Maths - IIB

Text Book for
INTERMEDIATE
Second Year
Mathematics
Paper - IIB
Coordinate Geometry, Calculus
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi

Andhra Pradesh
Intermediate
Second Year
Mathematics
Paper - IIB
Text Book
Pages : xvi + 364 + iv + iv
© Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, Andhra Pradesh
Reprint 2023
Copies : 24000
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Y.S. JAGAN MOHAN REDDY CHIEF MINISTER
AMARAVATI
ANDHRA PRADESH
MESSAGE
I congratulate Akademi for starting its activities with printing of textbooks from
the academic year 2021 – 22.
Education is a real asset which cannot be stolen by anyone and it is the foundation
on which children build their future. As the world has become a global village, children
will have to compete with the world as they grow up. For this there is every need for
good books and good education.
Our government has brought in many changes in the education system and more
are to come. The government has been taking care to provide education to the poor
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has taken up numerous innovative programmes.
The revival of the Akademi also took place during the tenure of our government
as it was neglected after the State was bifurcated. The Akademi, which was started on
August 6, 1968 in the undivided state of Andhra Pradesh, was printing text books,
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Our government has decided to make available all kinds of books required for
students and employees through Akademi, with headquarters at Tirupati.
I extend my best wishes to the Akademi and hope it will regain its past glory.
Y.S. JAGAN MOHAN REDDY

Dr. Nandamuri Lakshmiparvathi
M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D.
Chairperson, (Cabinet Minister Rank)
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, A.P.
Message of Chairperson, Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, A.P.
In accordance with the syllabus developed by the Board of Intermediate, State

Council for Higher Education, SCERT etc., we design high quality Text books by recruiting
efficient Professors, department heads and faculty members from various Universities and
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Employees to make use of Akademi books of high standards for their golden future.
Congratulations and best wishes to all of you.
Nandamuri Lakshmiparvathi
Chairperson, Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, A.P.
J. SYAMALA RAO, I.A.S., Higher Education Department
Principal Secretary to Government Government of Andhra Pradesh
MESSAGE
I Congratulate Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi for taking up the initiative of
printing and distributing textbooks in both Telugu and English media within a short
span of establishing Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi.
Number of students of Andhra Pradesh are competing of National Level for

admissions into Medicine and Engineering courses. In order to help these students
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi consultation with NCERT redesigned their Textbooks
to suit the requirement of National Level Examinations in a lucid language.
As the content in Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi books is highly informative

and authentic, printed in multi-color on high quality paper and will be made available
to the students in a time bound manner. I hope all the students in Andhra Pradesh
will utilize the Akademi textbooks for better understanding of the subjects to compete
of state and national levels.
(J. SYAMALA RAO)

THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having

solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
[SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure to all
its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith

and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and

to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the

individual and the [unity and integrity of the
Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this
twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do HEREBY
ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES
THIS CONSTITUTION.
Text book Devel opm en t Com m i t t ee
Ch i ef Coor d i n at or
Pr of . P.V. Ar u n ac h al am , Fou n der Vi ce-Ch an cel l or, D r avi di an Un i ver sit y, Ku ppam
Edi t or s
Pr of. K . Pat t abh i Ram a Sast r y , Professor of M at h emat ics (Ret d), An dh ra Un i ver sit y,
Visak h apat n am
Pr of . V. Si v a Ram a Pr asad, Professor of Mat h emat i cs (Ret d.), Osman ia Un i versi t y,

Hyderabad
Pr of. T. Ram Reddy , Pr ofessorof M at h emat i cs(Ret d.), Kak at i ya Un i ver sit y, War an gal
Sr i A. Padm an abh am , H ead of t h e D epar t m en t of M at h em at i cs (Ret d .), M ah ar an i

Col lege, Peddapu r am
Pr of , K . Ram a M oh an a Rao, Pr ofessor of Appl i ed Mat h em at i cs (Ret d .), An dh r a

Un i ver sit y. Visak h apat n am
Au t h or s
Pr of . K . Sam bai ah , Ch airm an , BOS, Depart men t of Mat h emat ics, Kak at i ya Un iver sit y.
War an gal
Sr i K .V.S. Pr asad, Lect u rer in Mat h emat ics, Govt . D egree College (Women ), Srik ak u lam
Sr i Pot uk uch i Raj am oul i , Sr. Lect u rer in Mat h emat ics (Ret d.), P.B. Siddh ardh a College
of Art s an d Scien ce(A), Vijayawada
Pr of. G. V. Rav i n dr an at h Babu , Professor of M at h em at i cs, An dh r a Un i ver si t y.

