circuit comprising
of an electric current is called an electric circuit. a cell, an electric bulb, an ammeter and a plug
Now, if the circuit is broken anywhere (or the key. Note that the electric current flows in the
switch of the torch is turned of f), the current circuit from the positive terminal of the cell to
stops flowing and the bulb does not glow. the negative terminal of the cell through the
How do we express electric current? bulb and ammeter.
Electric current is expressed by the amount of
charge flowing through a particular area in unit
time. In other words, it is the rate of flow of
electric charges. In circuits using metallic
wires, electrons constitute the flow of charges.
However, electrons were not known at the time
when the phenomenon of electricity was first
observed. So, electric current was considered to
Figure 11.1
be the flow of positive charges and the direction
A schematic diagram of an electric
of flow of positive charges was taken to be the circuit comprising – cell, electric bulb,
direction of electric current. Conventionally, in ammeter and plug key
240
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€|¾yûd¾q), $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT €ÐbþsTT ‹\TÒ yî\>·<ŠT.
ç|ŸeV¾²dŸTï+<Š“ >·TsÁTï+#áT¿Ã+&.
eTq+ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸä“• mý² e«¿£ï+ #ûkÍï+? ç|ŸeÖD
¿±\+ýË “]ÝwŸ¼ yîÕXæ\«+ >·T+&† ç|ŸeV¾²+#û €yûXø |Ÿ]eÖD²“•
‹{ì¼ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸä“• e«¿£ï+ #ûkÍïeTT. eTsÃ $<óŠ+>± #îbÍÎ\+fñ
‚~ $<Š T «ÔY €yû Xæ\ ç | Ÿ y VŸ ² ¹s³T. ýËVŸ ²|Ÿ Ú r>· \ qT
–|ŸjîÖÐ+#û $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáÖ\ýË, m\ç¿±¼qT¢ €yûXæ\ ç|ŸyVŸä“•
@sÁÎsÁTkÍïsTT. $<ŠT«ÔáTï <ŠÐÇwŸjáT+ >·T]+º yîTT<Š{ìkÍ] Ôî*d¾q
¿±\+ H{ì¿ì m\ç¿±¼q¢ >·T]+º Ôî*jáT<ŠT. ¿±‹{ì¼, <óŠHyûXæ\
ç|ŸyVŸä“• $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+>± uó²$+#á&ƒ+ È]Ð+~ eT]jáTT |Ÿ³+ 11.1
|˜ŸT³eTT, $<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒ, nMTˆ³sÁT eT]jáTT
|Ÿ¢>´¿¡ \ÔÃ Å£L&q $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáÖ“• dŸÖº+#û |Ÿ³eTT
241
Example 11.1 terminals of the cell, even when no current is

A current of 0.5 A is drawn by a filament of an drawn from it. When the cell is connected to a
electric bulb for 10 minutes. Find the amount of conducting circuit element, the potential
electric charge that flows through the circuit. difference sets the charges in motion in the
Solution conductor and produces an electric current. In
We are given, I = 0.5 A; t = 10 min = 600 s. order to maintain the current in a given electric
From Eq. (11.1), we have circuit, the cell has to expend its chemical
energy stored in it.
Q = It
We define the electric potential difference
= 0.5 A × 600 s
between two points in an electric circuit
= 300 C
carrying some current as the work done to move
a unit charge from one point to the other –
Potential difference (V) between two
points = Work done (W)/Charge (Q)
1. What does an electric circuit mean?
V = W/Q (11.2)
2. Define the unit of current. The SI unit of electric potential difference
3. Calculate the number of electrons is volt (V), named after Alessandro Volta
constituting one coulomb of charge. (1745–1827), an Italian physicist. One volt is
?
the potential difference between two points in a
current carrying conductor when 1 joule of
work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb
11.2 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND from one point to the other.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE 1 joule
Therefore, 1 volt = 1 coulomb
What makes the electric charge to flow? Let us (11.3)
consider the analogy of flow of water. Charges –1
1V =1JC
do not flow in a copper wire by themselves, just
The potential difference is measured by
as water in a perfectly horizontal tube does not
means of an instrument called the voltmeter.
flow. If one end of the tube is connected to a
The voltmeter is always connected in parallel
tank of water kept at a higher level, such that
across the points between which the potential
there is a pressure difference between the two
difference is to be measured.
ends of the tube, water flows out of the other
Example 11.2
end of the tube. For flow of charges in a
How much work is done in moving a charge of
conducting metallic wire, the gravity, of course,
2 C across two points having a potential
has no role to play; the electrons move only if
difference 12 V?
there is a difference of electric pressure – called
the potential difference – along the conductor. Solution
This difference of potential may be produced The amount of charge Q, that flows between
by a battery, consisting of one or more electric two points at potential difference V (= 12 V) is 2
cells. The chemical action within a cell C. Thus, the amount of work W, done in moving
generates the potential difference across the the charge [from Eq. (11.2)] is
242
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 11.1 uóñ<Š+ e\q €yûXæ\T #á\H“• bõ+~ yVŸ²¿£+ýË $<ŠT«ÔY

ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒ jîTT¿£Ø |˜¾\yîT+³T >·T+&† 0.5 A $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸä“• @sÁÎsÁTkÍïsTT. ‚eÇ‹&q e\jáT+ýË $<ŠT«ÔY
ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT 10 “$TcÍ\ bÍ³T ç|ŸdŸ]+º+~. e\jáT+ >·T+&† ç|ŸyVŸä“• ¿=qkÍÐ+|ŸCñjáTT³Å£” |˜ŸT³eTT ÔáqýË “\Ç –q•
ç|ŸeV¾²+ºq $<ŠT«<‘yûXø |Ÿ]eÖD²“• ¿£qT>=q+&. sÁkÍjáTq Xø¿ìï“ $“jîÖÐ+#*à –+³T+~.
kÍ<óŠq e\jáT+ýË Âs+&ƒT _+<ŠTeÚ\ eT<óŠ« $<ŠT«ÔY bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ
eTqÅ£” ‚eÇ‹&q ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ I = 0.5 A; t = 10 “öö = 600 ™d. uóñ<‘“• € _+<ŠTeÚ\ýË ÿ¿£<‘“ qT+& eTs=¿£<‘“¿ì ç|ŸeÖD
dŸMT¿£sÁD+ 11.1 qT+&, €yûXæ“• ¿£~*+#áT³Å£” #ûjáTe\d¾q |Ÿ“>±
Q = It
= 0.5 A × 600 ™d “sÁÇº+#áT¿Ã#áe#áTÌ.
= 300 C Âs+&ƒT _+<ŠTeÚ\ eT<óŠ« bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ V = |Ÿ“ (W)
€yûXø+ (Q)
ç|Ÿ Xø• \T
V = W/Q (11.2)
1. $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáTeTT nq>±Hû$T? $<ŠT«ÔY bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<‘“¿ì SI ç|ŸeÖDeTT zýÙ¼. B““
‚³©¿ì #î+~q uó…Ü¿£ XæçdŸïyûÔáï n\dŸ+ç&Ã yÃý²¼ (1745-1827)
2. $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ² ç|ŸeÖDeTTqT “sÁÇº+#áTeTT.
|sÁT qT+& dÓÇ¿£]+#sÁT. $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸdŸ]+#û yVŸ²¿£+ýË ÿ¿£
3. ÿ¿£ Å£L\Ö+uÙ €yûXø+ýË –q• m\ç¿±¼q¢ dŸ+K«qT _+<ŠTeÚ qT+& eTsÃ _+<ŠTeÚÅ£” ÿ¿£ Å£”\Ö+uÙ €yûXæ“•
ýÉ¿ìØ+#á+&.
?
¿£~*+#á&†“¿ì ÈsÁ>·e\d¾q |Ÿ“ ÿ¿£ C…ýÙ nsTTÔû, € Âs+&ƒT
_+<ŠTeÚ\ eT<óŠ« bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uñ<óŠ+ ÿ¿£ zýÙ¼ neÚÔáT+~.
11.2 $<ŠT«ÔY bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ eT]jáTT bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ ¿±eÚq, 1 zýÙ¼ = 1 C…ýÙ (11.3)
1 Å£L\Ö+uÙ
$<ŠT«ÔY €yûXæ“• ç|ŸeV¾²+|ŸCñjáTTq~ @$T{ì? ú{ì
ç|ŸyVŸ² kÍsÁÖbÍ«“• eTq+ |Ÿ]>·Dì<‘Ý+. ¿ìŒÜÈ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± 1 V = 1 J C–1
bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<‘“• yÃýÙ¼ MT³sÁT nq‹&û |Ÿ]¿£sÁ+ <‘Çs
–+&û >=³¼+ >·T+&† úsÁT ç|ŸeV¾²+#áqfñ¼, ÿ¿£ sÐ r>· >·T+&†
¿=\TkÍïsÁT. @ _+<ŠTeÚ\ eT<óŠ« bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<‘“• ¿=\yýË
€yûXæ\T y{ì n+Ôá³ nyû ç|ŸeV¾²+#áeÚ. >=³¼+ Âs+&ƒT ºesÁ\
y{ì¿ì zýÙ¼ MT³sYqT, m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± dŸ+<ó‘q+
|Ó&ƒq+ýË Ôû&† –+&û $<óŠ+>±, >=³¼+ ÿ¿£ ºesÁqT ¿=+Ôá
#ûjáÖ*.
mÔáTïýË –q• ú{ì {²«+Å£”Å£” ¿£*|¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, úsÁT >=³¼|ŸÚ Âs+&ƒe
ºe] qT+º ‹jáT³Å£” ç|ŸeV¾²dŸTï+~. ÿ¿£ yVŸ²¿£|ŸÚ r>· >·T+&† –<‘VŸ²sÁD 11.2
€yûXæ\T ç|ŸkÍsÁ+ ¿±e&ƒ+ýË kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± >·TsÁTÔÇ¿£sÁüD bÍçÔá 12 V bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ >·\ Âs+&ƒT _+<ŠTeÚ\ eT<óŠ« 2 C
–+&ƒ<ŠT, yVŸ²¿£+ yî+‹& bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ nq‹&û $<ŠT«ÔY €yûXæ“• ¿£~*+#áT³Å£” ÈsÁ>·e\d¾q |Ÿ“ m+Ôá?
|Ó&ƒq+ýË Ôû&† –+fñHû mýç¿±¼qT¢ n+<ŠTýË ¿£<ŠT\TÔsTT. ‡
bõfÉ“üjáTýÙýË uñ<óŠ+ ÿ¿£{ì ýñ<‘ n+Ôá¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe |˜ŸT{²\T kÍ<óŠq
>·\ u²«³¯ e\¢ @sÁÎ&ƒe#áTÌ. |˜ŸT³eTT qT+& $<ŠT«ÔáTïqT bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ V (=12 V) >·\ _+<ŠTeÚ\ eT<óŠ«
$“jîÖÐ+#áq|ŸÎ{ì¿¡ n+<ŠTýË È]¹> n+ÔásÁZÔá sÁkÍjáTq #ásÁ« ç|ŸeV¾²+#áT €yûXø(Q) |Ÿ]eÖDeTT 2 C. ¿±eÚq, (dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT
|˜ŸT³+ jîTT¿£Ø <óŠy\ eT<óŠ« bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uñ<‘“• @sÁÎsÁTdŸTï+~. 11.2 qT+&) €yûXæ“• ¿£~*+|ŸCñjáTT³Å£” ÈsÁ>·e\d¾q |Ÿ“,
|˜ŸT{²“• yVŸ²¿£ e\jáÖ“¿ì dŸ+<ó‘q+ #ûd¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ
243
W = VQ
11.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
= 12 V × 2 C
We know that an electric circuit, as shown in
= 24 J.
Fig. 11.1, comprises a cell (or a battery), a plug
key, electrical component(s), and connecting
wires. It is often convenient to draw a schematic
1. Name a device that helps to maintain a
p o t e n t i a l d i ff e r e n c e a c r o s s a diagram, in which different components of the
conductor. circuit are represented by the symbols
2. What is meant by saying that the conveniently used. Conventional symbols used
potential difference between two to represent some of the most commonly used
points is 1 V?
?
electrical components are given in Table 11.1.
3. How much energy is given to each
coulomb of charge passing through a
6 V battery?
Table 11.1 Symbols of some commonly used components in circuit diagrams
244
W = VQ
= 12 V × 2 C 11.3 e\jáT |Ÿ³eTT
= 24 J. |Ÿ³eTT 11.1 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<óŠ+>±, ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáTeTT ÿ¿£
ç|Ÿ Xø• \T |˜ŸT³eTT (ýñ<‘ u²«³¯) ÿ¿£ |Ÿ¢>´¿¡, $<ŠT«ÔY |Ÿ]¿£sÁeTT(\T)
eT]jáTT dŸ+<ó‘q r>·\qT ¿£*Ð –+³T+~. e\jáT+ýË“ $$<óŠ
1. ÿ¿£ yVŸ ² ¿£ + yî + ‹& bõfÉ “ üjá T ýÙ uó ñ < ‘“• |Ÿ]¿£s\qT dŸsÁÞøyîT®q ºVŸä•\ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË e«¿£ï+ #ûdŸÖï ÔásÁ#áT>±
¿=qkÍÐ+#á & †“¿ì –|Ÿ j î Ö >· | Ÿ & û |Ÿ ] ¿£ s “• e\jáT|Ÿ{²“• ^jáT&ƒ+ kå¿£sÁ«e+Ôá+>± –+³T+~. dŸsÁÇ
|s=Øq+&? kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± y&û ¿=“• $<ŠT«ÔY |Ÿ]¿£s\qT dŸÖº+#á&†“¿ì
2. Âs+&ƒT _+<ŠTeÚ\ eT<óŠ« bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ 1V –|ŸjîÖÐ+#û kÍ+ç|Ÿ<‘jáT ºVŸä•\T |Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 11.1 ýË ‚eÇ‹&†¦sTT.
nq>± <‘“ nsÁœ+ @$T{ì?
3. 6V u²«³¯ >·T+&† ç|ŸjáÖDì+#áT³Å£” ç|ŸÜ Å£”\Ö+uÙ
€yûXæ“¿ì n+~+#áe\d¾q Xø¿ìï m+Ôá?
?
|Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 11.1 $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáT |Ÿ{²\ýË kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± –|ŸjîÖÐ+#û ¿=“• |Ÿ]¿£s\ ºVŸä•\T
245
11.4 OHM’S LAW

Is there a relationship between the potential difference across a conductor and the current
through it? Let us explore with an Activity.
■ Set up a circuit as shown in Fig. 11.2, consisting of a

nichrome wire XY of length, say 0.5 m, an ammeter, a
voltmeter and four cells of 1.5 V each. (Nichrome is an
alloy of nickel, chromium, manganese, and iron metals.)
■ First use only one cell as the source in the circuit. Note the
reading in the ammeter I, for the current and reading of the
voltmeter V for the potential difference across the
nichrome wire XY in the circuit. Tabulate them in the
Table given.
■ Next connect two cells in the circuit and note the
respective readings of the ammeter and voltmeter for the
Figure 11.2 Electric circuit for studying Ohm’s law
values of current through the nichrome wire and potential
difference across the nichrome wire.
■ Repeat the above steps using three cells and then four cells in the circuit separately.
■ Calculate the ratio of V to I for each pair of potential difference V and current I.
■ Plot a graph between V and I, and observe the nature of the graph.
246
11.4 zyŽT “jáTeTeTT

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ÿ¿£ ¿£Ôá«+ <‘Çs eTq+ |Ÿ]o*<‘Ý+.
¿£Ôá«+ 11.1
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r>·, ÿ¿£ nMTˆ³sÁT, ÿ¿£ yÃýÙ¼ MT³sÁT eT]jáTT ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø{ì 1.5 V >·\
H\T>·T |˜ŸT{²\ÔÃ Å£L&q ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáÖ“• @sÁÎsÁ#áTeTT.
(“ç¿ÃyŽT nHû~ “Â¿ýÙ, ç¿Ã$TjáT+, eÖ+>·údt eT]jáTT ‚qTeTT\ $TçXøeT
ýËVŸ²eTT)
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qyîÖ<ŠT #ûjáT+&. M{ì“ ‚ºÌq |Ÿ{ì¼¿£ýË bõ+<ŠT|ŸsÁ#áTeTT.
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■ e\jáT+ýË yûsÁTyûsÁT>± eTÖ&ƒT |˜ŸT{²\qT, H\T>·T |˜ŸT{²\qT $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáTeTT
–|ŸjîÖÐ+º ™|Õ kþbÍH\qT |ŸÚqseÔá+ #ûjáT+&.
■ ç|ŸÜ ÈÔá jîTT¿£Ø bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ V eT]jáTT $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+ I \ Å£” V eT]jáTT I \ “wŸÎÜï“ ýÉ¿ìØ+#á+&.
( )
■ V eT]jáTT I \ eT<óŠ« ç>±|˜tqT ^jáT+&, eT]jáTT € ç>±|˜t dŸÇuó²y“• |Ÿ]o*+#á+&.
247
In this Activity, you will find that In Eq. (11.4), R is a constant for the given
approximately the same value for V/I is metallic wire at a given temperature and is
obtained in each case. Thus the V–I graph is a called its resistance. It is the property of a
straight line that passes through the origin of the conductor to resist the flow of charges through
graph, as shown in Fig. 11.3. Thus, V/I is a it. Its SI unit is ohm, represented by the Greek
constant ratio. letter Ω. According to Ohm’s law,
R = V/I (11.6)
If the potential difference across the two
ends of a conductor is 1 V and the current
through it is 1 A, then the resistance R, of the
conductor is 1 Ω.
1 volt
That is, 1 ohm =
1 ampere
Also from Eq. (11.5) we get
I = V/R (11.7)
It is obvious from Eq. (11.7) that the
Figure 11.3
current through a resistor is inversely
V–I graph for a nichrome wire. A straight proportional to its resistance. If the resistance is
line plot shows that as the current through doubled the current gets halved. In many
a wire increases, the potential difference practical cases it is necessary to increase or
across the wire increases linearly – this is decrease the current in an electric circuit. A
Ohm’s law.
component used to regulate current without
changing the voltage source is called variable
resistance. In an electric circuit, a device called
In 1827, a German physicist Georg Simon
rheostat is often used to change the resistance in
Ohm (1787–1854) found out the relationship
the circuit. We will now study about electrical
between the current I, flowing in a metallic wire
resistance of a conductor with the help of
and the potential difference across its terminals.
following Activity.
The potential difference, V, across the ends of a
given metallic wire in an electric circuit is
directly proportional to the current flowing
through it, provided its temperature remains ■ Take a nichrome wire, a torch bulb, a 10
the same. This is called Ohm’s law. In other W bulb and an ammeter (0 – 5 A range),
words – a plug key and some connecting wires.
VαI (11.4) ■ Set up the circuit by connecting four dry
or V/I = constant cells of 1.5 V each in series with the
= R ammeter leaving a gap XY in the circuit,
or V = IR (11.5) as shown in Fig. 11.4.
248
‡ ¿£Ôá«+ýË, ç|ŸÜ dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ýËqÖ eTq+ bõ+<û V/I dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT (11.4) ýË, R nHû~ ‚eÇ‹&q ýËVŸ²|ŸÚ r>·Å£”
$\Te <‘<‘|ŸÚ ÿ¹¿ $<óŠ+>± –q•³T¢ Ôî\TdŸTï+~. ¿±eÚq V-I ç>±|˜t d¾œsÁ –cþ’ç>·Ôá e<ŠÝ ÿ¿£ d¾œs+¿£eTT, eT]jáTT B““ € r>· “sÃ<óŠ+
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ÿ¿£ dŸsÁÞø¹sK. ¿±eÚq V/I nHû~ ÿ¿£ d¾œsÁ “wŸÎÜï. yVŸ²¿£ <óŠsÁˆ+. B“ SI ç|ŸeÖDeTT zyŽT. B““ ç^Å£” n¿£ŒsÁ+ Ω ÔÃ
dŸÖºkÍïsÁT. zyŽT “jáTeT+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+
R = V/I (11.6)
ÿ¿£ yVŸ²¿£eTT Âs+&ƒT ºesÁ\ eT<óŠ« bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+
1V –q•|ŸÚÎ&ƒT <‘“ >·T+&† ç|ŸeV¾²+#û $<ŠT«ÔáTï 1A nsTTÔû €
yVŸ²¿£|ŸÚ “sÃ<óŠeTT (R), 1 Ω neÚÔáT+~.
bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+
1 zýÙ¼
nq>±, 1 Ω = 1 €+|¾jáTsY
dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT (11.5) qT+&
I = V/R (11.7)
$<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+ dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT 11.7 qT+& ÿ¿£ “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ >·T+&† $<ŠT«ÔY
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™|]¹>¿=BÝ, € r>· ºesÁ\ >·\ bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ dŸ>·+ neÚÔáT+~. |Ÿ\T ydŸïe dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\ýË ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY
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#áÖ|ŸÚÔáT+~ ` ‚<û zyŽT “jáTeT+.
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¿£Ôá«+ 11.2
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■ ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø{ì 1.5 V >·\ H\T>·T “sÁ¨\ |˜ŸT{²\qT
ýñ<‘ V/I = d¾œs+¿£+
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= R $<óŠ+>± XY nHû U²°“ e~* e\jáÖ“•
ýñ<‘ V = IR (11.5) @sÁÎsÁ#áTeTT.
249
In this Activity we observe that the

current is different for different components.
Why do they differ? Certain components offer
an easy path for the flow of electric current
while the others resist the flow. We know that
motion of electrons in an electric circuit
constitutes an electric current. The electrons,
however, are not completely free to move
within a conductor. They are restrained by the
attraction of the atoms among which they
move. Thus, motion of electrons through a
conductor is retarded by its resistance. A
component of a given size that offers a low
resistance is a good conductor. A conductor
having some appreciable resistance is called a
Figure 11.4 resistor. A component of identical size that
offers a higher resistance is a poor conductor.
■ Complete the circuit by connecting An insulator of the same size offers even higher
the nichrome wire in the gap XY. Plug resistance.
the key. Note down the ammeter
reading. Take out the key from the 11 . 5 FA C T O R S O N W H I C H T H E
plug. [Note: Always take out the key R E S I S TA N C E O F A C O N D U C TO R
from the plug after measuring the DEPENDS
current through the circuit.]
■ Replace the nichrome wire with the ■ Complete an electric circuit consisting
torch bulb in the circuit and find the of a cell, an ammeter, a nichrome wire of
current through it by measuring the length l [say, marked (1)] and a plug key,
reading of the ammeter. as shown in Fig. 11.5.
■ Now repeat the above step with the 10
W bulb in the gap XY.
■ Are the ammeter readings different for
different components connected in the
gap XY? What do the above
observations indicate?
■ You may repeat this Activity by
keeping any material component in
the gap. Observe the ammeter
Figure 11.5 Electric circuit to study the
readings in each case. Analyse the factors on which the resistance of
observations. conducting wires depends
250
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€ |Ÿ]o\q\qT $Xâ¢w¾+#á+&.
251
nature of its material. Precise measurements

■ Now, plug the key. Note the current in have shown that resistance of a uniform
the ammeter.
metallic conductor is directly proportional to its
■ Replace the nichrome wire by another
nichrome wire of same thickness but length (l) and inversely proportional to the area
twice the length, that is 2l [marked (2) of cross-section (A). That is,
in the Fig. 11.5].
■ Note the ammeter reading. Rαl (11.8)
■ Now replace the wire by a thicker
nichrome wire, of the same length l and R α 1/A (11.9)
[marked (3)]. A thicker wire has a
Combining Eqs. (11.8) and (11.9) we get
larger cross-sectional area. Again note
down the current through the circuit. l
Rα
■ Instead of taking a nichrome wire, A
connect a copper wire [marked (4) in l
or, R=ρ (11.10)
Fig. 11.5] in the circuit. Let the wire be A
of the same length and same area of where ρ(rho) is a constant of proportionality
cross-section as that of the first and is called the electrical resistivity of the
nichrome wire [marked (1)]. Note the material of the conductor. The SI unit of
value of the current. resistivity is Ω m. It is a characteristic property
■ Notice the difference in the current in
all cases. of the material. The metals and alloys have very
■ Does the current depend on the length low resistivity in the range of 10–8 Ω m to 10–6
of the conductor? Ω m. They are good conductors of electricity.
■ Does the current depend on the area of Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity
cross-section of the wire used? 12 17
of the order of 10 to 10 Ω m. Both the
resistance and resistivity of a material vary with
It is observed that the ammeter reading temperature.
decreases to one-half when the length of the
Table 11.2 reveals that the resistivity of an
wire is doubled. The ammeter reading is
alloy is generally higher than that of its
increased when a thicker wire of the same
constituent metals. Alloys do not oxidise (burn)
material and of the same length is used in the
readily at high temperatures. For this reason,
circuit. A change in ammeter reading is
they are commonly used in electrical heating
observed when a wire of different material of
devices, like electric iron, toasters etc.
the same length and the same area of cross-
Tungsten is used almost exclusively for
section is used. On applying Ohm’s law [Eqs.
filaments of electric bulbs, whereas copper and
(11.5) – (11.7)], we observe that the resistance
aluminium are generally used for electrical
of the conductor depends (i) on its length, (ii)
transmission lines.
on its area of cross-section, and (iii) on the
252
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Rα A
$<ŠT«ÔáTïqT qyîÖ<ŠT#ûjáT+&.
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€<ó‘sÁ|Ÿ&ƒTÔáT+~. –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT.
253
Table 11.2 Electrical resistivity* of some substances at 20°C
* You need not memorise these values. You can use these values for solving numerical problems.
Example 11.3 Note the difference of current drawn by an

electric bulb and electric heater from the same
(a) How much current will an electric bulb
220 V source!
draw from a 220 V source, if the resistance of
the bulb filament is 1200 Ω? (b) How much Example 11.4
current will an electric heater coil draw from a
The potential difference between the terminals
220 V source, if the resistance of the heater coil
of an electric heater is 60 V when it draws a
is 100Ω?
current of 4 A from the source. What current will
Solution the heater draw if the potential difference is
increased to 120 V?
(a) We are given V = 220 V; R = 1200 Ω.
From Eq. (11.6), we have the current Solution
I = 220 V/1200 Ω = 0.18 A. We are given, potential difference V = 60 V,
(b) We are given, V = 220 V, R = 100 Ω. current I = 4 A.
From Eq. (11.7), we have the current V 60 V
According to Ohm’s law, R = = = 15 Ω
I = 220 V/100 Ω = 2.2 A. I 4A
254
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kÍ<óŠq 60 v –+~. ÿ¿£yûÞø bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<‘“• 120 V Å£”
(m) eTqÅ£” ‚eÇ‹&q ç|Ÿ¿±sÁeTT V = 220 V; R = 1200 Ω. ™|+ºq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT VÓ²³sÁT m+Ôá $<ŠT«ÔáTïqT ç>·V¾²dŸTï+~.
dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT 11.6 qT+& $<ŠT«ÔáTï I = 220 V/1200 Ω = kÍ<óŠq
0.18 A. eTqÅ£” ‚eÇ‹&q ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ V = 60 V,
(_) eTqÅ£” ‚eÇ‹&q ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ V = 220 V, R = 100 Ω. $<ŠT«ÔáTï I = 4 A.
dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT (11.7) qT+&, $<ŠT«ÔáTï I = 220 V/100 Ω zyŽT “jáTeT+ qT+&, R = VI = 604 AV = 15 Ω
= 2.2 A.
255
1
When the potential difference is increased to R2 = R
4 1
120 V the current is given by
R2= 1Ω
V 120 V
current = = = 8 A.
R 15 Ω The resistance of the new wire is 1Ω.
The current through the heater becomes 8 A.
Example 11.5
1. On what factors does the resistance of
Resistance of a metal wire of length 1 m is 26 Ω
a conductor depend?
at 20°C. If the diameter of the wire is 0.3 mm,
what will be the resistivity of the metal at that 2. Will current flow more easily through
temperature? Using Table 11.2, predict the a thick wire or a thin wire of the same
material of the wire. material, when connected to the same
source? Why?
Solution
3. Let the resistance of an electrical
We are given the resistance R of the wire = 26Ω, component remains constant while
the diameter d = 0.3 mm = 3 × 10-4 m, and the the potential difference across the two
length l of the wire = 1 m. ends of the component decreases to
Therefore, from Eq. (11.10), the resistivity of half of its former value. What change
the given metallic wire is will occur in the current through it?
2 4. Why are coils of electric toasters and
ρ = (RA/l) = (RΠd /4l)
electric irons made of an alloy rather
Substitution of values in this gives than a pure metal?
–6
ρ = 1.84 × 10 Ω m 5. Use the data in Table 11.2 to answer
the following –
The resistivity of the metal at 20°C is 1.84 ×
–6
10 Ω m. From Table 11.2, we see that this is the (a) Which among iron and mercury is
?
a better conductor?
resistivity of manganese.
(b) Which material is the best
Example 11.6 conduct.or?
A wire of given material having length l and
area of cross-section A has a resistance of 4 Ω.
What would be the resistance of another wire of 11.6 RESISTANCE OF A SYSTEM OF
the same material having length l/2 and area of RESISTORS
cross-section 2A? In preceding sections, we learnt about some
Solution simple electric circuits. We have noticed how
the current through a conductor depends upon
For first wire its resistance and the potential difference across
R = ρ l = 4Ω
1
its ends. In various electrical gadgets, we often
A use resistors in various combinations. We now
Now for second wire therefore intend to see how Ohm’s law can be
R =ρl
1
ρ l
/2 applied to combinations of resistors.
2
=
2A 4 A
256
1
bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<‘“• 120 V Å£” ™|+ºq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT R2 = R1
4
$<ŠT«ÔáTï VR = 120
15 Ω
V
= 8 A. R2= 1Ω
¿=Ôáï r>· jîTT¿£Ø “sÃ<óŠeTT 1Ω.
VÓ²³sY >·T+&† $<ŠT«ÔáTï 8 A neÚÔáT+~.
ç|Ÿ Xø• \T
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 11.5
1. ÿ¿£ yVŸ²¿£+ jîTT¿£Ø “sÃ<óŠeTT @ ¿±sÁ¿±\™|Õ
20°C e<ŠÝ 1 MT bõ&ƒeÚ >·\ ÿ¿£ ýËVŸ²|ŸÚ r>· “sÃ<óŠeTT 26 Ω.
€<ó‘sÁ|Ÿ& –+³T+~?
r>· y«dŸeTT 0.3 $TMT nsTTq|ŸÚð&ƒT € –cþ’ç>·Ôá e<ŠÝ ýËVŸ²
2. ÿ¹¿ Èq¿±“¿ì dŸ+<ó‘“+ºq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, ÿ¹¿ |Ÿ<‘sÁœ|ŸÚ
“sÃ<óŠ¿£Ôá m+Ôá? |Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 11.2 qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º, r>· jîTT¿£Ø
ý²eÚ eT]já T T dŸ q •“ r>· \ ýË <û “ >· T +&†
|Ÿ<‘sÁœeTTqT }V¾²+#áTeTT. dŸT\uó„+>± $<ŠT«ÔáTï ç|ŸdŸ]dŸTï+~? m+<ŠTÅ£”?
kÍ<óŠq 3. ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY –|Ÿ¿£sÁD+ jîTT¿£Ø “sÃ<óŠ+ d¾œsÁ+>±
eTqÅ£” ‚eÇ‹&q ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ r>· jîTT¿£Ø “sÃ<óŠeTT R = 26Ω, –+& Âs+&ƒT ºesÁ\ýË bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uñ<óŠ+
y«dŸeTT d = 0.3$T.MT = 3 × 10-4 MT, eT]jáTT r>· bõ&ƒeÚ eTT+<ŠTq• $\Te ¿£+fñ dŸ>±“¿ì ÔáÐZ+~. n+<ŠTýË
ç|ŸeV¾²+#û $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²eTTýË e#ûÌ eÖsÁTÎ
l = 1 MT
@$T{ì?
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“sÃ<óŠ¿£Ôá ρ = (RA/l) = (RΠd2/4l) #áT³¼\T m+<ŠTÅ£” Xø—<ŠÆyîT®q ýËVŸä\ÔÃ ¿±Å£”+&†
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ρ = 1.84 × 10–6 Ω m 5. ç¿ì+~ dŸeÖ<ó‘q+ ¿=sÁÅ£” |Ÿ{ì¼¿£ 11.2 ýË ‚ºÌq
–6
20°C e<ŠÝ ýËVŸ²|ŸÚ “sÃ<óŠ¿£Ôá 1.84 × 10 Ω m. |Ÿ{ì¼¿£ <ŠÔï+Xæ“• –|ŸjîÖÐ+#á+&
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?
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l bõ&ƒeÚ eT]jáTT A eT<óŠ«#ûÌÛ<Š yîÕXæ\«+ >·\ ÿ¿£ |Ÿ<‘sÁœ|ŸÚ r>·
4 Ω nuó
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11.6 “sÃధ¿±\ e«edŸœ jîTT¿£Ø “sÃ<óŠeTT
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ç|ŸeV¾²+#û $<ŠT«ÔY <‘“ “sÃ<óŠeTT eT]jáTT <‘“ ºesÁ\ýË
yîTT<Š{ì r>·Å£”
–+&û bõfÉ “ üjá T ýÙ uó ñ < Š + ™ | Õ mý² €<ó ‘ sÁ | Ÿ & ƒ T Ôá T +<Ã
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l /2 1 l
= ρ = ρ
R2 2A 4 A dŸ+<ó‘H\ýË zyŽT “jáTeTeTT nqTesÁïH“• |Ÿ]o*<‘Ý+.
257
There are two methods of joining the

resistors together. Figure 11.6 shows an electric
circuit in which three resistors having
■ Join three resistors of different values
resistances R1, R2 and R3, respectively, are
in series. Connect them with a battery,
joined end to end. Here the resistors are said to
an ammeter and a plug key, as shown in
be connected in series.
Fig. 11.6. You may use the resistors of
values like 1 Ω, 2 Ω, 3 Ω etc., and a
battery of 6 V for performing this
Activity.
■ Plug the key. Note the ammeter
reading.
■ Change the position of ammeter to
anywhere in between the resistors.
Note the ammeter reading each time.
■ Do you find any change in the value of
current through the ammeter?
Figure 11.6 Resistors in series
You will observe that the value of the
Figure 11.7 shows a combination of
current in the ammeter is the same, independent
resistors in which three resistors are connected
of its position in the electric circuit. It means
together between points X and Y. Here, the
that in a series combination of resistors the
resistors are said to be connected in parallel.
current is the same in every part of the circuit or
the same current through each resistor.
■ In Activity 11.4, insert a voltmeter

across the ends X and Y of the series
combination of three resistors, as
shown in Fig. 11.6.
■ Plug the key in the circuit and note the
voltmeter reading. It gives the
potential difference across the series
Figure 11.7 Resistors in parallel
combination of resistors. Let it be V.
Now measure the potential difference
11.6.1 Resistors in Series across the two terminals of the battery.
What happens to the value of current when a Compare the two values.
number of resistors are connected in series in a ■ Take out the plug key and disconnect
circuit? What would be their equivalent t h e v o l t m e t e r. N o w i n s e r t t h e
resistance? Let us try to understand these with voltmeter across the ends X and P of
the help of the following activities. the first resistor, as shown in Fig. 11.8.
258
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¿£Ôá«+ 11.5
■ ¿£Ôá«eTT 11.4 ýË |Ÿ³eTT 11.6 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<óŠ+>±
eTÖ&ƒT “sÃ<óŠ¿±\ çXâDì dŸ+<ó‘q|ŸÚ X eT]jáTT Y
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dŸÖºdŸTï+~. <‘““ V nqT¿Ã+&. ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT u²«³¯
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P ºesÁ\ eT<óŠ«, |Ÿ³eTT 11.8 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<óŠ+>±
#ûdŸT¿Ãe&†“¿ì ç|ŸjáTÜ•<‘Ý+.
¿£\|Ÿ+&.
259
On applying Ohm’s law to the three resistors

separately, we further have
V1 = I R1 [11.13(a)]
V2 = I R2 [11.13(b)]
and V3 = I R3 [11.13(c)]
From Eq. (11.11),
I R = I R1 + I R2 + I R3
Figure 11.8 or
■ Plug the key and measure the potential Rs= R1 +R2 + R3 (11.14)
difference across the first resistor. Let
We can conclude that when several resistors
it be V1.
are joined in series, the resistance of the
■ Similarly, measure the potential
combination R s equals the sum of their
difference across the other two
individual resistance, R1, R2, R3, and is thus
resistors, separately. Let these values
greater than any individual resistance.
be V2 and V3, respectively.
■ Deduce a relationship between V, V1, V2 Example 11.7
and V3.
An electric lamp, whose resistance is 20 Ω, and
a conductor of 4 Ω resistance are connected to a
6 V battery (Fig. 11.9). Calculate (a) the total
You will observe that the potential
resistance of the circuit, (b) the current through
difference V is equal to the sum of potential
the circuit, and (c) the potential difference
differences V1, V2, and V3. That is the total
across the electric lamp and conductor.
potential difference across a combination of
resistors in series is equal to the sum of
potential difference across the individual
resistors. That is,
V = V1 + V2 + V3 (11.11)
In the electric circuit shown in Fig. 11.8, let
I be the current through the circuit. The current
through each resistor is also I. It is possible to
replace the three resistors joined in series by an
equivalent single resistor of resistance R, such
that the potential difference V across it, and the
current I through the circuit remains the same.
Applying the Ohm’s law to the entire circuit, Figure 11.9 An electric lamp connected in
we have series with a resistor of 4Ω to a 6 V battery
V=IR (11.12)
260
eTqÅ£” eTÖ&ƒT “sÃ<óŠ¿±\Å£” $&$&>± zyŽT “jáTeÖ“•