Visak h apat n am
Sr i A. Padm an abh am , H ead of t h e D epar t m en t of M at h em at i cs (Ret d .), M ah ar an i
Col lege, Peddapu r am
Dr. P.V. Sat y an ar ay an a M ur t h y , Reader & Head (Ret d.), Depart men t of M at h em at ics,
S.K.B.R. College, Amalapu ram.
Subj ect Com m i t t ee M em ber s of BI E
Pr of. D. Ram a Mur t h y , Professor of Mathemat ics (Retd.), Osman ia University, Hyderabad
Pr of. S. Raj Reddy , Professor of Mat h emat ics (Ret d.), Kak at iya Un iversit y, Waran gal
Pr of. D.R.V. Pr asada Rao, Professor of Math ema tics (Retd.), S.K.University, An an th apu r
Dr. D. Ch i t t i Babu, Reader, Govt . College (Au t on omou s), Rajah mu n dry
Dr.C.T. Sur y an ar ay an a Ch ar i , Reader, Silver Ju bilee Govt . College, Ku r n ool
Dr. Y. Bh ask ar Reddy , Reader, Govt . Degree College, Ran gasaipet , Waran gal
Dr. M .V.N. Pat r udu, Prin cipal, Govt . Ju n ior College, Veeragh at t am, Srik ak u lam (Dist )
Sr i T. M ar k an dey a Nai du, Lect u rer, P.V.K.N. Govt . Degree College, Ch it t ore
Sr i C. Li n ga Reddy , Prin cipal, Govt . Ju n ior College (Boys), Nirmal, Adilabad (Dist )
Sr i K odi Nageswar a Rao, Sch ool Assist an t (Ret d.), Ch agallu , West Godavari (Dist )
Sr i C. Sadasi v a Sast r y , Lect u rer in Mat h emat ics (Ret d.), Sri Ramabh adra Jr. College,
Hyderabad
Sm t . S.V. Sai l aj a, Ju n ior Lect u rer, New Govt . Ju n ior College, Ku k at pally, Hyderabad
Sr i K . Ch an dr a Sek h ar a Rao, Ju n ior Lect u rer, GJC, Uppu gu n du r, Prak asam (Dist )
Sr i P. H ar i n adha Char y , Ju n ior Lect u rer, Sri Srin ivasa Jr. College, Tiru chanu r, Tiru pat i
Pan el of Ex per t s of BI E
Pr of. D. Ram a M ur t h y , Professor of Mat h emat ics (Ret dl. Osman la Un lversity. Hyderabad
Pr of. D.R.V. Pr asad a Rao, Professor of Mat h ematics (Retdl. S.K. Un iversity. An an th apu r
Dr, C.T. Sur y an ar ay an a Ch ar i , Reader in Mat h emat ics, Silver Ju bilee Gover n men t
College (Au t on omou s) , Ku rnool
Sr i C. Sadasi va Sast r y , Lect u rer in Math emat ics (Ret d). Sri Ramabh adra Ju n lor College.
Hyderabad
Dr. M .V.N. Pat r udu, Prin cipal, Govt . Ju n ior College, Veeragh at t am. Srik ak u lam (Dist )
Sm t . S.V. Sai l aj a, Ju n ior Lect u rer, New Govt . Ju n ior College, Ku k at pally. Hyderabad
Text Book Review Committee
Editors
Prof. K. Rama Mohan Rao Prof. G. Chakradhara Rao

Professor of Applied Mathematics (Retd.) Professor of Mathematics (Retd.)
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam. Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.
Reviewed by
Prof. S. Kalesha Vali Dr. Y. Purushotama Reddy

Department of Engineering Mathematics Principal (Retd.)
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam. Government Degree Collge, Bantumilli,
Krishna Dist.
Sri K.V.S. Prasad Dr. K. Ravi Babu

Lecturer in Mathematics (Retd.) Lecturer in Mathematics
Government College for Women, Dr. V.S. Krishna Govt. Degree & P.G. Collge(A),
Srikakulam. Visakhapatnam.
Coordinating Committee of
Board of Intermediate Education, A.P.
Sri M.V. Seshagiri Babu, I.A.S.

Secretary
Board of Intermediate Education,
Andhra Pradesh
Educational Research & Training Wing (Text Books)
Dr. A. Srinivasulu
Professor
Sri. M. Ravi Sankar Naik

Assistant Professor
Dr. M. Ramana Reddy

Assistant Professor
Sri J.V. Ramana Gupta

Assistant Professor
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, Andhra Pradesh

Coordinating Committee
Sri V. Ramakrishna, I.R.S.

Director
Dr. M. Koteswaramma, M.Com., Ph.D.

Research Officer
Dr. S.A.T. Rajyalakshmi M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A., Ph.D.

Research Assistant
Dr. K. Glory Sathyavani, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Ed.

Research Assistant
Foreword
Th e Gover n m en t of In di a vowed to r em ove t h e edu cat i on al di spar i ti es