nqTe]ï+|Ÿ #ûdï, ç¿ì+~ $<óŠ+>± sjáTe#áTÌ
V1 = I R1 [11.13(a)]
V2 = I R2 [11.13(b)]
eT]jáTT V3 = I R3 [11.13(c)]
dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT (11.11) qT+&,
I R = I R1 + I R2+ I R3
ýñ<‘
|Ÿ³+ 11.8 Rs= R1 +R2 + R3 (11.14)
■ ¿¡qT |Ÿ¢>´ýË –+º yîTT<Š{ì “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ yî+‹&
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nqT¿Ã+&. –<‘VŸ²sÁD 11.7
■ V, V1, V2 eT]jáTT V3 \ eT<óŠ« dŸ+‹+<ó‘“•
–ÔÎ~+#á+&. 20 Ω “sÃ<óŠeTT >·\ ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒqT eT]jáTT 4Ω
“sÃ<óŠeTT >·\ yVŸ²¿±“• 6 V u²«³¯ÔÃ ¿£*bÍsÁT. (|Ÿ³+ 11.9)
(m)e\jáT+ýË“ yîTTÔáï+ “sÃ<óŠeTT (_) e\jáT+ýË“ $<ŠT«ÔáTï
bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ V $\Te V , V eT]jáTT V \
1 2 3
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“sÃ<ó‘\ yî+‹& –q• bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<‘\ yîTTÔï“¿ì
dŸeÖqeTT. nq>±,
V = V1 + V2 + V3 (11.11)
|Ÿ³+ 11.8 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<óŠ+>± $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáT+ýË,
$<ŠT«ÔYqT ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT I nqTÅ£”+<‘+. ç|ŸÜ “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ >·T+&†
ç|ŸeV¾²+#û $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT Å£L&† I neÚÔáT+~. e\jáT+ýË
bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ V eT]jáTT $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT I
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V=IR (11.12) u²«³¯ÔÃ çXâDìýË ¿£\|Ÿ‹&+~.
261
Solution This is the total resistance of the series circuit; it

is equal to the sum of the two resistances.
The resistance of electric lamp, R1 = 20 Ω,
The resistance of the conductor connected in
series, R2 = 4 Ω.
1. Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit
Then the total resistance in the circuit consisting of a battery of three cells of
R = R1 + R2 2 V each, a 5 Ω resistor, an 8 Ω
resistor, and a 12 Ω resistor, and a plug
Rs = 20 Ω + 4 Ω = 24 Ω. key, all connected in series.
The total potential difference across the two 2. Redraw the circuit of Question 1,
terminals of the battery V = 6 V. putting in an ammeter to measure the
current through the resistors and a
Now by Ohm’s law, the current through the
voltmeter to measure the potential
circuit is given by
difference across the 12 Ω resistor.
I = V/Rs What would be the readings in the
= 6 V/24 Ω
= 0.25 A.
Applying Ohm’s law to the electric lamp and
conductor separately, we get potential
ammeter and the voltmeter?
11.6.2 Resistors in Parallel

?
difference across the electric lamp, Now, let us consider the arrangement of three
resistors joined in parallel with a combination
V1 = 20 Ω × 0.25 A of cells (or a battery), as shown in Fig.11.7.
= 5 V;
and, ■ Make a parallel combination, XY, of
that across the conductor, V2 = 4 Ω × 0.25 A three resistors having resistances R1, R2,
and R3, respectively. Connect it with a
= 1 V. battery, a plug key and an ammeter, as
shown in Fig. 11.10. Also connect a
Suppose that we like to replace the series voltmeter in parallel with the
combination of electric lamp and conductor by combination of resistors.
a single and equivalent resistor. Its resistance
must be such that a potential difference of 6 V
across the battery terminals will cause a current
of 0.25 A in the circuit. The resistance R of this
equivalent resistor would be
R = V/I
= 6 V/ 0.25 A
= 24 Ω. Figure 11.10
262
kÍ<óŠq ‚~ çXâDì e\jáT+ýË“ yîTTÔáï+ “sÃ<óŠeTT. ‚~ Âs+&ƒT “sÃ<ó‘\
$<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒ “sÃ<óŠeTT R1 = 20 Ω, yîTTÔï“¿ì dŸeÖqeTT.
çXâDìýË ¿£\|Ÿ‹&q yVŸ²¿£ “sÃ<óŠeTT RR2 = 4 Ω. ç|Ÿ Xø• \T
e\jáTeTTýË |˜Ÿ*Ôá “sÃ<óŠeTT
R = R1 + R2 1. ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø{ì 2 V >·\ eTÖ&ƒT |˜ŸT{²\T ¿£*Ðq u²«³¯,
5 Ω “sÃ<óŠ¿£+, 8 Ω “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ eT]jáTT 12 Ω
Rs = 20 Ω + 4 Ω = 24 Ω.
“sÃ<óŠ¿£+ eT]jáTT |Ÿ¢>´ ¿¡ \T nú• çXâDìýË
u²«³¯ jTîT¿Ø£ sÂ+&Tƒ ºes\Á y+î‹& bõf“ÉüjTáýÙ u<ñó+Š V = 6 V
¿£\|Ÿ‹&q e\jáT |Ÿ³+ ^jáT+&.
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT zyŽT “jáTeT+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ e\jáT+ýË $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+.
2. 12 Ω “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ >·T+&† ç|ŸeV¾²+#û $<ŠT«ÔáTïqT
I = V/Rs ¿=\e&†“¿ì nMTˆ³sYqT, bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<‘“•
= 6 V/24 Ω ¿=\e&†“¿ì ÿ¿£ zýÙ¼ MT³sYqT ¿£\T|ŸÚÔáÖ yîTT<Š{ì
= 0.25 A.
$<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒ eT]jáTT yVŸ²¿±“¿ì $&$&>± zjYT “jáTeÖ“•
e]ï+|Ÿ#ûjáT>±, $<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒ yî+‹& bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+
ç|ŸXø• ýË“ e\jáÖ“• Ü]Ð ^jáT+&. nMTˆ³sY
eT]jáTT zýÙ¼ MT³sÁ¢ýË ¯&+>·T\T ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&?
11.6.2 dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± –q• “sÃ<óŠ¿±\T

?
V1 = 20 Ω × 0.25 A
|Ÿ³eTT 11.7 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<óŠ+>± ‚|Ÿð&ƒT dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>±
= 5 V; ¿£\|Ÿ‹&q eTÖ&ƒT “sÃ<óŠ¿±\T, |˜ŸT{²\ çXâDì (ýñ<‘ u²«³¯) ÔÃ
eT]jáTT, Å£L&q neT]¿£qT rdŸTÅ£”+<‘+.
yVŸ²¿£eTT yî+‹&, V2 = 4 Ω × 0.25 A ¿£Ôá«+ 11.6

■ R1, R2 eT]jáTT R “sÃ<ó‘\T >·\ eTÖ&ƒT >·\
3
= 1 V.
“sÃ<óŠ¿±\qT XY eT<óŠ« dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ dŸ+<ó‘q+
çXâDì dŸ+<ó‘q+ýË“ $<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒ eT]jáTT yVŸ²¿±\qT y{ì¿ì #ûjáT+&. |Ÿ³eTT 11.10 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<óŠ+>± B““
dŸ e Öqyî T ® q eT]já T T ÿ¹¿ “sÃ<ó Š ¿ £ + ÔÃ eÖsÁ T Î ÿ¿£ u²«³¯, |Ÿ¢>´ ¿¡, eT]jáTT nMTˆ³sYÔÃ ¿£\|Ÿ+&.
#î+~+#sÁqTÅ£”+<‘+. u²«³¯ bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ 6V ‡ “sÃ<óŠ¿±\ neT]¿£Å£” dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± ÿ¿£ zýÙ¼
–q•|ŸÚÎ&ƒT e\jáT+ýË 0.25 A $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸeV¾²+#ûý² € MT³sYqT Å£L&† ¿£\|Ÿ+&.
“sÃ<óŠeTT –+&†*. ný²+{ì |˜Ÿ*Ôá “sÃ<óŠeTT
R = V/I
= 6 V/ 0.25 A
= 24 Ω.
|Ÿ³+ 11.10
263
On applying Ohm’s law to each resistor, we

have
■ Plug the key and note the ammeter
reading. Let the current be I. Also take I1 = V /R1; I2 = V /R2; and I3 = V /R3
the voltmeter reading. It gives the (11.17)
potential difference V, across the
From Eqs. (11.15) to (11.17), we have
combination. The potential difference
across each resistor is also V. This can V/Rp = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
be checked by connecting the
or
voltmeter across each individual
resistor (see Fig. 11.11). 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 (11.18)
■ Take out the plug from the key.
Thus, we may conclude that the reciprocal
Remove the ammeter and voltmeter
from the circuit. Insert the ammeter in of the equivalent resistance of a group of
series with the resistor R1, as shown in resistances joined in parallel is equal to the sum
Fig. 11.11. Note the ammeter reading, of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
I1. Example 11.8
In the circuit diagram given in Fig. 11.10,
suppose the resistors R1, R2 and R3 have the
values 5 Ω, 10 Ω, 30 Ω, respectively, which
have been connected to a battery of 12 V.
Calculate (a) the current through each resistor,
Figure 11.11 (b) the total current in the circuit, and (c) the
total circuit resistance.
■ Similarly, measure the currents Solution
through R2 and R3. Let these be I2 and
I 3 , r e s p e c t i v e l y. W h a t i s t h e R1 = 5 Ω, R2 = 10 Ω, and R3 = 30 Ω.
relationship between I, I1, I2 and I3? Potential difference across the battery,
V = 12 V.
This is also the potential difference across each
It is observed that the total current I, is equal
of the individual resistor; therefore, to calculate
to the sum of the separate currents through each
the current in the resistors, we use Ohm’s law.
branch of the combination.
The current I1, through R1 = V/ R1
I = I1+ I2 + I3 (11.15)
I1=12 V/5 Ω = 2.4 A.
Let Rp be the equivalent resistance of the
parallel combination of resistors. By applying The current I2, through R2= V/ R2
Ohm’s law to the parallel combination of I2= 12 V/10 Ω = 1.2 A.
resistors, we have
The current I3, through R3= V/R3
I = V/Rp (11.16)
I3 = 12 V/30 Ω = 0.4 A.
264
ç|ŸÜ “sÃ<óŠ¿±“¿ì zyŽT “jáTeÖ“• nqTe]ï+|ŸCñd¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT

I1 = V /R1; I2 = V /R2; eT]jáTT I3 = V /R3
■ ¿¡ qT |Ÿ¢>´ýË –+º nMTˆ³sY ¯&+>´qT >·T]ï+#á+&.
¿£Âs+³T I nqT¿=qTeTT. zýÙ¼ MT³sY ¯&+>´ Å£L&† (11.17)
rdŸ T ¿=qTeTT. ‚~ neT]¿£ yî + ‹& >· \ , dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T (11.15) qT+& (11.17) qT ‹{ì¼
bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uñ<óŠ+ V qT Ôî*jáTCñdŸTï+~. ç|ŸÜ V/Rp = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
“sÃ<óŠ¿£+ yî+‹& bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ Å£L&† V ýñ<‘
neÚÔáT+~. zýÙ¼ MT³sÁTqT ç|ŸÜ “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ yî+‹&
neT]Ì B““ “sÆ]+#áT¿Ãe#áTÌ (|Ÿ³eTT 11.11 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 (11.18)
#áÖ&ƒTeTT) ‡ $<óŠ+>± dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± dŸ+<ó‘“+|Ÿ‹&q “sÃ<óŠ¿±\
■ |Ÿ¢>´ qT+& ¿¡ qT Ô=\Ð+#á+&. e\jáT+ qT+& dŸeTÖVŸ² |˜Ÿ*Ôá “sÃ<óŠ+ jîTT¿£Ø $ýËeT+, $& $& “sÃ<ó‘\
nMTˆ³sY, zýÙ¼ MT³sÁ¢qT rd¾yûjáT+&. |Ÿ³+ 11.11 $ýËeÖ\ yîTTÔï“¿ì dŸeÖqeT“ “sÆ]+#áe#áTÌ.
ýË #áÖ|¾q $<óŠ+>± e\jáT+ýË nMTˆ³sYqT
“sÃ<óŠ¿£+ R ÔÃ çXâDìýË dŸ+<ó‘q+ #ûjáT+&.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 11.8
1
nMTˆ³sY ¯&+>´ I qT >·T]ï+#á+&.

1
|Ÿ³eTT 11.10 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáT |Ÿ³eTTýË 12 V
u²«³¯Å£” ¿£\|Ÿ‹&q “sÃ<óŠ¿±\T R , R eT]jáTT R \
1 2 3
“sÃ<ó‘\T esÁTdŸ>± 5 Ω, 10Ω eT]jáTT 30 Ω \T nsTTq

(m) ç|ŸÜ “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ >·T+&† $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT
(_) e\jáT+ýË“ yîTTÔáï+ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+ eT]jáTT
|Ÿ³+ 11.11
(d¾) yîTTÔáïeTT e\jáT “sÃ<óŠeTT ¿£qT>=q+&?
■ ‚<û $<óŠ+>±, R2 eT]jáTT R3 \ >·T+&† $<ŠT«ÔY kÍ<óŠq
ç|ŸyVŸä\qT ¿=\e+&. ‚$ esÁTdŸ>± I2 eT]jáTT I3
\T>± >·T]ï+#á+&. I, I1, I2 eT]jáTT I3 \ eT<óŠ« R1 = 5 Ω, R2 = 10 Ω, eT]jáTT R3 = 30 Ω.
dŸ+‹+<óŠ+ @$T{ì? u²«³¯ jîTT¿£Ø bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ V = 12 V.
ç|ŸÜ “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ yî+‹& bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ Å£L&† n<û neÚÔáT+~
¿±eÚq “sÃ<óŠ¿±\ýË $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸä“• >·Dì+#áT³Å£” zyŽT
e\jáT+ýË“ yîTTÔáï+ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+ I, ç|ŸÜ XæKýË“ “jáTeÖ“• –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïeTT “sÃ<óŠeTT R >·T+&† $<ŠT«ÔY
1
$$<óŠ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸä\ yîTTÔï“¿ì dŸeÖqeT“ >·eT“+#áe#áTÌ. ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT I = V/ R

1 1
I = I1+ I2 + I3 (11.15) I1=12 V/5 Ω = 2.4 A.

Rp qT “sÃ<óŠ¿±\ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ dŸ+<ó‘q+ jîTT¿£Ø |˜Ÿ*Ôá R2 >·T+&† $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+ I2 = V/ R2
“sÃ<óŠeTqT¿=qTeTT. dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± ¿£\|Ÿ‹&q “sÃ<óŠ¿±\Å£” I2=12 V/10 Ω = 1.2 A.
zyŽT “jáTeÖ“• nqTe]ï+|ŸCñd¾q, R3 >·T+&† $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+ I3=V/R3
I = V/Rp (11.16) I3 =12 V/30 Ω = 0.4 A.
265
II
The total current in the circuit, that is, R = 10 Ω.
I = I1+ I2 + I3 Thus, the total resistance, R = RI + RII = 18 Ω.
= (2.4 + 1.2 + 0.4) A To calculate the current, we use Ohm’s law, and
= 4A get
The total resistance Rp, is given by [Eq. (11.18)] I = V/R = 12 V/18 Ω = 0.67 A.
1 1 1 1 1
= + + = We have seen that in a series circuit the
R p 5 10 30 3 current is constant throughout the electric
Thus, Rp = 3 Ω. circuit. Thus it is obviously impracticable to
Example 11.9 connect an electric bulb and an electric heater in
series, because they need currents of widely
If in Fig. 11.12, R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 40 Ω, R3 = 30 Ω, different values to operate properly (see
R4 = 20 Ω, R5 = 60 Ω, and a 12 V battery is Example 11.3). Another major disadvantage of
connected to the arrangement. Calculate a series circuit is that when one component fails
(a) the total resistance in the circuit, and (b) the the circuit is broken and none of the
total current flowing in the circuit. components works. If you have used ‘fairy
Solution lights’ to decorate buildings on festivals, on
marriage celebrations etc., you might have seen
Suppose we replace the parallel resistors R1
the electrician spending lot of time in trouble-
and R2 by an equivalent resistor of resistance,
I locating and replacing the ‘dead’ bulb – each
R . Similarly we replace the parallel resistors has to be tested to find which has fused or gone.
R3, R4 and R5 by an equivalent single resistor of On the other hand, a parallel circuit divides the
II
resistance R . Then using Eq. (11.18), we have current through the electrical gadgets. The total
I I
1/ R = 1/10 + 1/40 = 5/40; that is R = 8 Ω. resistance in a parallel circuit is decreased as
II
per Eq. (11.18). This is helpful particularly
Similarly, 1/ R =1/30 + 1/20 + 1/60 = 6/60; when each gadget has different resistance and
requires different current to operate properly.
1. Judge the equivalent resistance when

the following are connected in parallel
6 3
– (a) 1 Ω and 10 Ω, (b) 1 Ω and 10 Ω,
6
and 10 Ω.
2. An electric lamp of 100 Ω, a toaster of
resistance 50 Ω, and a water filter of
resistance 500 Ω are connected in
parallel to a 220 V source. What is the
resistance of an electric iron
connected to the same source that
takes as much current as all three
Figure 11.12
An electric circuit showing
the combination of series and parallel resistors
266
appliances, and what is the current
through it?
?
e\jáT+ýË yîTTÔáï+ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT, nq>± RII = 10 Ω