an d adopt a com m on cor e cu r r i cu l u m acr oss t h e cou n t r y especi al l y at t h e
Inter m ediate level. Ever si nce the Gover nm ent of Andhr a Pr adesh and the Boar d
of Inter m edi ate Edu cation (BIE) swu ng into action with the task of evolvi ng a
r evi sed syl labu s i n all t he Science su bj ects on par wi th that of CBSE, appr oved
by NCERT, it s chief intenti on being enabli ng the stu dents fr om An dhr a Pr adesh
to pr epar e for the National Level Com m on Entr ance tests l ik e NEET, ISEET etc
for adm issi on into Instit u tions of pr ofessional cou r ses in ou r Cou n tr y.
For the fir st tim e BIE AP has decided t o pr epar e the Science textbook s.
Ac cor d i n gl y an Acad em i c Revi ew Com m i t t ee w a s c on s t i t u t ed w i t h t h e
Com m issi oner of Inter m ediat e Edu cation, AP as Chair m an and th e Secr etar y,
BIE AP; the Dir ector SCERT and th e Dir ect or Telu gu Ak adem i as m em ber s. The
Nati onal and State Level Edu cational lu m in ar ies wer e invol ved in the text book
pr epar ation , who did it with m et icu lou s car e. The textbook s ar e pr i nted on the
lines of NCERT m aintain ing National Level Standar ds.
The Edu cati on Depar tm ent of Gover nm ent of Andhr a Pr adesh has t ak en
a decision to pu bl ish and to su pply all the text book s with fr ee of cost for the
stu dents of all Gover nm ent and Aided J u nior Colleges of newly for m ed stat e of
An dh r a Pr adesh.
We expr ess ou r sin cer e gr atit u de to t he Dir ector, NCERT for accor di ng
per m ission t o adopt its syl labi an d cu r r icu lu m of Science textbook s. We have
been per m it ted to m ak e u se of th eir textbook s which will be of gr eat advan tage
to ou r stu dent com m u nity. I also expr ess m y gr atit u de t o the Chair m an, BIE
and th e h onor abl e M in i st er for HRD an d Vi ce Ch air m an , BIE and Secr et ar y
(SE) for th eir dedicated sincer e gu idance and h elp.
I si ncer ely hope th at the assor ted m ethods of i nnovation that ar e adopted
in t he pr epar ation of these text book s wi ll be of gr eat help and gu idance to the
st u den t s.
I w h ol eh ear t ed l y ap p r eci at e t h e si n cer e en d eavor s of t h e Tex t b ook
Developm ent Com m itt ee which has accom plish ed this noble t ask .
Constr u ctive su ggestions ar e solicited for the im pr ovem ent of t his text book
fr om t he st u den ts, t each er s and gen er al pu bl ic in t he su bj ects concer ned so
that next edition will be r evised du ly incor por ating these su ggesti ons.
It i s ver y m u ch com m en dabl e t h at In t er m edi at e t ext book s ar e bei n g
pr in ted for the fir st tim e by the Ak adem i fr om the 2021-22 academ ic year.
Sr i . V. Ram ak r i sh n a I.R.S.
Di r ect or
Tel u gu an d San sk rit Ak ademi,
An dh ra Pradesh
Preface
Th e B oar d of In t er m ediat e Edu cat ion , h as r ecen t ly r evised t h e syllabu s in
Mat h emat ics for t h e In t er mediat e Cou rse wit h effect from t h e Ak ademic year 2012-13.
Accordin gly, Telu gu Ak ademi h as prepared t h e n ecessar y Text B ook s in Mat h emat ics.
In accor dan ce wit h t h e cu r r en t syllabu s, t h e t opics r elat in g t o paper II-B ;
Coor di n at e Geom et r y an d Cal c u l u s ar e dealt wit h in t h is book . Th ey ar e pr esen t ed
in eigh t ch apt er s. Coor din at e Geom et r y con sist s of five ch apt er s: Ci r cl e, Sy st em of
Ci r c l es, Par abol a, El l i pse, H y p er bol a an d Calcu lu s is pr esen t ed in t h r ee ch apt er s,
I n t egr at i on , Def i n i t e I n t egr al s an d Di f f er en t i al Equ at i on s.
Every ch apt er h erein is divided in t o variou s sect ion s an d su bsect ion s. depen din g
on t h e con t ent s discu ssed. Th ese con ten t s are st rict ly in accordance wit h th e prescribed
syllabu s an d t h ey r eflect fait h fu lly t h e scope an d spir it of t h e sam e. Necessar y
defin it ion s, t h eor em s, cor ollar ies. pr oofs an d n ot es ar e given in det ail. Key con cept s
are given at t h e en d of each ch apt er, Illu st r at ive examples an d solved pr oblem s are in
plen t y. an d t h ese sh all h elp t h e st u den t s in u n der st an din g t h e su bject m at t er.
Ever y ch apt er con t ain s exercises in a graded man n er wh ich en able t h e st u den t s
t o solve t h em by applyin g t h e k n owledge acqu ir ed. All t h ese pr oblem s ar e classified
accordin g t o t h e n at u re of t h eir an swers as I - v er y sh or t , I I - sh or t an d
I I I - l on g. An swer s ar e pr ovided for all t h e exer cises at t h e en d of each ch apt er.
Keepin g in view t h e Nat ion al level compet it ives examin at ion s, some con cept s an d
n ot ion s ar e h igh ligh led for t h e ben efit of t h e st u den t s. Car e h as been t ak en r egardin g
rigor an d logical con sist en cy in t h e presen t at ion of con cept s an d in pr ovin g t h eor em s.
Alt t h e en d of t h e t ext B ook , a lisl of som e Ref er en c e Book s in t h e su bject m at t er is
fu rn ish ed.
Th e Mem ber s of t h e Mat h em at ics Su bject Com m it t ee, con st it u t ed by B oar d of
In t er m ediat e Edu cat ion , wer e in vit ed t o in t er act wit h t h e t eam of t h e Au t h ors an d
Edit or s. Th ey pu r su ed t h e con t en t s ch apt er wise. an d gave some u sefu l su ggest ion s
an d com men t s wh ich ar e du ly in cor por at ed. Th e special feat u r e of t h is Book , br ou gh t
ou t in a n ew form al, is t h at each ch apt er begin s wit h a t h ou gh t most ly on Mat h emat ics
t h r ou gh a qu ot at i on fr om a fam ou s t h i n k er. I t car r i es a p or t r ait of a n ot ed
m at h em at ician wit h a br ief writ e-u p.
In th e con clu din g part of each ch apter some relevan t hist orical not es are appended.
Wh erever fou n d appropriat e, refer en ces ar e also m ade of t h e con t ribu t ion s of an cien t
In dian scien t ist s t o t h e advan cem en t of M at h em at ics. Th e pu r pose is t o en able t h e
st u den t s t o h ave a glim pse in t o t h e h ist or y of Mat h em at ics in gen er al an d t h e
con t r ibu t ion s of In dian m at h em at ician s in part icu lar.
In spit e of en ou gh car e t ak en in t h e scr u t in y at variou s st ages in t h e pr epar at ion
of t h e book , errors migh t h ave crept in . Th e readers are t h erefore, requ est ed t o iden t ify
an d brin g th em to t he n otice of th e Akademi. We will appreciat e if su gget ions t o en h an ce
t h e qu alit y of t h e book ar e given . Effor t s will be m ade t o in cor por at e t h em in t h e
su bsequ en t edit ion s.
Pr of . P.V. Ar u n ac h al am
Ch i ef Coor d i n at or
Pr ef ace t o t h e Rev i ewed Edi t i on
Telu gu Ak adem i is pu blishin g Text book s for Two year Int er m ediat e in
En gl ish and Tel u gu m ediu m si nce i ts i ncept ion, per i odical r evi ew and
r evi sion of these pu blicati ons has been u nder tak en as an d when t her e
was an u pdation of Inter m ediate syllabu s.
In t his r evi ewed Edition, n ow being u nder t ak en by the Tel u gu Ak adem i,

An dh r a Pr adesh t he basi c con t en t of it s ear l i er Edit i on i s con si der ed
and it is r eviewed by a team of exper i enced teach er s. Modifi cation by
way cor r ecti ng er r or s, pr int m ist ak es, in cor por atin g additi on al con tent
wher e necessar y to elu cidate a concept an d / or a defin ition, m odification
of existing conten t to r em ove obscu r ities for r eleasin g the concept m or e
easi ly ar e car r ied ou t m ai nly in t his r eview.
Not withstan ding th e effor t and tim e spent by the r eview team in this
en deavou r, st i l l a few aspect s t h at st i l l n eed m odi fi cat i on or ch an ge
m igh t have been left u nnoti ced.
Con st r u ct i ve su ggest i on s fr om t h e academ i c fr at er n i t y ar e wel com e

an d t he Ak adem i wil l tak e n ecessar y st eps to in cor por at e t hem i n t he
for th com ing editi on.
We appr eciat e the encou r agem ent an d su ppor t exten ded by the Academ ic
and Adm inist r ative staff of the Telu gu Ak adem i in fu lfil ling ou r assign m ent
wi t h sat i sfact i on .
Edi t or s
(Revi ew ed Ed i t i on )
Contents
1. Circle 1 - 78
Introduction ..................................... 1
1.1 Equation of a circle, standard form, centre and radius ................................. 2
1.2 Position of a point in the plane of a circle - ..................................... 24

Definition of a tangent
1.3 Position of a straight line in the plane of a circle ..................................... 31

Condition for a line to be tangent
1.4 Chord of contact and polar ..................................... 44
1.5 Relative Positions of two circles ..................................... 60
2. System of Circles 79 - 102
Introduction ..................................... 79
2.1 Angle between two intersecting circles ..................................... 79
2.2 Radical axis of two circles ..................................... 89
3. Parabola 103 - 130
Introduction ..................................... 103
3.1 Conic Sections ..................................... 103
3.2 Equation of tangent and normal at a point ..................................... 117
on the parabola
4. Ellipse 131 - 160
Introduction ..................................... 131

4.1 Equation of ellipse in standard form,
Parametric equations ..................................... 131
4.2 Equation of tangent and normal at a point
on the ellipse ..................................... 148
5. Hyperbola 161 - 176
Introduction ..................................... 161

5.1 Equation of hyperbola in standard form ..................................... 161
Parametric equations
5.2 Equation of Tangent and Normal at a ..................................... 168
point on the hyperbola
6. Integration 177 - 260
Introduction ..................................... 177

6.1 Integration as the inverse process of differentiation, ..................................... 178
standard forms and properties of integrals
6.2 Method of substitution - Integration of algebraic, ..................................... 187
exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric and inverse
trigonometric functions - Integration by parts
6.2(A) Integration by the method of substitution - ..................................... 187
Integration of algebraic and trigonometric functions
6.2(B) Integration by parts - Integration of exponential, ..................................... 209
logarithmic and inverse trigonometric functions
6.3 Integration - Partial fractions method ..................................... 233
6.4 Reduction formulae ..................................... 240
7. Definite Integrals 261 - 314
Introduction ..................................... 261

7.1 Definite Integral as the limit of sum ..................................... 262
7.2 Interpretation of definite integral as an area ..................................... 263
7.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus ..................................... 268
7.4 Properties ..................................... 269
7.5 Reduction Formulae ..................................... 287
7.6 Applications of definite integral to areas ..................................... 296
8. Differential Equations 315 - 356
Introduction ..................................... 315