I = I1+ I2 + I3 ¿±eÚq yîTTÔáï+ “sÃ<óŠ+R = RI + RII = 18 Ω.
= (2.4 + 1.2 + 0.4) A ç|ŸyVŸ² $<ŠT«ÔYqT ýÉ¿ìØ+#áT³Å£”, eTq+ zyŽT “jáTeÖ“•
= 4A –|ŸjîÖÐ+#á>±
|˜Ÿ*Ôá “sÃ<óŠeTT Rp, (dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT 11.18 qT+&) I = V/R = 12 V/18 Ω = 0.67 A.
1 1 1 1 1 çXâDì e\jáT+ýË ç|ŸeV¾²+#û $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáT+ n+Ôá{²
= + + =
R p 5 10 30 3 d¾œsÁ+>± –+&ƒ&†“• eTq+ >·eT“+#eTT. n+<ŠTe\¢ ÿ¿£
¿±eÚq, Rp = 3 Ω. e\jáT+ýË $<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒ eT]jáTT $<ŠT«ÔY VÓ²³sÁT\qT çXâDìýË
¿£\|ŸÅ£L&ƒ<ŠT. m+<ŠT¿£+fñ n$ dŸç¿£eT+>± |Ÿ“#ûjáTT³Å£” y{ì¿ì
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 11.9 yû¹sÇsÁT $\Te\T >·\ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸä\T nedŸsÁ+ (–<‘VŸ²sÁD
|Ÿ³eTT 11.12 ýË“ neT]¿£Å£” R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 40 Ω, 11.3 #áÖ&ƒ+&). çXâDì e\jáT+ e\q eTs=¿£ ç|Ÿ<ó‘q ç|ŸÜÅ£L\Ôá
R3 = 30 Ω, R4 = 20 Ω, R5 = 60 Ω,eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ 12 V @$T³+fñ ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]¿£sÁ+ |Ÿ“#ûjáT¿£bþÔû e\jáT+ ÔîsÁe‹&
u²«³¯ dŸ+<ó‘q+ #ûjáT‹&q~. nsTTq (m) e\jáT+ýË yîTTÔáï+ $TÐ*q n“• |Ÿ]¿£s\T Å£L&† |Ÿ“#ûjáTeÚ. |Ÿ+&ƒT>·\T eT]jáTT
“sÃ<óŠeTTqT eT]jáTT (_) e\jáT+ýË ç|ŸeV¾²+#û yîTTÔáï+ ™|[¢ –Ôá à y\T yî T T<Š ý É Õ q dŸ + <Š s ÒÛ \ ýË uó „ e H\qT
n\+¿£]+#á&†“¿ì ™|˜sTT¯ ‹\TÒ\qT –|ŸjîÖÐdŸTï+{²sÁT.
$<ŠT«ÔáTïqT ýÉ¿ìØ+#á+&.
#î&bþsTTq ‹\TÒqT >·T]ï+º <‘““ Ô=\Ð+º eTs=¿£ ‹\TÒÔÃ
kÍ<óŠq <‘““ uó„¯ï #ûjáTT³Å£” m\ç¿¡¼w¾jáTHŽ #ý² dŸeTjáÖ“•
dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ “sÃ<óŠ¿±\T R eT]jáTT R ‹<ŠT\T>± dŸeÖq
1 2
yîºÌ+#á&†“• MTsÁT >·eT“+º –+{²sÁT. ç|ŸÜ ‹\TÒqT
|˜Ÿ*Ôá “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ R ÔÃ uó„¯ï #ûXæsÁqTÅ£”+<‘+. n<û$<óŠ+>±, |Ÿ]o*+º n~ ¿£]ÐbþsTT+<Ã ýñ<‘ #î&bþsTT+<Ã >·T]ï+#*à
–+³T+~. eTsÃyîÕ|ŸÚ, ÿ¿£ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ e\jáT+ $<ŠT«ÔY |Ÿ]¿£s\
dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ “sÃ<óŠ¿±\T R , R eT]jáTT R \Å£” ‹<ŠT\T>± RII
3 4 5
>·T+&† ç|ŸyVŸä“• $uó„›dŸTï+~. dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT 11.18 ç|Ÿ¿±sÁeTT
ÔÃ uó„¯ï #ûXæsÁqTÅ£”+<‘+. n|Ÿð&ƒT dŸMT¿£sÁD+ (11.18) qT dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ e\jáT+ýË |˜Ÿ*Ôá “sÃ<óŠeTT Ôá>·TZÔáT+~. ç|Ÿr
–|ŸjîÖÐ+#á>±, |Ÿ]¿£sÁ+ yû¹sÇsÁT “sÃ<ó‘\qT ¿£*Ð n$ dŸç¿£eT+>± |Ÿ“#ûjáTT³Å£”
I
1/ R = 1/10 + 1/40=5/40; nq>± R = 8 Ω.
I
yû¹sÇsÁT $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸä\T nedŸsÁyîT®q dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ýË ç|ŸÔû«¿£+>±
n<û$<óŠ+>± ,1/ RII =1/30 + 1/20 + 1/60 = 6/60; ‚~ –|ŸjîÖ>·|Ÿ&ƒTÔáT+~.
ç|Ÿ Xø• \T
1. ç¿ì+~ y{ì“ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± ¿£*|¾q|ŸÚ&ƒT |˜Ÿ*Ôá
“sÃ<ó‘“• “sÆ]+#á+&.
(m) 1 Ω eT]jáTT 106 Ω, (_) 1 Ω eT]jáTT 103 Ω,
eT]jáTT 106 Ω.
2. 100 Ω >·\ ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒ, 50 Ω “sÃ<óŠeTT >·\
ÿ¿£ {ËdŸ¼sY, 500 Ω “sÃ<óŠeTT ¿£\ y³sY |˜¾\¼sY\T
220 V Èq¿£+ÔÃ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± ¿£\|Ÿ‹&†¦sTT. ‡
eTÖ&ƒT |Ÿ]¿£s\T rdŸTÅ£”Hû $<ŠT«ÔYÅ£” dŸeÖqyîT®q
|Ÿ³eTT 11.12
“sÃ<ó‘\ çXâDì eT]jáTT dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ dŸ+<ó‘H\qT
dŸÖº+#û $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáTeTT
Èq¿±“¿ì ¿£\|Ÿ‹&Ôû <‘“ “sÃ<óŠeTT m+Ôá? <‘“
>·T+&† ç|ŸeV¾²+#û $<ŠT«ÔY m+Ôá? ?
$<ŠT«ÔYqT rdŸTÅ£”Hû eTs=¿£ ×sÁHŽ u²¿ùà Å£L&† ‚<û
267
Consider a current I flowing through a

3. W h a t a r e t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f resistor of resistance R. Let the potential
connecting electrical devices in difference across it be V (Fig. 11.13). Let t be
parallel with the battery instead of the time during which a charge Q flows across.
connecting them in series? The work done in moving the charge Q through
4. How can three resistors of resistances a potential difference V is VQ. Therefore, the
2 Ω, 3 Ω, and 6 Ω be connected to give source must supply energy equal to VQ in time
a total resistance of (a) 4 Ω, (b) 1 Ω? t. Hence the power input to the circuit by the
5. What is (a) the highest, (b) the lowest source is
total resistance that can be secured by Q (11.19)
P=V = VI
combinations of four coils of t
resistance 4 Ω, 8 Ω, 12 Ω, 24 Ω? Or the energy supplied to the circuit by the
source in time t is P × t, that is, VIt. What
happens to this energy expended by the
source? This energy gets dissipated in the
11.7 HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC resistor as heat. Thus for a steady
CURRENT current I, the amount of heat H produced in
time t is
We know that a battery or a cell is a source of
electrical energy. The chemical reaction within H = VIt (11.20)
the cell generates the potential difference Applying Ohm’s law [Eq. (11.5)], we get
between its two terminals that sets the electrons 2
in motion to flow the current through a resistor H = I Rt (11.21)
or a system of resistors connected to the battery. This is known as Joule’s law of heating.
We have also seen, in Section 11.2, that to The law implies that heat produced in a resistor
maintain the current, the source has to keep is (i) directly proportional to the square of
expending its energy. Where does this energy current for a given resistance, (ii) directly
go? A part of the source energy in maintaining proportional to resistance for a given current,
the current may be consumed into useful work and (iii) directly proportional to the time for
(like in rotating the blades of an electric fan). which the current flows through the resistor. In
Rest of the source energy may be expended in practical situations, when an electric appliance
heat to raise the temperature of gadget. We is connected to a known voltage source, Eq.
often observe this in our everyday life. For (11.21) is used after calculating the current
example, an electric fan becomes warm if used through it, using the relation I = V/R.
continuously for longer time etc. On the other
hand, if the electric circuit is purely resistive,
that is, a configuration of resistors only
connected to a battery; the source energy
continually gets dissipated entirely in the form
of heat. This is known as the heating effect of
electric current. This effect is utilised in devices
such as electric heater, electric iron etc. Figure 11.13
A steady current in a purely resistive electric circuit
268
(|Ÿ³eTT 11.13). Q €yûXøeTT ç|ŸeV¾²+#á&†“¿ì |Ÿ³T¼ ¿±\eTT t
3. $<ŠT«ÔY |Ÿ]¿£s\qT u²«³¯¿ì çXâDìýË ¿£\|Ÿ&ƒ+ nqT¿=qTeTT. Q €yûXøeTT V bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uñ<óŠ+ >·T+&†
¿£+fñ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± ¿£\|Ÿ&ƒ+ e\q ç|ŸjîÖÈH\T
ç|ŸeV¾²+#áT³Å£” ÈsÁT>·T |Ÿ“ VQ. ¿±eÚq, Èq¿£+ ‘t’ ¿±\+ýË
@$T{ì?
‘VQ’ Å£” dŸeÖqyîT®q Xø¿ìï“ dŸsÁ|˜Ÿs #ûjáÖ*. ¿±eÚq Èq¿£+#û
4. 2 Ω, 3 Ω, eT]jáTT 6 Ω “sÃ<ó‘\T >·\ eTÖ&ƒT
e\jáT+ýË“¿ì ç|Ÿyû¥+|ŸCñjáTe\d¾q kÍeTsÁœ«+.
“sÃ<óŠ¿±\qT mý² dŸ+<ó‘q+ #ûdï |˜Ÿ*Ôá “sÃ<óŠeTT
Q
(m) 4 Ω (_) 1 Ω neÚÔáT+~? P=V = VI (11.19)
t
5. 4 Ω, 8 Ω, 12 Ω, 24 Ω “sÃ<ó‘\T >·\ H\T>·T ýñ<‘ t ¿±\+ýË Èq¿£+ e\q e\jáT+ýË dŸsÁ|˜Ÿs
r>· #áT³¼\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º $$<óŠ sÁ¿±\T>± #û j á T ‹& q Xø ¿ ì ï P × t , nq>±, VIt . Èq¿£ + #û Ô á
¿£*|¾q|ŸÚ&ƒT bõ+<Š>·\ (a) >·]wŸ¼, (b) ¿£“wŸ¼ |˜Ÿ*Ôá $“jîÖÐ+|Ÿ‹&q ‡ Xø¿ìï @eTeÚÔáT+~? ‡ Xø¿ìï “sÃ<óŠ¿±\ýË
“sÃ<óŠeTT m+Ôá?
–wŸ’eTT>± eÖsÁTÔáT+~. ¿±eÚq d¾œsÁ+>± –q• $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT
I e\q, ‘t’ ¿±\+ýË È“+|Ÿ‹&q –wŸ’eTT H nsTTq
11.7 $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+ jîTT¿£Ø –wŸ’ |˜Ÿ*ÔáeTT
H = VIt (11.20)
u²«³¯ ýñ<‘ |˜ŸT³eTT $<ŠT«ÔY Xø¿ìï¿ì Èq¿£+>± –+³T+<Š“ zyŽT “jáTeTeTTqT e]ï+|ŸCñd¾q (dŸMT¿£sÁD+ 11.5)
eTqÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. |˜ŸT³eTTýË n+ÔásÁZÔá+>± È]¹> sÁkÍjáTq 2
#ásÁ«\T <‘“ Âs+&ƒT ºesÁ\ bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<‘“• ¿£*Ð+º H = I Rt (11.21)
u²«³¯¿ì nqTdŸ+<ó‘q+ #ûjáT‹&q “sÃ<óŠ¿£eTT ýñ<‘ “sÃ<óŠ¿±\ B“Hû C…ýÙ –wŸ’ “jáTeTeTT n+{²sÁT. ‡ “jáTeT+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+
e«edŸœ >·T+&† $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸä“¿ì ¿±e\d¾q m\ç¿±¼HŽ\ #á\H“• ÿ¿£ “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ýË –ÔáÎÔáïjûT« –wŸ’+ (i) ‚ºÌq “sÃ<óŠ+ e<ŠÝ,
¿£*ÐdŸTï+~. $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸä“• ¿=qkÍÐ+#á&†“¿ì ÿ¿£ Èq¿£+ ç|ŸyVŸ² $<ŠT«ÔY esZ“¿ì nqTýËeÖqTbÍÔá+ýËqT, (ii) ‚ºÌq
“sÁ+ÔásÁ+ Xø¿ìï“ yîºÌ+#áe\d¾ –+³T+<Š“ $uó²>·eTT 11.2 ýË $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+ e<ŠÝ, “sÃ<ó‘“¿ì nqTýËeÖqTbÍÔá+ýËqT
#áÖXæeTT. ‡ Xø¿ìï m¿£Ø&¿ì yîÞø—ÔáT+~? Èq¿£+ Xø¿ìïýË eT]jáTT (iii) “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ >·T+&† $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyV¾²+ºq ¿±ý²“¿ì
¿=+Ôáuó²>·eTT –|ŸjîÖ>·¿£sÁyîT®q |Ÿ“ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË (b˜Í«qT jîTT¿£Ø nqTýËeÖqTbÍÔá+ýËqT –+³T+~. ydŸïe |Ÿ]d¾œÔáT\ýË ÿ¿£
Âs¿£Ø\T ÜsÁ>·&ƒ+ e+{ì) $“jîÖÐ+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~. Èq¿£+ jîTT¿£Ø |Ÿ ] ¿£ s “• zýñ ¼ J Ôî * d¾ q Èq¿±“¿ì dŸ + <ó ‘ q+ #û d ¾
$TÐ*q Xø¿ìï $<ŠT«ÔY |Ÿ]¿£sÁ+ jîTT¿£Ø –cþ’ç>·ÔáqT ™|+#á&†“¿ì –q•|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, I = V/R dŸ+‹+<ó‘“• –|ŸjîÖÐ+º $<ŠT«ÔY
KsÁ Ì eÚÔá T +~. B““ eTqeTT Ôá s Á # á T >± “Ôá « J$Ôá + ýË ç|ŸyVŸä“• ýÉ¿ìØ+ºq ÔásÁTyÔá dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT (11.21) “
>·eT“kÍï+. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” ÿ¿£ m\ç¿ì¼¿ù b˜Í«HŽqT “sÁ+ÔásÁeTT –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT.
mÅ£”Øed|ŸÚ –|ŸjîÖÐ+#á&ƒ+ e\¢ n~ yû&îÅ£”ØÔáT+~. eTsÃyîÕ|ŸÚ
|ŸP]ï “sÃ<óŠ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáT+, nq>± u²«³¯¿ì “sÃ<ó‘\ e«edŸœ
eÖçÔáyûT ¿£\|Ÿ‹&q|ŸÚ&ƒT, Èq¿£+ jîTT¿£Ø Xø¿ìï “sÁ+ÔásÁ+>± –wŸ’
sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË¿ì eÖsÁTÔáT+~. B““ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+ jîTT¿£Ø –wŸ’
|˜Ÿ*ÔáeTT n+{²sÁT. ‡ |˜Ÿ*ÔáeTT $<ŠT«ÔY VÓ²³sÁT, $<ŠT«ÔY ‚çdÓï
™|fÉ¼ yîTT<Š\>·T |Ÿ]¿£s\ýË $“jîÖÐ+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
R“sÃ<óŠeTT >·\ “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ >·T+&† I $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸeV¾²dŸTï+~ |Ÿ³+ 11.13 “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ |ŸP]ï “sÃ<óŠ¿£ e\jáTeTTýË
nqT¿=qTeTT. <‘“ ºesÁ\ bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uñ<óŠ+ V nqT¿=qTeTT d¾œsÁyîT®q $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT
269
Example 11.10 V = IR
An electric iron consumes energy at a rate of = 5A× 4 Ω
840 W when heating is at the maximum rate and = 20 V.
360 W when the heating is at the minimum. The
voltage is 220 V. What are the current and the
resistance in each case? 1. Why does the cord of an electric
Solution heater not glow while the heating
element does?
From Eq. (11.19), we know that the power input
2. Compute the heat generated while
is P = V I
transferring 96000 coulomb of charge
Thus the current I = P/V in one hour through a potential
difference of 50 V.
(a) When heating is at the maximum rate,
3. An electric iron of resistance 20 Ω
I = 840 W/220 V = 3.82 A; takes a current of 5 A. Calculate the
and the resistance of the electric iron is
R = V/I = 220 V/3.82 A = 57.60 Ω.
(b) When heating is at the minimum rate,
heat developed in 30 s.
?
11.7.1 Practical Applications of Heating
I = 360 W/220 V = 1.64 A; Effect of Electric Current
and the resistance of the electric iron is The generation of heat in a conductor is an
R = V/I = 220 V/1.64 A = 134.15Ω. inevitable consequence of electric current. In
many cases, it is undesirable as it converts
Example 11.11 useful electrical energy into heat. In electric
circuits, the unavoidable heating can increase
100 J of heat is produced each second in a 4 Ω the temperature of the components and alter
resistance. Find the potential difference across their properties. However, heating effect of
the resistor. electric current has many useful applications.
The electric laundry iron, electric toaster,
Solution electric oven, electric kettle and electric heater
H = 100 J, R = 4 Ω, t = 1 s, V = ? are some of the familiar devices based on
Joule’s heating.
From Eq. (11.21) we have the current through The electric heating is also used to produce
the resistor as light, as in an electric bulb. Here, the filament
I = √(H/Rt) must retain as much of the heat generated as is
possible, so that it gets very hot and emits light.
= √[100 J/(4 Ω ×1 s)]
It must not melt at such high temperature. A
= 5A strong metal with high melting point such as
tungsten (melting point 3380°C) is used for
Thus the potential difference across the resistor,
making bulb filaments. The filament should be
V [from Eq. (11.5)] is
thermally isolated as much as possible, using
insulating support, etc. The bulbs are usually
270
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 11.10 V = IR
ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY ‚çdÓï ™|fÉ¼qT >·]wŸ¼ ¹s³TýË yû& #ûd¾q|ŸÚ&ƒT <‘“ Xø¿ìï = 5A× 4 Ω
$“jîÖ>· ¹s³T 840 W eT]jáTT ¿£“wŸ¼+>± yû& #ûd¾q|ŸÚ&ƒT = 20 V.
360W. zýñ¼› $\Te 220 V. ç|ŸÜ dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ýË ç|ŸyVŸ² $<ŠT«ÔY ç|Ÿ Xø• \T
eT]jáTT “sÃ<óŠeTT\T m+Ôá?
1. $<ŠT«ÔY VÓ²³sY jîTT¿£Ø Ô|Ÿq uó²>·eTT yû&îÅ£”ØÔáT+~
kÍ<óŠq ¿±ú <‘“ r>· yû&î¿£Ø<ŠT m+<ŠTe\q?
dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT (11.19) qT+&, $<ŠT«ÔY kÍeTsÁœ«eTTP = V I n“ 2. 50VbõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ >·T+&† 96000 Å£L\Ö+uÙ
eTqÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. €yûXæ“• ÿ¿£ >·+³ bÍ³T ç|ŸeV¾²+|ŸCñd¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT
–ÔáÎÜï njûT« –wŸ’eTTqT ýÉ¿ìØ+#á+&?
¿±eÚq $<ŠT«ÔáTï I = P/V
3. 20 Ω “sÃ<óŠeTT >·\ $<ŠT«ÔY ‚çdÓï ™|fÉ¼ 5A
(m) >·]wŸ¼ ¹s³TýË yû& #ûd¾q|ŸÚ&ƒT, $<ŠT«ÔYqT $“jîÖÐ+#áTÅ£”+³T+~. 30 ™d.ýË
I = 840 W/220 V = 3.82 A;
eT]jáTT $<ŠT«ÔY ‚çdÓï ™|fÉ¼ “sÃ<óŠeTT
R = V/I = 220 V/3.82 A = 57.60 Ω.
–ÔáÎÜï njûT« –wŸ’eTTqT ýÉ¿ìØ+#á+&.
?
11.7.1 $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²|ŸÚ –wŸ’ |˜Ÿ*Ôá+ jîTT¿£Ø ydŸï$¿£
(_) ¿£“wŸ¼ ¹s³TýË yû& #ûd¾q|ŸÚ&ƒT nqTesÁïH\T
I = 360 W/220 V = 1.64 A; ÿ¿£ yVŸ²¿£eTTýË –wŸ’+ –ÔáÎÜï nHû~ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+
eT]jáTT $<ŠT«ÔY ‚çdÓï ™|fÉ¼ “sÃ<óŠeTT jîTT¿£Ø n“ysÁ« |˜Ÿ*ÔáeTT. |Ÿ\T dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\ýË –|ŸjîÖ>·¿£sÁyîT®q
$<ŠT«ÔY Xø¿ìï –wŸ’eTT>± eÖsÁT³ ny+#óáújáTeTT. $<ŠT«ÔY
R = V/I = 220 V/1.64 A = 134.15Ω.
e\jáÖ\ýË n“ysÁ« –wŸ’+ e\q |Ÿ]¿£s\ –cþ’ç>·Ôá ™|]Ð
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 11.11 y{ì <óŠsˆ\T eÖ]bþÔsTT. @~ @yîT®q|ŸÎ{ì¿¡ $<ŠT«ÔY jîTT¿£Ø
ÿ¿£ 4 Ω \ “sÃ<óŠeTTýË ™d¿£qTÅ£” 100 J –wŸ’eTT –ÔáÎÜï –wŸ’ |˜Ÿ*ÔáeTT nHû¿£ –|ŸjîÖ>·¿£sÁyîT®q nqTesÁïH\qT ¿£*Ð
neÚÔáT+~. € “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ yî+‹& >·\ bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<‘“• –+~. $<ŠT«ÔY ‚çdÓï ™|fÉ¼, $<ŠT«ÔY {ËdŸ¼sY, $<ŠT«ÔY zyîHŽ, $<ŠT«ÔY
¿£qT¿ÃØ+&. Â¿{ìýÙ eT]jáTT $<ŠT«ÔY VÓ²³sÁT nHû$ C…ýÙ Ô|Ÿq+ €<ó‘sÁ+>±
|Ÿ“#ûd ¿=“• dŸT|Ÿ]ºÔá |Ÿ]¿£s\T.
kÍ<óŠq
H = 100 J, R = 4 Ω, t = 1 s, V = ? $<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒýË eýÉ $<ŠT«ÔY e\¢ È“+ºq –wŸ¼+ ¿±+Ü“
dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT (11.21) qT+& “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ >·T+&† $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT –ÔáÎÜï #ûjáTT³Å£” –|ŸjîÖ>·|Ÿ&ƒTÔáT+~. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ –ÔáÎÜï nsTTq
–wŸ’eTTýË |˜¾\yîT+{Ù kÍ<óŠ«yîT®q+Ôá mÅ£”Øe yû&“ Å£L&† “*|¾
I = √(H/Rt) –+#*. Ôá<‘Çs n~ u²>± yû&î¿ìØ ¿±+Ü“ –<‘ZsÁ+ #ûdŸTï+~. €
= √[100 J/(4 Ω ×1 s)] n~ó¿£ –cþ’ç>·Ôá e<ŠÝ n~ ¿£sÁ>·Å£L&ƒ<ŠT. ³+>´dŸ¼HŽ e+{ì n~ó¿£
ç<ŠMuó„eq kÍœqeTT ¿£\ >·{ì¼ ýËVŸä“• (ç<ŠMuó„eqkÍœqeTT 3380
= 5A °C) ‹\TÒ\ |˜¾\ yîT+{Ù ÔájáÖ¯ýË –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsÁT. ‡
¿±eÚq “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ yî+‹& bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uñ<óŠ+, V (dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT |˜¾\yîT+³T kÍ<óŠ«yîT®q+Ôá esÁÅ£” –wŸ’ ç|ŸdŸsÁD #ûjáTÅ£”+&†
(11.5) qT+&), yûsÁT|ŸsÁ#á‹& –+&†*. kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± |˜¾\yîT+³T J$Ôá¿±ý²“•
271
filled with chemically inactive nitrogen and 1 W = 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1 V A (11.23)