8.1 Formation of differential equations - Degree and ..................................... 315
order of an ordinary differential equation
8.2 Solving Differential Equations ..................................... 323
8.2(a) Variables separable method ..................................... 323
8.2(b) Homogeneous Differential Equation ..................................... 331
8.2(c) Non - Homogeneous Differential Equations ..................................... 341
8.2(d) Linear Differential Equations ..................................... 345
Reference Books 357
Syllabus 358 - 360
Model Question Paper 361 - 363

Circle 1
Learn to be silent. Let your quiet mind listen and absorb

- Pythagoras
Introduction
Geometry has probably originated in ancient Egypt and flourished
in Greece, India and China. In the sixth century B.C., the systematic
development of geometry has begun.
Great mathematicians such as Thales, Menachmus andArchimedes
worked on the circle and a tangent to it during the fifth century B.C.
Thirty or forty years after the work of Aristotle, Euclid (a teacher of
mathematics of Alexandria in Egypt) collected all the known works and
arranged them in his famous book called The Elements.
Rene Descartes introduced a very important branch of Archimedes
mathematics known as coordinate geometry which is a fusion of geometry (287 - 212 B.C.)
and algebra. In honour of Descartes the subject is named as Cartesian
Archimedes of Syracuse was an
Geometry. ancient Greek mathematician,
The shape of a wheel of a bicycle, a wheel of physicist and engineer.
bullock cart, bangle and some coins are of circular Although little is known of his
shape (see Fig. 1.1). In this chapter, we deal with life, he is regarded as one of the
the circle and obtain its equation. We derive the leading scientists in classical
antiquity. He made several
equation of a chord, tangent and normal. Further
discoveries in the fields of
we obtain the parametric equations of a circle and mathematics and geometry.
study some important topics related to circles. Fig. 1.1
2 Mathematics - IIB
1.1 Equation of a circle, standard form, centre and radius
1.1.1 Definitions
A circle is the set of points in a plane such that they are equidistant radius
from a fixed point lying in the plane (see Fig. 1.2). Y P
centre
The fixed point is called the centre and the distance from the C
centre to a point on the circle is called the radius of the circle. Further,
X
twice of the radius of the circle is called its diameter. In the Fig. 1.2, O
C is the centre of the circle and CP is its radius. Fig. 1.2
1.1.2 Standard form

Now, we proceed to find the equation of circle in standard form and its other forms.
1.1.3 Theorem : The equation of the circle with centre O(0, 0) and radius r is x2 + y2 = r2 .
Y
Proof : A point P(x, y) is on the circle if and only if the distance
between P and O is r (see Fig. 1.3).
P(x, y)
 PO = r
X
O
i.e., x2 + y2 = r2 ...(1)
which is the required equation of circle. The equation (1) is called
standard form of the circle.
Fig. 1.3
1.1.4 Theorem : The equation of the circle with centre at

Y
C(h, k) and radius r is
(x  h)2 + (y  k)2 = r2. P(x, y)
r
Proof : A point P(x, y) is on the circle if and only if the distance between
P and C is r (see Fig. 1.4). C(h, k)
i.e., ( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r X
O
i.e., (x  h)2 + (y  k)2 = r2
Fig. 1.4
which is the required equation of the circle.
Circle 3
In the following, we obtain a necessary and sufficient condition for a second degree equation inx and y to
represent a circle. This facilitates us to decide by just looking at the coefficients whether the equation represents
a circle.
1.1.5 Theorem : The general equation of second degree
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
where the coefficients a, h, b, g, f and c are real numbers, represents a circle if and only if
(i) a = b  0 (ii) h = 0 and (iii) g2 + f 2  ac > 0
Proof : Suppose that the equation (1) represents a circle. We shall prove
(i) a = b  0 (ii) h = 0 and (iii) g2 + f 2  ac > 0.
Let (, ) be the centre and r be the radius of the circle (1). Then by Theorem 1.1.4, the
equation of the circle is
(x )2 + (y )2 = r2.
i.e., x2 + y2  2x  2y + 2 + 2  r2 = 0 ... (2)
The equations (1) and (2) represent the same circle. Comparing the coefficients in (1) and
(2) we get h = 0 and
a b 2g 2f c
    2 2 2 ... (3)
1 1  2  2   r
a = b follows from equation (3).
Since, equation (1) is a second degree and h = 0
a  0, b  0, a = b  0
Further, from equation (3), we have
g f and
α ,β
a a
c
 2  2  r 2  ... (4)
a
g2 f2 c
Thus, r2
a2 b2 a
g2 f2 ac a2r 2 0
4 Mathematics - IIB
i.e., g2 + f 2  ac > 0 (' a2 > 0)

Conversely, suppose that (i) a = b  0 (ii) h = 0 (iii) g2 + f 2  ac > 0, we shall
prove that ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents a circle.
Since a = b and h = 0, the general equation (1) of second degree becomes
ax2 + ay2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

2g 2f c
 x2  y 2  x y  0 (' a  0)
a a a
2 2
 g  f g2 f 2 c
 x   y   2  2 
 a  a a a a
2

2
g  f 
2
 g 2  f 2  ac 
  x    y      ... (5)
 a  a  a 2 
 
 g f
Since g2 + f 2  ac > 0, the equation (5) represents a circle whose centre is   ,   and
 a a
g 2  f 2  ac
radius is .
a
1.1.6 Note
(i) x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is considered as general equation of the circle.