argon gases to prolong the life of filament. Most The unit ‘watt’ is very small. Therefore, in
of the power consumed by the filament appears actual practice we use a much larger unit called
as heat, but a small part of it is in the form of ‘kilowatt’. It is equal to 1000 watts. Since
light radiated. electrical energy is the product of power and
Another common application of Joule’s time, the unit of electric energy is, therefore,
heating is the fuse used in electric circuits. It watt hour (W h). One watt hour is the energy
protects circuits and appliances by stopping the consumed when 1 watt of power is used for 1
flow of any unduly high electric current. The hour. The commercial unit of electric energy is
fuse is placed in series with the device. It kilowatt hour (kW h), commonly known as
consists of a piece of wire made of a metal or an ‘unit’.
alloy of appropriate melting point, for example 1 kW h = 1000 watt × 3600 second
aluminium, copper, iron, lead etc. If a current
larger than the specified value flows through the = 3.6 × 106 watt second
6
circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire = 3.6 × 10 joule (J)
increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks
the circuit. The fuse wire is usually encased in a
cartridge of porcelain or similar material with Many people think that electrons are
metal ends. The fuses used for domestic consumed in an electric circuit. This is
purposes are rated as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A,
wrong! We pay the electricity board or
etc. For an electric iron which consumes 1 kW
electric company to provide energy to
electric power when operated at 220 V, a
current of (1000/220) A, that is, 4.54 A will flow move electrons through the electric
in the circuit. In this case, a 5 A fuse must be gadgets like electric bulb, fan and
used. engines. We pay for the energy that we
11.8 ELECTRIC POWER use.
You have studied in your earlier Class that Example 11.12

the rate of doing work is power. This is also the An electric bulb is connected to a 220 V
rate of consumption of energy. generator. The current is 0.50 A. What is the
power of the bulb?
Equation (11.21) gives the rate at which
electric energy is dissipated or consumed in an Solution
electric circuit. This is also termed as electric P = VI
power. The power P is given by
= 220 V× 0.50 A
P = VI
2 2
= 110 J/s
Or P = I R = V /R (11.22)
= 110 W.
The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). It is
Example 11.13
the power consumed by a device that carries 1 A
An electric refrigerator rated 400 W operates 8
of current when operated at a potential
hour/day. What is the cost of the energy to
difference of 1 V. Thus,
operate it for 30 days at Rs 3.00 per kW h?
272
™|+#á&†“¿ì ‹\TÒ\T sÁkÍjáT“¿£+>± ç¿ìjáÖ sÁV¾²ÔáyîT®q qçÔáÈ“ 1 W = 1 zýÙ¼ × 1 n+|¾jáTsY = 1 V A (11.23)

eT]jáTT €sZHŽ yjáTTeÚ\ÔÃ “+|Ÿ‹& –+{²sTT. |˜¾\yîT+³T
»»y{ÙµµnHû ç|ŸeÖDeTT #ý² ºq•~. ¿±eÚq, ydŸïe
$“jî Ö Ð+#û $<Š T «ÔY kÍeTsÁ œ « +ýË n~ó ¿ £ uó ² >· e TT y&ƒT¿£ýË ™|<ŠÝ ç|ŸeÖDeTT »¿ìýËy{Ùµ qT y&ƒTÔeTT. ‚~ 1000
–wŸ’sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýËqÖ, ¿=~Ý uó²>·eTT eÖçÔáyûT ¿±+Ü sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýËqÖ y{Ù \Å£” dŸeÖqeTT. $<ŠT«ÔY Xø¿ìï nHû~ kÍeTsÁœ«eTT eT]jáTT
–<‘ZsÁeTeÚÔáT+~. ¿±\eTT\ \‹ÝeTT ¿±‹{ì¼, $<ŠT«ÔY Xø¿ìï¿ì ç|ŸeÖDeTT y{Ù nesY
C…ýÙ Ô|Ÿq+ jîTT¿£Ø eTs=¿£ kÍ<ó‘sÁD –|ŸjîÖ>·eTT (Wh) neÚÔáT+~. ÿ¿£ >·+³ bÍ³T ÿ¿£ y{Ù kÍeTsÁœ«+
$<ŠT«ÔY e\jáÖ\ýË –|ŸjîÖÐ+#û |˜ŸP«CÙ. ‚~ n~ó¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY –|ŸjîÖÐ+ºq|ŸÚ&ƒT n¿£Ø&ƒ $“jîÖÐ+#á‹&q Xø¿ìï“ ÿ¿£ y{Ù
ç|ŸyVŸä“• €|¾ $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáÖ“• eT]jáTT $<ŠT«ÔY |Ÿ]¿£s\qT nesY n+{²sÁT. $<ŠT«ÔY Xø¿ìï¿ì yDìÈ« ç|ŸeÖDeTT ¿ìýË y{Ù
¿±bÍ&ƒTÔáT+~. |˜ŸP«CÙqT |Ÿ]¿£sÁ+ÔÃ çXâDìýË ¿£*|¾ –+#áTÔsÁT. nesY (kWh), kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± B““ ÿ¿£ jáTÖ“{Ù n+{²sÁT.
‚~ ÔáÐq ç<ŠMuó„eq kÍœq+ >·\ ýËVŸ²+ÔÃ ýñ<‘ $TçXøeTýËVŸ²+ÔÃ 1 kW h = 1000 y{Ù ´ × 3600 ™d¿£+&Ž
ÔájáÖÂsÕq r>·e TT¿£ØqT ¿£*Ð –+³T+~. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”
n\Ö«$T“jáT+, sÐ, ‚qTeTT, dÓdŸ+ yîTT<ŠýÉÕq$. e\jáT+ = 3.6 × 106 y{Ù ™d¿£+&Ž
>·T+&† “¹sÝ¥+ºq $<ŠT«ÔY ¿£+fñ n~ó¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT = 3.6 × 106 C…ýÙ (J)
–q•|ŸÚÎ&ƒT |˜ŸP«CÙ yîÕsY jîTT¿£Ø –cþ’ç>·Ôá ™|sÁT>·TÔáT+~. B“e\q
|˜ŸP«CÙ yîÕsÁT ¿£]Ð $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáTeTT ÔîsÁe‹&ƒTÔáT+~. eT]+Ôá Ôî\TdŸTÅ£”+<‘+!
kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± |˜ŸP«CÙ yîÕsÁTqT ÿ¿£ |¾+>±Dì ýñ<‘ ný²+{ì |Ÿ<‘sÁÆ|ŸÚ $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáT+ýË m\ç¿±¼qT¢ $“jîÖÐ+|Ÿ‹&ƒÔsTT n“
nsÁýË –+#áTÔsÁT. >·VŸ² nedŸs\ ¿ÃdŸ+ $“jîÖÐ+#û
#ý²eT+~ nqTÅ£”+{²sÁT. ‚~ Ôá|ŸÚÎ! $<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒ,
|˜ŸP«E\T 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A, yîTT<Š\>·T $<óŠ+>± b˜Í«qT eT]jáTT ‚+›HŽ ý²+{ì $<ŠT«ÔY |Ÿ]¿£s\ >·T+&†
>·T]ï+#á‹& –+{²sTT. 220 v e<ŠÝ 1 kW $<ŠT«ÔY kÍeTsœ«“•
m\ç¿±¼HŽ\qT #á*+|Ÿ#ûjáT&†“¿ì Xø¿ìï“ dŸeTÅ£L]Ìq+<ŠTÅ£”
$“jîÖÐ+#áTÅ£”Hû $<ŠT«ÔY ‚çdÓï ™|fÉ¼ >·T+&† (1000/220 A),
$<ŠT«ÔY uËsÁT¦ ýñ<‘ $<ŠT«ÔY ¿£+™|ú\Å£” eTqeTT #î*¢+|ŸÚ
nq>± 4.54 A $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸeV¾²dŸTï+~. ‡ dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ýË ÿ¿£ 5 A
|˜ŸP«CÙqT –|ŸjîÖÐ+#áe\d¾ –+³T+~. #ûkÍïeTT. eTqeTT –|ŸjîÖÐ+#û Xø¿ìï¿ì eTqeTT #î*¢+|ŸÚ
#ûkÍïeTT.
11.8 $<ŠT«ÔY kÍeTsÁœ«+
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 11.12
|Ÿ“ #ûd ¹s³THû kÍeTsÁœ«+ n+{²sÁT n“ MTsÁT ç¿ì+~ ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒ 220 V Èq¹s³sYÅ£” dŸ+<ó‘q+ #ûjáT‹&+~.
ÔásÁ>·ÔáT\ýË Ôî\TdŸTÅ£”H•sÁT. ‚~ Xø¿ìï“ $“jîÖÐ+#áTÅ£”Hû ‚+<ŠTýË $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT 0.50 A. ‹\TÒ jîTT¿£Ø kÍeTsÁœ«+
¹s³T Å£L&† neÚÔáT+~. m+Ôá?
ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáTeTTýË $<ŠT«ÔY Xø¿ìï $“jîÖÐ+|Ÿ‹&û kÍ<óŠq
¹s³TqT dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT (11.21) Ôî*jáTCñdŸTï+~. B“Hû $<ŠT«ÔY P = VI
kÍeTsÁÆ«eTT n“ n+{²sÁT. kÍeTsÆ«“• ç¿ì+~ $<óŠ+>± sjáTe#áTÌ = 220 V× 0.50 A
P = VI = 110 J/s
2 2
ýñ<‘ P = I R = V /R (11.22) = 110 W..
$<ŠT«ÔY kÍeTsÆ«“¿ì SI ç|ŸeÖDeTT y{Ù (W). ‚~ 1V –<‘VŸ²sÁD 11.13
bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ eT]jáTT $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²eTT 1 A –q•|ŸÚÎ&ƒT 400 W kÍeTsÁœ«eTT >·\ ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY ]ç|˜¾›¹s³sY sÃEÅ£” 8
ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]¿£sÁeTT $“jîÖÐ+#áTÅ£”Hû kÍeTsÁœ«eTTÅ£” dŸeÖqeTT. >·+³\T #=|ŸÚÎq |Ÿ“#ûdŸTï+~. kWh Å£” 3.00 sÁÖbÍjáT\
nq>± e+ÔáTq 30 sÃE\T ‚~ |Ÿ“#ûjáT&†“¿ì njûT« Xø¿ìï K¯<ŠT
m+Ôá?
273
Solution
The total energy consumed by the refrigerator
in 30 days would be 1. What determines the rate at which
400 W × 8.0 hour/day × 30 days = 96000 W h energy is delivered by a current?
= 96 kW h 2. An electric motor takes 5 A from a 220 V

line. Determine the power of the motor
Thus the cost of energy to operate the
refrigerator for 30 days is
96 kW h × Rs 3.00 per kW h = Rs 288.00
and the energy consumed in 2 h.
?
■ A stream of electrons moving through a conductor constitutes an electric current.
Conventionally, the direction of current is taken opposite to the direction of flow of
electrons.
■ The SI unit of electric current is ampere.
■ To set the electrons in motion in an electric circuit, we use a cell or a battery. A cell
generates a potential difference across its terminals. It is measured in volts (V).
■ Resistance is a property that resists the flow of electrons in a conductor. It controls the
magnitude of the current. The SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).
■ Ohm’s law: The potential difference across the ends of a resistor is directly
proportional to the current through it, provided its temperature remains the same.
■ The resistance of a conductor depends directly on its length, inversely on its area of
cross-section, and also on the material of the conductor.
■ The equivalent resistance of several resistors in series is equal to the sum of their
individual resistances.
■ A set of resistors connected in parallel has an equivalent resistance Rp given by
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
R p R1 R2 R3
■ The electrical energy dissipated in a resistor is given by W = V × I × t

■ The unit of power is watt (W). One watt of power is consumed when 1 A of current
flows at a potential difference of 1 V.
■ T h e c o m m e r c i a l u n i t o f e l e c t r i c a l e n e rg y i s k i l o w a t t h o u r ( k W h ) .
1 kW h = 3,600,000 J = 3.6 × 106 J.
274
kÍ<óŠq ç|Ÿ Xø• \T
30 sÃE\ýË ]ç|˜¾›¹s³sY $“jîÖÐ+#áTÅ£”Hû yîTTÔáïeTT Xø¿ìï 1. ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+ <‘Çs #ûsÁyûjáT‹&û Xø¿ìï ¹s³TqT
400 W × 8.0 >·+³\T/sÃE×30 sÃE\T = 96000 W h @~ “sÁ’sTTdŸTï+~?
= 96 kW h 2. ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY yîÖ{²sÁT ÿ¿£ 220 V ýÉÕHŽ qT+& 5 A
¿±eÚq 30 sÃE\T ]ç|˜¾›¹s³sY |Ÿ“#ûjáTT³Å£” nedŸsÁeTjûT« $<ŠT«ÔYqT rdŸTÅ£”+³T+~. yîÖ{²sÁT kÍeTsÁœ«eTTqT
?
Xø¿ìï K¯<ŠT eT]jáTT Âs+&ƒT >·+³\ýË $“jîÖÐ+|Ÿ‹&û Xø¿ìï“
96 kW h × sÁÖ 3.00 ÿ¿£ kW h ¿ì = sÁÖ 288.00
ýÉ¿ìØ+#á+&.
మనం ఏం ం
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ç|ŸeV¾²+#áT ~XøqT m\ç¿±¼HŽ\ ç|ŸyVŸ² ~XøÅ£” e«Ü¹s¿£+>± rdŸTÅ£”+{²+.
■ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸä“¿ì SI ç|ŸeÖDeTT €+|¾jáTsY.
■ ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY e\jáT+ýË m\ç¿±¼HŽ\qT #á\q+ýË –+#á&†“¿ì, eTqeTT ÿ¿£ |˜ŸT³eTT ýñ<‘ |˜ŸT³eÖ\“
–|ŸjîÖÐkÍïeTT. ÿ¿£ |˜ŸT³eTT <‘“ ºesÁ\ yî+‹& bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<‘“• @sÁÎsÁTdŸTï+~. ‚~ z\T¼\ýË (V)
¿=\e‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
■ ÿ¿£ yVŸ²¿£+ýË m\ç¿±¼HŽ\ ç|ŸyVŸä“• “sÃ~ó+#û <óŠsˆ“• “sÃ<óŠeTT n+{²sÁT. ‚~ $<ŠT«ÔY |Ÿ]eÖDeTTqT
“jáT+çÜdŸTï+~. “sÃ<ó‘“¿ì SI ç|ŸeÖDeTT zyŽT (Ω).
■ zyŽT “jáTeT+ : d¾œsÁ –cþ’ç>·Ôá e<ŠÝ, ÿ¿£ yVŸ²¿£+ ºesÁ\ yî+‹& >·\ bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ n+<ŠTýË ç|ŸeV¾²+#û
$<ŠT«ÔYÅ£” nqTýËeÖqTbÍÔá+ýË –+³T+~.
■ ÿ¿£ yVŸ²¿£+ jîTT¿£Ø “sÃ<óŠeTT <‘“ bõ&ƒeÚÅ£” nqTýËeÖqTbÍÔá+ýËqÖ, <‘“ eT<óŠ«#ûÌ<Š yîÕXæý²«“¿ì
$ýËeÖqT bÍÔá+ýËqÖ –+&, € yVŸ²¿£ |Ÿ<‘sÁœ dŸÇuó²e+ ™|Õ Å£L&† €<ó‘sÁ|Ÿ& –+³T+~.
■ ¿=“• “sÃ<ó‘\qT çXâDìýË dŸ+<ó‘q+ #ûd¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT |˜Ÿ*Ôá “sÃ<óŠeTT y{ì $& $& “sÃ<ó‘\ yîTTÔï“¿ì dŸeÖqeTT.
■ ÿ¿£ “sÃ<ó‘\ dŸeTT<‘jáÖ“• dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± ¿£*|¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT |˜Ÿ*Ôá “sÃ<óŠeTT Rp nsTTÔû
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
R p R1 R2 R3
■ ÿ¿£ “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ýË e«jáT+ n>·T $<ŠT«ÔY Xø¿ìï W = V × I × t
■ $<ŠT«ÔY kÍeTsÆ«“¿ì ç|ŸeÖDeTT y{Ù (W). 1V bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ e<ŠÝ 1A $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸeV¾²+ºq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ÿ¿£ y{Ù
kÍeTsÁœ«+ $“jîÖÐ+|Ÿ‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
■ $<ŠT«ÔY Xø¿ìï¿ì yDìÈ« ç|ŸeÖDeTT ¿ìýË y{Ù nesY (kWh). 1 kW h = 3,600,000 J = 3.6 × 106 J.
275
1. A piece of wire of resistance R is cut into five equal parts. These parts are then
I
connected in parallel. If the equivalent resistance of this combination is R , then the
ratio R/RI is –
(a)1/25 (b) 1/5 (c) 5 (d) 25
2. Which of the following terms does not represent electrical power in a circuit?
(a)I2R (b) IR2 (c) VI (d) V2/R
3. An electric bulb is rated 220 V and 100 W. When it is operated on 110 V, the power
consumed will be –
(a)100 W (b) 75 W (c) 50 W (d) 25 W
4. Two conducting wires of the same material and of equal lengths and equal diameters
are first connected in series and then parallel in a circuit across the same potential
difference. The ratio of heat produced in series and parallel combinations would be –
(a)1:2 (b) 2:1 (c) 1:4 (d) 4:1
5. How is a voltmeter connected in the circuit to measure the potential difference
between two points?
–8
6. A copper wire has diameter 0.5 mm and resistivity of 1.6 × 10 Ω m. What will be the
length of this wire to make its resistance 10 Ω? How much does the resistance change if
the diameter is doubled?
7. The values of current I flowing in a given resistor for the corresponding values of
potential difference V across the resistor are given below –
I (amperes) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
V (volts) 1.6 3.4 6.7 10.2 13.2
Plot a graph between V and I and calculate the resistance of that resistor.
8. When a 12 V battery is connected across an unknown resistor, there is a current of 2.5
mA in the circuit. Find the value of the resistance of the resistor.
9. A battery of 9 V is connected in series with resistors of 0.2 Ω, 0.3 Ω, 0.4 Ω , 0.5 Ωand
12 Ω, respectively. How much current would flow through the 12 Ω resistor?
10. How many 176 Ω resistors (in parallel) are required to carry 5 A on a 220 V line?
11. Show how you would connect three resistors, each of resistance 6 Ω, so that the
combination has a resistance of (i) 9 Ω, (ii) 4 Ω.
276
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¿£\|Ÿ‹&†¦sTT. ‡ ¿£\sTT¿£ jîTT¿£Ø |˜Ÿ*Ôá “sÃ<óŠeTT R nsTTq R/RI “wŸÎÜï.
1
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(a)I2R (b) IR2 (c) VI (d) V2/R
3. ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY ‹\TÒ 220V eT]jáTT 100W >± –+~. <‘““ 110V e<ŠÝ –|ŸjîÖÐ+ºq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, n~
$“jîÖÐ+#áTÅ£”Hû kÍeTsÁœ«+
(a)100 W (b) 75 W (c) 50 W (d) 25 W
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(a)1:2 (b) 2:1 (c) 1:4 (d) 4:1
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bõ&ƒeÚ m+Ôá –+&†*? r>· y«dŸeTTqT Âs{ì¼+|ŸÚ #ûdï <‘“• “sÃ<óŠeTT m+Ôá eÖsÁTÔáT+~?
7. ‚eÇ‹&q ÿ¿£ “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ýË ç|ŸeV¾²+#û $<ŠT«ÔY $\Te\T (I) <‘“¿ì dŸ+‹+~ó+º € “sÃ<óŠ¿£+ yî+‹& >·\
bõfÉ“üjáTýÙ uóñ<Š+ V $\Te\T ç¿ì+<Š ‚eÇ‹&†¦sTT.
I (€+|¾jáTsY) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
V (zýÙ¼) 1.6 3.4 6.7 10.2 13.2
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nsTTq € “sÃ<óŠ|ŸÚ $\TeqT ¿£qT>=q+&
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12 Ω “sÃ<óŠeTT >·T+&† m+Ôá $<ŠT«ÔáTï ç|ŸeV¾²dŸTï+~?
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dŸ+<ó‘q+ #ûkÍïsÃ Ôî\|Ÿ+&?
277
12. Several electric bulbs designed to be used on a 220 V electric supply line, are rated 10
W. How many lamps can be connected in parallel with each other across the two wires
of 220 V line if the maximum allowable current is 5 A?
13. A hot plate of an electric oven connected to a 220 V line has two resistance coils A and
B, each of 24 Ω resistance, which may be used separately, in series, or in parallel. What
are the currents in the three cases?
14. Compare the power used in the 2 Ω resistor in each of the following circuits:
(i) a 6 V battery in series with 1 Ω and 2 Ω resistors, and (ii) a 4 V battery in parallel
with 12 Ω and 2 Ω resistors.
15. Two lamps, one rated 100 W at 220 V, and the other 60 W at 220 V, are connected in
parallel to electric mains supply. What current is drawn from the line if the supply
voltage is 220 V?
16. Which uses more energy, a 250 W TV set in 1 hr, or a 1200 W toaster in 10 minutes?
17. An electric heater of resistance 8 Ω draws 15 A from the service mains 2 hours.
Calculate the rate at which heat is developed in the heater.
18. Explain the following.
(a) Why is the tungsten used almost exclusively for filament of electric lamps?
(b) Why are the conductors of electric heating devices, such as bread-toasters and
electric irons, made of an alloy rather than a pure metal?
(c) Why is the series arrangement not used for domestic circuits?
(d) How does the resistance of a wire vary with its area of cross-section?
(e) Why are copper and aluminium wires usually employed for electricity
transmission?
278
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njûT« ¹s³TqT ýÉ¿ìØ+#á+&.
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279
ANDHRA PRADESH | PHYSICAL SCIENCE : Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
280
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n<ó‘«jáT+ 12
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njáTkÍØ+Ôá ç|Ÿuó²y\T
281
I n the previous Chapter on ‘Electricity’ we

learnt about the heating effects of electric
current. What could be the other effects of
electricity and magnetism are linked to each
other. Then, what about the reverse possibility
of an electric effect of moving magnets? In this
electric current? We know that an electric Chapter we will study magnetic fields and such
current-carrying wire behaves like a magnet. electromagnetic effects. We shall also study
Let us perform the following Activity to about electromagnets which involve the
reinforce it. magnetic effect of electric current.
Hans Christian Oersted,

Resistor one of the leading
Long straight conductor scientists of the 19th
century, played a crucial
role in understanding
electromagnetism. In 1820
he accidentally discovered
that a compass needle got deflected when
Figure 12.1
an electric current passed through a
Compass needle is deflected on passing an metallic wire placed nearby. Through this
electric current through a metallic conductor observation Oersted showed that
electricity and magnetism were related
■ Take a straight thick copper wire and phenomena. His research later created
place it between the points X and Y in technologies such as the radio, television
an electric circuit, as shown in Fig. and fiber optics. The unit of magnetic field
12.1. The wire XY is kept perpendicular strength is named the oersted in his honor.
to the plane of paper.
■ Horizontally place a small compass
near to this copper wire. See the 12.1 MAGNETIC FIELD AND FIELD
position of its needle. LINES
■ Pass the current through the circuit by We are familiar with the fact that a
inserting the key into the plug. compass needle gets deflected when brought
■ Observe the change in the position of near a bar magnet. A compass needle is, in fact,
the compass needle. a small bar magnet. The ends of the compass
needle point approximately towards north and
south directions. The end pointing towards
north is called north seeking or north pole. The
other end that points towards south is called
We see that the needle is deflected. What south seeking or south pole. Through various
does it mean? It means that the electric current activities we have observed that like poles
through the copper wire has produced a repel, while unlike poles of magnets attract
magnetic effect. Thus we can say that each other.
282
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magnet, in which the force of the magnet can be

detected, is said to have a magnetic field. The
1. Why does a compass needle get lines along which the iron filings align
deflected when brought near themselves represent magnetic field lines.
?
a bar magnet? Are there other ways of obtaining
magnetic field lines around a bar magnet? Yes,
you can yourself draw the field lines of a bar
magnet.
■ Take a small compass and a bar

magnet.
■ Place the magnet on a sheet of white
paper fixed on a drawing board, using
some adhesive material.
■ Mark the boundary of the magnet.
■ Place the compass near the north pole
Figure 12.2
of the magnet. How does it behave?
Iron filings near the bar magnet The south pole of the needle points
align themselves along the field lines. towards the north pole of the magnet.
The north pole of the compass is
■ Fix a sheet of white paper on a directed away from the north pole of
drawing board using some adhesive the magnet.
material. ■ Mark the position of two ends of the
■ Place a bar magnet in the centre of it. needle.
■ Sprinkle some iron filings uniformly ■ Now move the needle to a new
around the bar magnet (Fig. 12.2). A position such that its south pole
salt-sprinkler may be used for this occupies the position previously
purpose. occupied by its north pole.
■ Now tap the board gently. ■ In this way, proceed step by step till
■ What do you observe? you reach the south pole of the magnet
as shown in Fig. 12.3.
The iron filings arrange themselves in a
pattern as shown Fig. 12.2. Why do the iron
filings arrange in such a pattern? What does this
pattern demonstrate? The magnet exerts its
influence in the region surrounding it.
Therefore the iron filings experience a force. Figure 12.3
The force thus exerted makes iron filings to Drawing a magnetic field line with
the help of a compass needle
arrange in a pattern. The region surrounding a
284
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Inside the magnet, the direction of field lines is

■ Join the points marked on the paper by from its south pole to its north pole. Thus the
a smooth curve. This curve represents magnetic field lines are closed curves.
a field line. The relative strength of the magnetic field
■ Repeat the above procedure and draw is shown by the degree of closeness of the field
as many lines as you can. You will get a lines. The field is stronger, that is, the force
acting on the pole of another magnet placed is
pattern shown in Fig. 12.4. These lines
greater where the field lines are crowded (see
represent the magnetic field around the
Fig. 12.4).
magnet. These are known as magnetic
No two field-lines are found to cross each
field lines.
other. If they did, it would mean that at the point
of intersection, the compass needle would point
towards two directions, which is not possible.
12.2 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A
CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR
In Activity 12.1, we have seen that an electric
current through a metallic conductor produces
a magnetic field around it. In order to find the
direction of the field produced let us repeat the
Figure 12.4
Field lines around a bar magnet activity in the following way –
■ Observe the deflection in the compass

needle as you move it along a field line.
The deflection increases as the needle is
moved towards the poles.
(a)
Magnetic field is a quantity that has both

direction and magnitude. The direction of the
magnetic field is taken to be the direction in
(b)
which a north pole of the compass needle
moves inside it. Therefore it is taken by
convention that the field lines emerge from Figure 12.5 A simple electric circuit in which a straight
copper wire is placed parallel to and over a compass
north pole and merge at the south pole (note the needle.
arrows marked on the field lines in Fig. 12.4). The deflection in the needle becomes opposite when the
direction of the current is reversed.
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■ Take a long straight copper wire, two or

Variable resistance
three cells of 1.5 V each, and a plug key.
Connect all of them in series as shown
in Fig. 12.5 (a).
■ Place the straight wire parallel to and
(a)
over a compass needle.
■ Plug the key in the circuit.
■ Observe the direction of deflection of
the north pole of the needle. If the
current flows from north to south, as
shown in Fig. 12.5 (a), the north pole of
the compass needle would move
towards the east.
(b)
■ Replace the cell connections in the
circuit as shown in Fig. 12.5 (b). This
would result in the change of the
Figure 12.6
direction of current through the copper (a) A pattern of concentric circles indicating the
wire, that is, from south to north. field lines of a magnetic field around a straight
conducting wire. The arrows in the circles show the
■ Observe the change in the direction of direction of the field lines.
deflection of the needle. You will see (b) A close up of the pattern obtained.
that now the needle moves in opposite ■ Take a battery (12 V), a variable
direction, that is, towards the west [Fig. resistance (or a rheostat), an ammeter
12.5 (b)]. It means that the direction of (0–5 A), a plug key, connecting wires
magnetic field produced by the electric and a long straight thick copper wire.
current is also reversed. ■ Insert the thick wire through the
centre, normal to the plane of a
rectangular cardboard. Take care that
the cardboard is fixed and does not
12.2.1 Magnetic Field due to a Current slide up or down.
through a Straight Conductor ■ Connect the copper wire vertically
What determines the pattern of the magnetic between the points X and Y, as shown
field generated by a current through a in Fig. 12.6 (a), in series with the
battery, a plug and key.
conductor? Does the pattern depend on the
■ Sprinkle some iron filings uniformly
shape of the conductor? We shall investigate
on the cardboard. (You may use a salt
this with an activity. sprinkler for this purpose.)
We shall first consider the pattern of the ■ Keep the variable of the rheostat at a
magnetic field around a straight conductor fixed position and note the current
carrying current. through the ammeter.
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remains the same? To see this, now place the