(ii) The centre of the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is (g, f ).
(iii) The radius of the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is g2  f 2  c .
(iv) If g2 + f 2  c = 0 then x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents a point circle. In this case the centre
itself is the point circle. The equation of a point circle having the centre at the origin is
x2 + y2 = 0.
(v) The equation of a circle through (0, 0) will be in the form x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy = 0.
(vi) The equation of a circle having the centre on the X-axis will be in the form of
x2 + y2 + 2gx + c = 0 (' y-coordinate of the centre is zero).
(vii) The equation of a circle having the centre on the Y-axis will be in the form of
x2 + y2 + 2fy + c = 0 (' x-coordinate of the centre is zero).
Circle 5
(viii) Two or more circles are said to be concentric if their centres are same.
(ix) The equation of a circle concentric with the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 will be in the form of
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c' = 0 where c' is any constant.
(x) If the radius of a circle is 1 then it is called a unit circle.
1.1.7 Solved Problems

1. Problem: Find the equation of circle with centre (1, 4) and radius 5.
Solution : Here (h, k) = (1, 4) and r = 5. Therefore, by Theorem 1.1.4, we have
( x  1)2 + (y  4)2 = 52
i.e., x2 + y2  2x  8y  8 = 0.
2. Problem: Find the centre and radius of the circle x2 + y2 + 2x  4y  4 = 0.
Solution : Here 2g = 2; 2f =  4; c=4
 g = 1, f =  2, c=4
 Centre ( g,  f ) = (1, 2) and
radius = g2  f 2  c = 1  4  (4) = 3.
3. Problem: Find the centre and radius of the circle 3x2 + 3y2  6x + 4y  4 = 0.
Solution: First we reduce the given equation to a circle in general form. Dividing the given equation of circle
by 3, we get
4 4
x2 + y2  2x + y =0
3 3
4 4
Hence 2g = 2; 2f = ; c= 
3 3
2 4
i.e., g = 1; f = ; c=  .
3 3
2 4 4 5
 Centre = (g, f ) = (1,  ) and radius g2  f 2  c  1    .
3 9 3 3
4. Problem : Find the equation of the circle whose centre is (1, 2) and which passes through (5, 6).
Y
Solution: Let C (= (1, 2)) be the centre of the circle (see Fig. 1.5).
Since (5, 6) is a point on the circle, the radius of the circle is (5, 6)
(5  1)2  (6  2) 2  52 . (1, 2)C

X
O
Fig. 1.5
6 Mathematics - IIB
Hence the equation of the required circle is
(x + 1)2 + (y  2)2 = ( 52 )2
i.e., x2 + y2 + 2x  4y  47 = 0.
5. Problem : Find the equation of the circle passing through (2, 3) and
concentric with the circle
x2 + y2 + 8x + 12y + 15 = 0. ... (1)
Solution: Let the equation of required concentric circle be
Y
x2 + y2 + 8x + 12y + c' = 0 (By Note 1.1.6(ix)). If it passes through
(2, 3)
(2, 3) (see Fig. 1.6) we have
X
O
4 + 9 + 16 + 36 + c' = 0 (4, 6)
65 + c' = 0
 c' =  65.
Hence the required circle is x2 + y2 + 8x + 12y  65 = 0. Fig. 1.6
6. Problem: From the point A(0, 3) on the circle x2 + 4x + (y  3)2 = 0 a chord AB is drawn and
extended to a point M such that AM = 2AB. Find the equation of the locus of M.
Solution: Let M = (x', y' )
Given that AM = 2AB
 AB + BM = AB + AB
 AB = BM Y
i.e., B is mid point of AM.
A(0, 3)
 x  y  3 B
 B =  2 , 2 
X
M O
B is a point on the given circle (x', y' )
(see Fig. 1.7)

2 2
 x   x   y   3 
    4     3  0 Fig. 1.7
 2  2  2 
2
x y  2  6 y  9
 2 x  0
4 4
i.e., x2  y2  8 x  6 y  9  0 .
Hence the locus of M is x2 + y2 + 8x  6y + 9 = 0, which is a circle.
Circle 7
7. Problem: If the circle x2 + y2 + ax + by  12 = 0 has the centre at (2, 3) then find a, b and the radius
of the circle.
Solution : The equation of the circle is
x2 + y2 + ax + by  12 = 0. ... (1)
 a b
The centre of (1) is  ,  
 2 2
 a b
i.e.,   ,    (2, 3)
2 2
 a =  4, b =  6.
The equation (1) becomes x2 + y2  4x  6y  12 = 0, hence g = 2, f = 3 and c = 12.
Therefore, the radius of the circle is g2  f 2  c  4  9  (12)  5.
8. Problem : If the circle x2 + y2  4x + 6y + a = 0 has radius 4 then find a.

Solution: Comparing the given equation of circle with the general form of equation of a circle, we have
2g = 4; 2f = 6; c = a.
i.e., g = 2; f = 3; c = a.
Given that the radius of the circle is 4.
 g2  f 2  c  4
i.e., 49c  4
i.e., 13  a  4
i.e., a = 3.
9. Problem : Find the equation of the circle passing through (4, 1), (6, 5) and having the centre on the line
4x + y  16 = 0.
Solution: Let the equation of the required circle be
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
Since it passes through (4, 1), we have
16 + 1 + 8g + 2f + c = 0
i.e., 17 + 8g + 2f + c = 0 ... (2)
8 Mathematics - IIB
Similarly since (6, 5) lies on (1), we obtain

36 + 25 + 12g + 10f + c = 0
i.e., 61 + 12g + 10f + c = 0 ... (3)
Given that the centre of (1) lies on 4x + y  16 = 0
 4(g) + (f )  16 = 0
4g + f + 16 = 0 ... (4)
Solving the equations (2), (3) and (4) for g, f and c we get
g = 3, f = 4 and c = 15
Thus the equation of the required circle is
x2 + y2  6x  8y + 15 = 0.
10. Problem : Suppose a point (x1, y1) satisfies
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
then show that it represents a circle whenever g, f and c are real.
Solution : Comparing the given equation with general equation of second degree we have x2 coefficient = y2
2
coefficient and the coefficient of xy = 0. The given equation represents a circle if g2 + f  c > 0.
Since (x1, y1) is a point on (1), we have
x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c = 0 ... (2)
2 2
Now g2 + f  c = g2 + f + x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 = (x1 + g)2 + (y1 + f )2 > 0.
Since g, f and c are real by Theorem 1.1.5 equation (1) represents a circle.
1.1.8 Theorem
(i) If g2  c > 0 then the intercept made on the X-axis by the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is 2 g 2  c .
(ii) If f 2  c > 0 then the intercept made on the Y-axis by the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is 2 f 2  c .
Proof
Y
(i) The points of intersection of the given circle
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
and y = 0 (i.e., X-axis equation) ... (2)
are the common points of (1) and (2). A1 A2
X
O
Put y = 0 in (1) to get the abscissae of the points of
intersection. The abscissae of common points are the roots of
x2 + 2gx + c = 0 ... (3) Fig. 1.8(a)
Circle 9
The discriminant of this equation is 4(g2  c). Since g2  c > 0, the equation (3) has two real and distinct
roots, say x1 and x2. Suppose the points of intersection are A1(x1, 0) and A2(x2, 0) (see Fig. 1.8(a)). We have
2
to prove that A1 A2 = 2 g  c .
Since x1 and x2 are the roots of (3), we have
x1 + x2 = 2g,
x1 x2 = c.
Consider (x1  x2 )2 = (x1 + x2)2  4x1 x2
= (2g)2  4c
= 4(g2  c)
Taking the square root, we get
|x1  x2| = 2 g2  c
i.e., A1A2 = 2 g2  c
Thus the intercept made by (1) on X-axis is 2 g 2  c .

(ii) The points of intersection of the given circle
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
and x = 0 (the equation of Y-axis) ... (4)
are the common points of (1) and (4).
Put x = 0 in (1) to get the ordinates of the points of intersection. The ordinates of common points are the
roots of
y2 + 2fy + c = 0 ... (5) Y
2
The discriminant of this equation is 4( f  c). Since B2
2
f  c > 0 the equation (5) has two real and distinct roots say y1
and y2. Suppose the points of intersection are B1(0, y1) and
B 2 (0, y 2 ) (see Fig. 1.8(b)). We have to prove that B1
B1B2 = 2 f 2  c . O X
Since y1 and y2 are the roots of (5) we have Fig. 1.8(b)

y1 + y2 = 2f,
y1 y2 = c.
Consider (y1  y2)2 = (y1 + y2)2  4y1y2
= (2f )2  4c
2
= 4( f  c).
10 Mathematics - IIB
 |y1  y2| = 2 f 2  c .
i.e., B1B2 = 2 f 2  c .
Thus the intercept made by (1) on Y-axis is 2 f 2  c .
1.1.9 Note Y
(i) g2  c = 0  A1A2 = 0  A1, A2 are coincident i.e., the

X-axis touches the circle in two coincident points. Thus
the X-axis touches the circle at the point of coincidence
(see Fig. 1.9)
A1 = A2
X
O
Fig. 1.9
(ii) f 2  c = 0  B1B2 = 0  B1 and B2 are coincident
i.e., the Y-axis touches the circle in two coincident points. Y
Thus Y-axis touches the circle at the point of coincidence
(see Fig. 1.10)
B1 = B2
X
O
Fig. 1.10
(iii) If g2  c < 0 then the circle (1) does not meet the X-axis.
(iv) If f 2  c < 0 then the circle (1) does not meet the Y-axis.
1.1.10 Example Y
Let us find the equation of the circle which touches the X-axis
at a distance of 3 from the origin and making intercept of length 6 on
the Y-axis.
Let the equation of the required circle be
X
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1) O (3, 0)
This meets the X-axis at (3, 0) (see Fig. 1.11). Fig. 1.11
(3, 0) is a point on (1)

 9 + 0 + 6g + 0 + c = 0
i.e., 6g + c = 9 ... (2)
By Note 1.1.9(i), we have
g2  c = 0 ... (3)
Circle 11
Adding (2) and (3) we get