■ Close the key so that a current flows compass at a farther point from the conducting
through the wire. Ensure that the wire (say at point Q). What change do you
copper wire placed between the points observe? We see that the deflection in the
X and Y remains vertically straight. needle decreases. Thus the magnetic field
■ Gently tap the cardboard a few times.
produced by a given current in the conductor
Observe the pattern of the iron filings.
decreases as the distance from it increases.
You would find that the iron filings
From Fig. 12.6, it can be noticed that the
align themselves showing a pattern of
concentric circles representing the magnetic
concentric circles around the copper
field around a current-carrying straight wire
wire (Fig. 12.6).
■ What do these concentric circles become larger and larger as we move away
represent? They represent the magnetic from it.
field lines. 12.2.2 Right-Hand Thumb Rule
■ How can the direction of the magnetic A convenient way of finding the direction of
field be found? Place a compass at a magnetic field associated with a current-
point (say P) over a circle. Observe the carrying conductor is given in Fig. 12.7.
direction of the needle. The direction of
the north pole of the compass needle
would give the direction of the field
lines produced by the electric current
through the straight wire at point P.
Show the direction by an arrow.
■ Does the direction of magnetic field
lines get reversed if the direction of Figure 12.7
current through the straight copper Right-hand thumb rule
wire is reversed? Check it. Imagine that you are holding a current-
carrying straight conductor in your right hand
such that the thumb points towards the
What happens to the deflection of the direction of current. Then your fingers will
compass needle placed at a given point if the wrap around the conductor in the direction of
current in the copper wire is changed? To see the field lines of the magnetic field, as shown in
this, vary the current in the wire. We find that Fig. 12.7. This is known as the right-hand
the deflection in the needle also changes. In thumb rule*.
fact, if the current is increased, the deflection Example 12.1
also increases. It indicates that the magnitude of A current through a horizontal power line flows
the magnetic field produced at a given point in east to west direction. What is the direction of
increases as the current through the wire magnetic field at a point directly below it and at
increases. a point directly above it?
What happens to the deflection of the Solution
needle if the compass is moved away from the
The current is in the east-west direction.
copper wire but the current through the wire
Applying the right-hand thumb rule, we get that
290
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291
the magnetic field (at any point below or above

the wire) turns clockwise in a plane
perpendicular to the wire, when viewed from
the east end, and anti-clockwise, when viewed
from the west end.
1. Draw magnetic field lines around a Figure 12.8

bar magnet. Magnetic field lines of the field
produced by a current-carrying
2. List the properties of magnetic field circular loop
lines.
We know that the magnetic field produced
3. Why don’t two magnetic field lines by a current-carrying wire at a given point
intersect each other?
? depends directly on the current passing through
it. Therefore, if there is a circular coil having n
turns, the field produced is n times as large as
that produced by a single turn. This is because
12.2.3 Magnetic Field due to a Current
through a Circular Loop the current in each circular turn has the same
We have so far observed the pattern of direction, and the field due to each turn then just
the magnetic field lines produced around a adds up.
current-carrying straight wire. Suppose this
straight wire is bent in the form of a circular * This rule is also called Maxwell’s corkscrew rule. If we
consider ourselves driving a corkscrew in the direction
loop and a current is passed through it. How
of the current, then the direction of the rotation of
would the magnetic field lines look like? We corkscrew is the direction of the magnetic field..
know that the magnetic field produced by a
current-carrying straight wire depends
inversely on the distance from it. Similarly at
every point of a current-carrying circular loop,
the concentric circles representing the
magnetic field around it would become larger ■ Take a rectangular cardboard having
and larger as we move away from the wire (Fig.
two holes. Insert a circular coil having
12.8). By the time we reach at the centre of the
circular loop, the arcs of these big circles would large number of turns through them,
appear as straight lines. Every point on the wire normal to the plane of the cardboard.
carrying current would give rise to the ■ Connect the ends of the coil in series
magnetic field appearing as straight lines at the
with a battery, a key and a rheostat, as
center of the loop. By applying the right hand
rule, it is easy to check that every section of the shown in Fig. 12.9.
wire contributes to the magnetic field lines in
the same direction within the loop.
292
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293
Compare the pattern of the field with the

magnetic field around a bar magnet (Fig. 12.4).
Do they look similar? Yes, they are similar. In
fact, one end of the solenoid behaves as a
magnetic north pole, while the other behaves as
the south pole. The field lines inside the
solenoid are in the form of parallel straight
Figure 12.9 lines. This indicates that the magnetic field is
Magnetic field produced by the same at all points inside the solenoid. That
a current-carrying circular coil.
is, the field is uniform inside the solenoid.
■ Sprinkle iron filings uniformly on the A strong magnetic field produced inside a
cardboard. solenoid can be used to magnetise a piece of
■ Plug the key. magnetic material, like soft iron, when placed
■ Tap the cardboard gently a few times.
inside the coil (Fig. 12.11). The magnet so
Note the pattern of the iron filings that
emerges on the cardboard. formed is called an electromagnet.
12.2.4 Magnetic Field due to a Current in a

Solenoid
A coil of many circular turns of insulated
copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of a Figure 12.11
cylinder is called a solenoid. The pattern of the A current-carrying solenoid coil is used to
magnetise steel rod inside it – an
magnetic field lines around a current-carrying electromagnet.
solenoid is shown in Fig. 12.10. Compare the
1. Consider a circular loop of wire lying

in the plane of the table. Let the
current pass through the loop
clockwise. Apply the right-hand rule
to find out the direction of the
magnetic field inside and outside the
loop.
2. The magnetic field in a given region is
uniform. Draw a diagram to represent
Figure 12.10
Field lines of the magnetic field through it.
and around a current carrying solenoid.
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3. Choose the correct option. ■ Take a small aluminium rod AB (of

The magnetic field inside a long straight about 5 cm). Using two connecting
solenoid-carrying current wires suspend it horizontally from a
stand, as shown in Fig. 12.12.
(a) is zero. ■ Place a strong horse-shoe magnet in
(b) decreases as we move towards its such a way that the rod lies between the
end. two poles with the magnetic field
directed upwards. For this put the
(c) increases as we move towards its
north pole of the magnet vertically
end.
below and south pole vertically above
(d) is the same at all points.
12.3 FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING

? the aluminium rod (Fig. 12.12).
■ Connect the aluminium rod in series
with a battery, a key and a rheostat.
■ Now pass a current through the
CONDUCTOR INAMAGNETIC FIELD aluminium rod from end B to end A.
■ What do you observe? It is observed
We have learnt that an electric current that the rod is displaced towards the
flowing through a conductor produces a left. You will notice that the rod gets
magnetic field. The field so produced exerts a displaced.
force on a magnet placed in the vicinity of the ■ Reverse the direction of current
conductor. French scientist Andre Marie flowing through the rod and observe
Ampere (1775–1836) suggested that the the direction of its displacement. It is
magnet must also exert an equal and opposite now towards the right.
force on the current-carrying conductor. The Why does the rod get displaced?
force due to a magnetic field acting on a
current-carrying conductor can be
demonstrated through the following activity. The displacement of the rod in the above
activity suggests that a force is exerted on the
current-carrying aluminium rod when it is
placed in a magnetic field. It also suggests that
the direction of force is also reversed when the
direction of current through the conductor is
reversed. Now change the direction of field to
vertically downwards by interchanging the two
poles of the magnet. It is once again observed
that the direction of force acting on the current-
carrying rod gets reversed. It shows that the
direction of the force on the conductor depends
Figure 12.12
A current-carrying rod, AB, experiences
upon the direction of current and the direction
a force perpendicular to its length and of the magnetic field. Experiments have shown
the magnetic field. Support for the magnet
is not shown here, for simplicity.
that the displacement of the rod is largest (or the
296
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297
magnitude of the force is the highest) when the (a) to the right.
direction of current is at right angles to the
(b) to the left.
direction of the magnetic field. In such a
condition we can use a simple rule to find the (c) out of the page.
direction of the force on the conductor.
(d) into the page.
In Activity 12.7, we considered the Figure 12.14
direction of the current and that of the magnetic
field perpendicular to each other and found that Solution
the force is perpendicular to both of them. The
Answer is option (d). The direction of force is
three directions can be illustrated through a
simple rule, called Fleming’s left-hand rule. perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field
According to this rule, stretch the thumb, and current as given by Fleming’s left hand
forefinger and middle finger of your left hand rule. Recall that the direction of current is taken
such that they are mutually perpendicular (Fig. opposite to the direction of motion of electrons.
12.13). If the first finger points in the direction The force is therefore directed into the page.
of magnetic field and the second finger in the
direction of current, then the thumb will point
in the direction of motion or the force acting on 1. Which of the following property of a
the conductor. proton can change while it moves
freely in a magnetic field? (There may
be more than one correct answer.)
(a) mass (b) speed
(c) velocity (d) momentum
2. In Activity 12.7, how do we think the
displacement of rod AB will be
affected if (i) current in rod AB is
increased; (ii) a stronger horse-shoe
Figure 12.13 magnet is used; and (iii) length of the
Fleming’s left-hand rule
rod AB is increased?
Devices that use current-carrying 3. A positively-charged particle (alpha-
conductors and magnetic fields include electric particle) projected towards west is
motor, electric generator, loudspeakers,
deflected towards north by a magnetic
microphones and measuring instruments.
field. The direction of magnetic field is
Example 12.2
(a) towards south (b) towards east
An electron enters a magnetic field at right
angles to it, as shown in Fig. 12.14. The
direction of force acting on the electron will be
(c) downward (d) upward
?
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connected to the line wires in the house. These

wires supply electricity to separate circuits
Magnetism in medicine within the house. Often, two separate circuits
An electric current always produces a are used, one of 15A current rating for
magnetic field. Even weak ion currents appliances with higher power ratings such as
that travel along the nerve cells in our geysers, air coolers, etc. The other circuit is of
body produce magnetic fields. When we 5A current rating for bulbs, fans, etc. The earth
touch something, our nerves carry an wire, which has insulation of green colour, is
electric impulse to the muscles we need to usually connected to a metal plate deep in the
use. This impulse produces a temporary earth near the house. This is used as a safety
magnetic field. These fields are very weak measure, especially for those appliances that
and are about one-billionth of the earth’s have a metallic body, for example, electric
magnetic field. Two main organs in the press, toaster, table fan, refrigerator, etc. The
human body where the magnetic field metallic body is connected to the earth wire,
produced is significant, are the heart and which provides a low-resistance conducting
the brain. The magnetic field inside the path for the current. Thus, it ensures that any
body forms the basis of obtaining the leakage of current to the metallic body of the
images of different body parts. This is appliance keeps its potential to that of the earth,
done using a technique called Magnetic and the user may not get a severe electric shock.
Resonance Imaging (MRI). Analysis of
these images helps in medical diagnosis.
Magnetism has, thus, got important uses
in medicine.
12.4 DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

In our homes, we receive supply of
electric power through a main supply (also
called mains), either supported through Figure 12.15 A schematic diagram of one
overhead electric poles or by underground of the common domestic circuits
cables. One of the wires in this supply, usually
Figure 12.15 gives a schematic diagram
with red insulation cover, is called live wire (or
of one of the common domestic circuits. In each
positive). Another wire, with black insulation,
separate circuit, different appliances can be
is called neutral wire (or negative). In our
connected across the live and neutral wires.
country, the potential difference between the
Each appliance has a separate switch to
two is 220 V.
At the meter-board in the house, these ‘ON’/‘OFF’ the flow of current through it. In
wires pass into an electricity meter through a order that each appliance has equal potential
main fuse. Through the main switch they are difference, they are connected parallel to each
other.
300
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301
Electric fuse is an important component of

all domestic circuits. We have already studied
the principle and working of a fuse in the
previous chapter (see Section 11.7). A fuse in a 1. Name two safety measures commonly
circuit prevents damage to the appliances and used in electric circuits and
the circuit due to overloading. Overloading can appliances.
occur when the live wire and the neutral wire
come into direct contact. (This occurs when the 2. An electric oven of 2 kW power rating
insulation of wires is damaged or there is a fault is operated in a domestic electric
in the appliance.) In such a situation, the current circuit (220 V) that has a current rating
in the circuit abruptly increases. This is called of 5 A. What result do you expect?
short-circuiting. The use of an electric fuse
Explain.
prevents the electric circuit and the appliance
from a possible damage by stopping the flow of 3. What precaution should be taken to
unduly high electric current. The Joule heating avoid the overloading of domestic
that takes place in the fuse melts it to break the electric circuits?
electric circuit. Overloading can also occur due
to an accidental hike in the supply voltage.
Sometimes overloading is caused by
connecting too many appliances to a single
?
socket.
■ A compass needle is a small magnet. Its one end, which points towards north, is called a
north pole, and the other end, which points towards south, is called a south pole.
■ A magnetic field exists in the region surrounding a magnet, in which the force of the
magnet can be detected.
■ Field lines are used to represent a magnetic field. A field line is the path along which a
hypothetical free north pole would tend to move. The direction of the magnetic field at a
point is given by the direction that a north pole placed at that point would take. Field
lines are shown closer together where the magnetic field is greater.
■ A metallic wire carrying an electric current has associated with it a magnetic field. The
field lines about the wire consist of a series of concentric circles whose direction is
given by the right-hand rule.
■ The pattern of the magnetic field around a conductor due to an electric current flowing
through it depends on the shape of the conductor. The magnetic field of a solenoid
carrying a current is similar to that of a bar magnet.
■ An electromagnet consists of a core of soft iron wrapped around with a coil of insulated
copper wire.
302
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303
■ A current-carrying conductor when placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. If the

direction of the field and that of the current are mutually perpendicular to each other, then
the force acting on the conductor will be perpendicular to both and will be given by
Fleming’s left-hand rule.
■ In our houses we receive AC electric power of 220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz. One of
the wires in this supply is with red insulation, called live wire. The other one is of black
insulation, which is a neutral wire. The potential difference between the two is 220 V. The
third is the earth wire that has green insulation and this is connected to a metallic body
deep inside earth. It is used as a safety measure to ensure that any leakage of current to a
metallic body does not give any severe shock to a user.
■ Fuse is the most important safety device, used for protecting the circuits due to short-
circuiting or overloading of the circuits.
1. Which of the following correctly describes the magnetic field near a long
straight wire?
(a) The field consists of straight lines perpendicular to the wire.
(b) The field consists of straight lines parallel to the wire.
(c) The field consists of radial lines originating from the wire.
(d) The field consists of concentric circles centred on the wire.
2. At the time of short circuit, the current in the circuit
(a) reduces substantially. (b) does not change.
(c) increases heavily. (d) vary continuously.
3. State whether the following statements are true or false.
(a) The field at the centre of a long circular coil carrying current will be
parallel straight lines.
(b) A wire with a green insulation is usually the live wire of an electric supply.
4. List two methods of producing magnetic fields.
5. When is the force experienced by a current–carrying conductor placed in a magnetic
field largest?
6. Imagine that you are sitting in a chamber with your back to one wall. An electron beam,
moving horizontally from back wall towards the front wall, is deflected by a strong
magnetic field to your right side. What is the direction of magnetic field?
7. State the rule to determine the direction of a (i) magnetic field produced around a
straight conductor-carrying current, (ii) force experienced by a current-carrying
straight conductor placed in a magnetic field which is perpendicular to it, and
(iii) current induced in a coil due to its rotation in a magnetic field.
8. When does an electric short circuit occur?
9. What is the function of an earth wire? Why is it necessary to earth metallic appliances?
304
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nuó²«kÍ\T
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(m) njáTkÍØ+Ôá ¹¿ŒçÔá+ r>·Å£” \+‹+>± –+&û dŸsÁÞø¹sK\qT ¿£*Ð –+³T+~.
(_) njáTkÍØ+Ôá ¹¿ŒçÔá+ r>·Å£” dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± –+&û dŸsÁÞø¹sK\qT ¿£*Ð –+³T+~.
(d¾) njáTkÍØ+Ôá ¹¿ŒçÔá+ r>·qT+& –<ŠÒÛ$+#û eç¿£¹sK\qT ¿£*Ð –+³T+~.
(&) njáTkÍØ+Ôá ¹¿ŒçÔá+ r>· ¹¿+ç<Š+>± –q• @¿£¹¿+ç<Š eÔï\qT ¿£*Ð –+³T+~.
2. cÍsY¼ dŸsÁÖØ«{Ù dŸeTjáT+ýË, e\jáT+ýË $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸyVŸ²+
(m) >·DújáT+>± Ôá>·TZÔáT+~. (_) eÖsÁ<ŠT.
(d¾) uó²¯>± ™|sÁT>·TÔáT+~. (&) “sÁ+ÔásÁ+ eÖsÁTÔáÖ –+³T+~.
3. ¿ì+~ y¿£«+ dŸÔá«eÖ, ndŸÔá«eÖ Ôî\|Ÿ+&.
(m) $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸeV¾²+#û bõ&ƒyîÕq eÔï¿±sÁ r>·#áT³¼ eT<óŠ«ýË –q• njáTkÍØ+Ôá ¹¿ŒçÔá+ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ dŸsÁÞø ¹sK\qT ¿£*Ð
–+³T+~.
(_) €Å£”|Ÿ#áÌ $<ŠT«ÔY ‹+<óŠ¿£|ŸPÔá –q• r>· kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± $<ŠT«ÔY dŸsÁ|˜Ÿs jîTT¿£Ø ýÉÕyŽ r>· neÚÔáT+~.
4. njáTkÍØ+Ôá ¹¿ŒçÔ\qT @sÁÎsÁ#û Âs+&ƒT |Ÿ<ŠÆÔáT\qT Ôî\|Ÿ+&.
5. ÿ¿£ njáTkÍØ+Ôá ¹¿ŒçÔá+ýË –+#á‹&q ÿ¿£ $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸeV¾²dŸTïq• yVŸ²¿£+ ™|Õ |Ÿ“ #ûd ‹\+ m|ŸÚÎ&ƒT mÅ£”Øe>±
–+³T+~?
6. MTsÁT ÿ¿£ >·~ýË ÿ¿£ >Ã&ƒ yîÕ|ŸÚ MT M|ŸÚ –+&û³³T¢ Å£LsÁTÌq•³T¢ }V¾²+#áT¿Ã+&. ÿ¿£ m\ç¿±¼HŽ |ŸÚ+È+, yîqT¿£ >Ã&ƒ
qT+& dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± eTT+<ŠT >Ã&ƒ yîÕ|ŸÚ ¿£<ŠT\TÔáT+~. n~ ÿ¿£ ‹\yîT®q njáTkÍØ+Ôá ¹¿ŒçÔá+ e\¢ MT Å£”& yîÕ|ŸÚq $¹¿Œ|Ÿ+
#î+~+~. nsTTq njáTkÍØ+Ôá ¹¿ŒçÔá+ jîTT¿£Ø ~Xø @$T{ì?
7. ç¿ì+~ y{ìýË ~XøqT “sÆ]+#û “jáTeÖ“• Ôî\|Ÿ+&. (i) $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸeV¾²dŸTïq• ÿ¿£ Üq•“ yVŸ²¿£+ #áT³Ö¼
@sÁÎ&q njáTkÍØ+Ôá ¹¿ŒçÔá+ (ii) njáTkÍØ+Ôá ¹¿ŒçÔá+ýË € ¹¿ŒçÔ“¿ì \+‹+>± –+#á‹&q $<ŠT«ÔY ç|ŸeV¾²dŸTïq• ÿ¿£ Üq•“
yVŸ²¿£+ ™|Õ |Ÿ“#ûd ‹\+ (iii) njáTkÍØ+Ôá ¹¿ŒçÔá+ýË r>·#áT³¼ çuó„eTD+#û <‘“ýË ç|]ÔáeTjûT« ç|ŸyVŸ² $<ŠT«ÔY.
8. m\ç¿ì¼¿ù cÍsY¼ dŸsÁÖØ«{Ù m|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+~?
9. uó„Ö$T¿ì ¿£*| r>· jîTT¿£Ø |Ÿ“ @$T{ì? ýËVŸ² –|Ÿ]Ôá\+ >·\ –|Ÿ¿£sÁD²\qT uó„Ö$T¿ì ¿£\|Ÿ&ƒ+ m+<ŠTÅ£” nedŸsÁ+?
305
Class X
Suggested Pedagogical Processes Learning Outcomes
The learners may be provided with The learner —
opportunities individually or in groups
and encouraged to — y differentiates materials, objects,
y recognise the difference between organisms, phenomena, and
reactions, such as, exothermic and processes, based on, properties and
endothermic, oxidation and reduction, characteristics, such as, autotrophic
etc. and heterotrophic nutrition,
y observe to understand the difference in biodegradable and non-biodegradable
the temperatures in both the reactions substances, various types of reactions,
using laboratory thermometer. strong and weak acids and bases,
y investigate the ways of segregation of acidic, basic, and neutral salts using
waste material on the basis of their different indicators, real and virtual
degradation property. They may be images, etc.
encouraged to practice the segregation y classifies materials, objects,
of waste before disposal at home, organisms, phenomena, and
school, and public places. processes, based on properties and
y explore the relationship between two characteristics, such as, metals and
physical quantities, such as, between non-metals, acid and bases on the
potential difference across a conductor basis of their physical and chemical
and electric current flowing through it; properties.
design, conduct, and share the findings y plans and conducts investigations and
of an activity experiments to arrive at and verify
y find out ‘why’ and ‘how’ of processes or the facts, principles, phenomena,
phenomena, such as, transportation in or to seek answers to queries on
plants and animals, extraction of metals their own, such as, investigates
from ores, with the help of activities, conditions necessary for rusting, tests
experiments, and demonstration. The the conductivity of various solutions,
learners may be encouraged to discuss, compares the foaming capacity of
relate, conclude and explain processes different types of soap samples, verifies
or phenomena to their peers using laws of reflection and refraction of light,
interdisciplinary approach. Ohm’s law, etc. Do variegated leaves
perform photosynthesis? Which gas is
y observe diagrams, such as that of
evolved during fermentation? Why does
digestive system and the names given
the shoot of a plant moves towards
to various organs. The learners may be
light?
motivated to make poster of the digestive
system for displaying in school. They y relates processes and phenomena
may also be provided opportunities to with causes and effects, such as,
use ICT tools for drawing. hormones with their functions, tooth
decay with pH of saliva, growth of plants
y collect wide variety of graphs from
with pH of the soil, survival of aquatic
newspapers, magazines, or the
life with pH of water, blue colour of sky
internet, with a view to understand
with scattering of light, deflection of
the information contained therein. The
compass needle due to magnetic effect
learners may be facilitated to draw a
of electric current, etc.
graph, such as V-I graph for analysing
the relationship between the potential y explains processes and phenomena,
difference across a conductor and the such as, nutrition in human beings
current through it. and plants, transportation in plants
306
Learning Outcomes at the Secondary Stage
y study how chemical equations are and animals, extraction of metals from
balanced using simple mathematical ores, placement of elements in modern
skills. Discussion may be conducted periodic table, displacement of metals
on the significance of balancing of from their salt solutions on the basis
chemical equations. of reactivity series, working of electric
y get familiar with New Cartesian Sign motor and generator, twinkling of stars,
Convention using illustrated cards and advanced sunrise and delayed sunset,
may be given ample opportunities to formation of rainbow, etc.
apply the sign convention in various y draws labelled diagrams, flow charts,
situations of reflection by spherical concept maps, and graphs, such
mirrors. as, digestive, respiratory, circulatory,
y perform a role-play on ecosystem in a excretory, and reproductive systems,
hypothetical situation, such as, what electrolysis of water, electron dot
will happen if all herbivores suddenly structure of atoms and molecules, flow
vanish from earth. This may be followed chart for extraction of metals from ores,
by a discussion about how the loss of ray diagrams, magnetic field lines, etc.
biodiversity disrupts the food chain y analyses and interprets data,
hereby adversely affecting the energy graphs, and figures, such as, melting
flow in an ecosystem. and boiling points of substances to
y derive equations, formulae, laws, etc. differentiate between covalent and ionic
For example, the derivation for formula compounds, pH of solutions to predict
of the equivalent resistance of resistors the nature of substances, V-I graphs,
in series (or parallel). They should be ray diagrams, etc.
encouraged to practice the derivation y calculates using the data given,
till they are confident. such as, number of atoms in reactants
y study the features inherited through and products to balance a chemical
genes, such as, attached or free equation, resistance of a system of
earlobes. They may be encouraged to resistors, power of a lens, electric
observe and compare the earlobes of power, etc.
their friends with the earlobes of their y uses scientific conventions to
parents and grandparents to arrive at represent units of various quantities,
the conclusion that characters or traits symbols, formulae, and equations,
are inherited in offsprings from their such as, balanced chemical equation
parents. by using symbols and physical states of
y collect print and non-print materials by substances, sign convention in optics,
exploring the library and the internet SI units, etc.
about scientists and their findings to y handles tools and laboratory
appreciate how concepts evolved with apparatus properly; measures
time. They may be motivated to share physical quantities using appropriate
their findings by preparing posters and apparatus, instruments, and
performing role plays or skits. devices, such as, pH of substances
y encourage learners to visit science using pH paper, electric current and
museums, biodiversity parks, aviaries, potential difference using ammeter and
zoological parks, botanical gardens, voltmeter, etc.
fisheries, poultry farms, factories, etc.
307
Learning Outcomes for Science
y collect eco-friendly, commonly available y applies learning to hypothetical
materials to design and develop situations, such as, what will happen
technological devices and innovative if all herbivores are removed from an
exibits, such as, electric motor, soda ecosystem? What will happen if all
acid fire extinguisher, respiratory non-renewable sources of energy are
system, etc. They may be motivated exhausted?
to display their exhibits or models y applies scientific concepts in daily
in science exhibitions, science club, life and solving problems, such as,
classrooms, during parent-teacher suggest precautions to prevent sexually
meet and to respond to the queries transmitted infections, uses appropriate
raised during interaction. electrical plugs (5/15A) for different
y visit classrooms, laboratories, library, electrical devices, uses vegetative
toilets, playground, etc., to identify propagation to develop saplings in
places where wastage of electricity and gardens, performs exercise to keep in
water may be occurring. Discussion good health, avoids using appliances
may be held on importance of natural responsible for ozone layer depletion,
resources and their conservation, applies concept of decomposition
leading to the conviction for adoption reaction of baking soda to make spongy
of good habits in their day-to-day cakes, etc.
life. The learners may also organise y derives formulae, equations, and
a sensitisation programme on such laws, such as, equivalent resistance of
issues. resistors in series and parallel, etc.
y share their findings of the activities, y draws conclusion, such as, traits or
projects, and experiments, such as, features are inherited through genes
extraction of metals from ores, working present on chromosomes, a new
of electric motor and generator, species originates through evolutionary
formation of rainbow, etc., in oral and processes, water is made up of hydrogen
written forms. Report writing may be and oxygen, properties of elements
facilitated to share their findings by vary periodically along the groups and
using appropriate technical terms, periods in periodic table, potential
figures, tables, graphs, etc. They may difference across a metal conductor
be encouraged to draw conclusions on is proportional to the electric current
the basis of their observations. flowing through it, etc.
y takes initiative to know about scientific
discoveries and inventions, such as,
Mendel’s contribution in understanding
the concept of inheritance, Dobereiner for
discovering triads of elements, Mendeleev
for the development of the periodic table
of elements, Oersted’s discovery that
electricity and magnetism are related,
discovery of relation between potential
difference across a metal conductor and
the electric current flowing through it by
Ohm, etc.
y exhibits creativity in designing
models using eco-friendly resources,
such as, working model of respiratory,
308
digestive, and excretory systems,
soda acid fire extinguisher,
periodic table, micelles formation,
formation of diamond, graphite, and
Buckminsterfullerene, human eye,
electric motor and generator, etc.
y exhibits values of honesty,
objectivity, rational thinking, and
freedom from myth and superstitious
beliefs while taking decisions,
respect for life, etc., such as,
reports and records experimental data
accurately, says no to consumption of
alcohol and drugs, sensitises others
about its effect on physical and
mental health, sensitises for blood
and organ donations, understands
the consequences of pre-natal sex
determination, etc.
y communicates the findings and
conclusions effectively, such as,
those derived from experiments,
activities, and projects orally and in
written form using appropriate figures,
tables, graphs, and digital forms, etc.
y makes efforts to conserve
environment realising the inter-
dependency and inter-relationship
in the biotic and abiotic factors of
environment, such as, appreciates
and promotes segregation of
biodegradable and non-biodegradable
wastes, minimises the use of plastics,
takes appropriate steps to promote
sustainable management of resources
in day-to-day life, advocates use of
fuels which produce less pollutants,
uses energy efficient electric devices,
uses fossil fuels judiciously, etc.
Suggested Pedagogical Processes in an Inclusive Setup

The curriculum in a classroom is same for everyone. This means
all students can actively participate in the classroom. There can
be some students who may face learning difficulties including
language, visual-spatial, or mixed processing problems. They
may require additional teaching support and some adaptation
in the curriculum. By considering the specific requirements of
children with special needs, a few pedagogical processes for the
teachers are suggested:
309
Learning Outcomes for Science
y Use multisensory approach for integrating information from
auditory, olfactory, tactile as well as visual sources.
y Provide learning experiences through touching objects,
materials, organisms, models, etc., to experience size,
shape, texture, pattern, and changes.
y Use embossed line diagrams for explaining texts, pictures,
graphs and flow charts, etc.
y Use direct sensory experiences for developing concepts like
temperature, volume, etc.
y Give opportunities to work with peers during experiments.
Rotating partners for the entire class would be a good
strategy.
y Allow students to record classroom presentation and
lectures or the text in audio format.
y Label the pictures within the text, whenever possible. This
can be done by the students as an activity.
y Relate the projects and experiments to real life experiences.
y Encourage group task and peer assistance for project and
experiment work.
y Give the project and experiment in fewer steps and sequence
the steps through visual cues. Display the examples
of completed projects and experiments in classroom or
laboratory for better understanding.
y Consider alternative or less difficult activities and exercises
for the students, with same or similar learning objectives.
y Write all homework or assignments and laboratory
procedural changes on the chalkboard.
y Give the student time to finish a step in an experiment and
wait until the student indicates that she/he is ready for
further work.
y Topics can be taught through class projects, experiments,
examples, etc. Activities can be conducted through
multisensory modes before explaining any theory and
concept.
y Peer support can be used wherever a figure or table has to
be drawn. Peer partner can draw with a carbon paper (for
copying).
y Highlight and underline the key concepts.
y Provide extra time to complete an experiment and understand
a concept.
y Always provide proper guidelines to arrange the task in a
planned way. Make use of visual aids, graphic organisers
and explain the steps of experiments and assignment
repetitively till the child learns.
y Sequence maps with visual cues can be provided to the
students to understand the sequence of events.
310

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CHAIRMAN, ADVISORY GROUP FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor,Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics

Dr. B. Pratap Reddy

Teacher Corner Student Corner

* 5,6,7and 8 Chapters are in Biology Textbook

C onsider the following situations of daily

1.1 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

The substances that undergo chemical change

¿£Ôá«+ 1.3 1.1 sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T

sÁkÍjáT“¿£ #ásÁ« 1.1 ýË sÁkÍjáT“¿£ eÖsÁTÎ\Å£” >·TÂsÕq |Ÿ<‘sœ\T

1.1.1 Writing a Chemical Equation The above word-equation may be represented

To balance the oxygen atoms –

(I) Initial 1 (in H2O) 4 (in Fe3O4)

To equalise the number of atoms, it must be

|ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\ dŸ+K«qT dŸeÖq+ #ûjáT&ƒ+ ¿ÃdŸ+ #ásÁ«ýË“

>·TD¿£+ –+º 4H O >± çyjáÖ*. H O >±ú (H O)4>± >±ú

3Fe(s) + 4H 2 O(g) ® Fe 3 O 4 (s) + 4H 2 (g)

3 Fe + 4 H2O ® Fe3O4 + 4 H2 (1.9)

H O |Ÿ¿£Øq (y) nqT dŸ+Èã ‡ #ásÁ«ýË úsÁT €$] sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË

kþbÍq+ VI: ºesÁ>±, ÔáT\« dŸMT¿£sÁD+ dŸÂsÕq<Š“ eTq+ 6CO2(È.ç<‘) + 12H2O(ç<‘) ®

1.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

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Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g)®CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) (1.14)

■ Take about 2 g lead nitrate powder in a

Let us perform some more decomposition

■ n Take a plastic mug. Drill two holes

2Pb(NO3)2(|˜ŸT) ® 2PbO(|˜ŸT) + 4NO2(y) + O2(y) (1.21)

Take about 2 g barium hydroxide in a test

■ Take three iron nails and clean them by

Zinc and lead are more reactive elements than

(¿±|ŸsY ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž) (ýÉ&Ž ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž) (1.26)

1.2.5 Oxidation and Reduction

This is because oxygen is added to copper and

B“¿ì ¿±sÁD+ @$T{ì? BaSO4jîTT¿£Ø Ôî\¢{ì ne¹¿Œ|Ÿ+

In reaction (1.31) carbon is oxidised to CO year an enormous amount of money is spent to

Corrosion causes damage to car bodies,

>·TsÁjáÖ«sTTn+{²eTT.|<ÆÜHû ¿£jáT+#î+<&+ n+{²eTT. (ii) CuO(|T)+ H (y÷) ® Cu(|T)+ H O(ç<)

yî+& edTïeÚ\|Õ q\¢{ì |PÔá eT]jáTTs÷ÐedTïeÚ\|Õ Å£|#áÌ

1. Which of the statements about the reaction below are incorrect?

(c) decomposition reaction.

(c) $jîÖ>· #ásÁ«.

Perform the following activity.

Y ou have learnt in your previous classes

€ VŸäsÁ+ jîTT¿£Ø |ŸÚ\¢“ eT]jáTT #û<ŠT sÁT#áT\T esÁTdŸ>±

1. You have been provided with three test

These indicators tell us whether a

2.1. €eÖ¢\T eT]jáTT ¿Œ±s\ jîTT¿£Ø

MTsÁT #ûd¾q |Ÿ]o\q\ €<ó‘sÁ+>± - yîúý² m™dHŽà, #ûjáT+&.

›+Å£” >·T[¿£\T ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽÔÃ “+&q

Note that the metal in the above

(kþ&jáT+ ›+¹¿{Ù) H O(ç<Š) + CO (y)

‚ý²+{ì #ásÁ«\T n“• ýËVŸä\ÔÃ kÍ<óŠ«+ ¿±eÚ. CO2 (y)

¿±sÁÒHŽ &ƒjáÖÂ¿Õà&Ž yjáTTeÚ

■ Take a small amount of copper oxide in

1.Why should curd and sour substances

The bulb will start glowing in the case of

This experiment suggests that hydrogen

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Ôá& *³ˆdt ¿±ÐÔá+

|Ÿ¯¿£ŒH[¿£ ýñÅ£”+&† ÈsÁ>·<ŠT.

™VÕ²ç&Ã“jáT+ €jáÖqT (H O ) >± >±ú #áÖ|¾kÍïsÁT.

¿±*üjáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž ¿£*Ð +

–q• ¿£e#á >=³¼+ ú{ì ý Ë €eÖ¢ \ T H O ýñ < ‘ H (È.ç < ‘)

njáÖqT\“kÍïjáT“ eTq+ #áÖXæ+. ÿ¿£ ¿Œ±sÁ+ ú{ìýË

¿£Ôá«+ 1.3 1.1 sÁkÍjáTq dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T

sÁkÍjáT“¿£ #ásÁ« 1.1 ýË sÁkÍjáT“¿£ eÖsÁTÎ\Å£” >·TÂsÕq |Ÿ<‘sœ\T

>·TD¿£+ –+º 4H O >± çyjáÖ*. H O >±ú (H O)4>± >±ú

H O |Ÿ¿£Øq (y) nqT dŸ+Èã ‡ #ásÁ«ýË úsÁT €$] sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË

¿±*üjáT+ €Â¿Õà&Ž ú{ìÔÃ #ásÁ« È]|¾ Ôá& dŸTq•+ @sÁÎsÁ#áT³

2Pb(NO3)2(|˜ŸT) ® 2PbO(|˜ŸT) + 4NO2(y) + O2(y) (1.21)

>·TsÁjáÖ«sTTn+{²eTT.|<ÆÜHû ¿£jáT+#î+<&+ n+{²eTT. (ii) CuO(|T)+ H (y÷) ® Cu(|T)+ H O(ç<)

yî+& edTïeÚ\|Õ q\¢{ì |PÔá eT]jáTTs÷ÐedTïeÚ\|Õ Å£|#áÌ

2.1. €eÖ¢\T eT]jáTT ¿Œ±s\ jîTT¿£Ø

MTsÁT #ûd¾q |Ÿ]o\q\ €<ó‘sÁ+>± - yîúý² m™dHŽà, #ûjáT+&.

›+Å£” >·T[¿£\T ™VÕ²ç&ÃÈHŽÔÃ “+&q

(kþ&jáT+ ›+¹¿{Ù) H O(ç<Š) + CO (y)

‚ý²+{ì #ásÁ«\T n“• ýËVŸä\ÔÃ kÍ<óŠ«+ ¿±eÚ. CO2 (y)

¿±sÁÒHŽ &ƒjáÖÂ¿Õà&Ž yjáTTeÚ

|Ÿ³+ 2.3 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<óŠ+>±, €eÖ¢\ dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ýË ¿£Ôá«+ 2.9

Ôá& *³ˆdt ¿±ÐÔá+

|Ÿ¯¿£ŒH[¿£ ýñÅ£”+&† ÈsÁ>·<ŠT.

¿±üjáT+ ¿Ã¢ÂsÕ&Ž ¿£Ð +

■ ÿ¿£ ;¿£sÁTýË 10 MT.©.\ ú{ì“ rdŸT¿Ã+&.

;¿£sÁTqT HîeTˆ~>± ¿£~*+#á+&.

qT –ÔáÎÜï #ûkÍïsTT eT]jáTT n“• ¿Œ±s\T OH (È.ç<‘)qT –ÔáÎÜï

esÁTdŸ>±, –ÔáÎÜï #ûjáT‹&q H eT]jáTT OH

ç|Ÿ¿£Ü Ôá³dÓœ¿£sÁD m+|¾¿£\qT n+~dŸTï+~

#î+<ŠTÔsTT. n<û$<óŠ+>± NaCl eT]jáTT KCl

kÍ<ó‘sÁD –|ŸÚÎ - sÁkÍjáTH\Å£” ÿ¿£ eTT& |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ $sÁ+Èq #áÖsÁ’+

$<ŠT«ÔYqT ç|ŸdŸ]+|ŸCñd¾q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, n~ kþ&jáT+ ™VÕ²ç&†Â¿Õà&Ž Ca(OH)2+ Cl2 ® CaOCl2 + H2O

10H2O <û““ dŸÖºdŸTï+~? ‚~ Na2CO3qT Ôá&>± ¿£Ôá«+ 2.15

MTsÁT @$T HûsÁTÌÅ£”H•sÁT

OH (È.ç<‘) njáÖqT\T ¿Œ±sÁ dŸÇuó²y“¿ì ¿±sÁDeTeÚÔsTT.

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