g2 + 6g + 9 = 0
i.e., (g + 3)2 = 0
i.e., g = 3 ... (4)
From (3) and (4), we get
c=9 ... (5)
Given that the intercept on Y-axis made by (1) is 6.
Therefore by Theorem 1.1.8(ii) we have
2 f 2 c  6
i.e., 2 f 2 9  6
i.e., f 2 9  3
i.e., f29=9
i.e., f 2 = 18.
Hence f = +3 2 .
Since g = 3, f = +3 2 and c = 9, we have two circles satisfying the hypothesis, these circles are
x2 + y2  6x + 6 2 y + 9 = 0 and x2 + y2  6x  6 2 y + 9 = 0.
1.1.11 Definition
If A and B are two distinct points on a circle then
(i) the line AB through A and B is called a secant (see Fig. 1.12)
(ii) The segment AB , the join of A and B is called a chord and the length of the chord is denoted
by AB (see Fig. 1.13)
Y Chord
A
Y A
B B
Secant
X X
O O
Fig. 1.12 Fig. 1.13
1.1.12 Equation of a circle with a given line segment as diameter
In this section, we derive the equation of circle whose diameter extremities are given.
1.1.13 Theorem : The equation of the circle whose diameter

extremities are (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
(x  x1) (x  x2) + (y  y1) (y  y2) = 0. Y P(x, y)
Proof : Let A = (x1, y1) , B = (x2, y2) and C be the centre of the
A
circle (see Fig. 1.14). (x1, y1)
C B(x2, y2)
Let P(x, y) be any point on it other than Aand B. Join A and
B, A and P and also P and B. We know that X
O
Fig. 1.14
A P̂B = 90o.
i.e., the lines AP and BP are perpendicular
 (slope ofAP) (slope of BP) = 1.
( y  y1) ( y  y2 )
i.e.,   1
( x  x1) ( x  x2 )
i.e., (x  x1) (x  x2) + (y  y1) (y  y2) = 0. ... (1)
Also clearlyAand B satisfy (1). Therefore any point P(x, y) on the circle satisfies equation (1). Conversely
if a point P(x, y) satisfies (1) then A P̂B = 90o and hence P lies on the circle.
Thus (1) is the equation of the required circle.

1. Problem : Find the equation of the circle whose extremities of a diameter are (1, 2) and (4, 5).
Solution : Here (x1, y1) = (1, 2) and (x2, y2) = (4, 5).
By Theorem 1.1.13, the equation of the required circle is
(x  1) (x  4) + (y  2)(y  5) = 0.
i.e., x2 + y2  5x  7y + 14 = 0.
2. Problem : Find the other end of the diameter of the circle x2 + y2  8x  8y + 27 = 0 if one end of it is
(2, 3).
Y
Solution : Let A(2, 3) and AB be the diameter (see Fig. 1.15)
of the circle B
x2 + y2  8x  8y + 27 = 0.
C(4, 4)
The centre of the circle C is (4, 4). Let the other end B of
the diameter be (, ). Then, C is the mid point of AB. A
(2, 3)
X
O Fig. 1.15
Circle 13
 2   .
  ,   (4, 4)
 2 2 
 = 6 and  = 5.
 The other end of the diameter is (6, 5).
1.1.15 Equation of circle through 3 non-collinear points

We derive a formula to find the equation of a circle through three given points in the next section.
1.1.16 Theorem : The equation of the circle passing through three non-collinear points P(x1, y1 ),
Q(x2, y2 ) and R(x3, y3 ) is
x1 y1 1 c1 y1 1
2 2
x2 y2 1 ( x  y )  c2 y2 1 x
x3 y3 1 c3 y3 1
x1 c1 1 x1 y1 c1
 x2 c2 1 y  x2 y2 c2  0
x3 c3 1 x3 y3 c3
where ci = (xi2 + yi2) (i = 1, 2, 3).
Proof : Let the equation of the circle passing through the points P, Q and R be
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0. ... (1)
Since the points P, Q and R are lying on (1), we have
x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c = 0 ... (2)
x22 + y22 + 2gx2 + 2fy2 + c = 0 ... (3)
x32 + y32 + 2gx3 + 2fy3 + c = 0 ... (4)
Let 2g = a, 2f = b and ci = (xi2 + yi2) (i = 1, 2, 3). ... (5)
The equation (2), (3) and (4) can be written as
ax1 + by1 + c = c1 ... (6)
ax2 + by2 + c = c2 ... (7)
ax3 + by3 + c = c3 ... (8)
x1 y1 1
Let  = x 2 y2 1 . Then   0 since P, Q, R are non-collinear.
x3 y3 1
c1 y1 1 ax1  by1  c y1 1
Consider c2 y2 1  ax2  by2  c y2 1
c3 y3 1 ax3  by3  c y3 1
ax1 y1 1 by1 y1 1 c y1 1
 ax2 y2 1  by2 y2 1  c y2 1
ax3 y3 1 by3 y3 1 c y3 1
= a + 0 + 0 (' two column elements are proportional)
c1 y1 1
c2 y2 1
c3 y3 1
 2g = a = ... (9)

x1 c1 1
x2 c2 1
x3 c3 1
Similarly 2f = b = ... (10)

x1 y1 c1
x2 y2 c2
x3 y3 c3
and c= . ... (11)

Substituting the values of g, f and c in (1), we get the equation of the circle passing through the points P,
Q and R as
x1 y1 1 c1 y1 1
x2 y2 1 ( x 2  y 2 )  c2 y2 1 x
x3 y3 1 c3 y3 1
x1 c1 1 x1 y1 c1
 x2 c2 1 y  x2 y2 c2  0
x3 c3 1 x3 y3 c3
1.1.17 Note
(i) The centre of the circle passing through three non-collinear points P(x1, y1), Q(x2, y2) and R(x3, y3)
Circle 15
 x1 c1 1 
c1 y1 1
 
 c2 y2 1 x2 c2 1 
 c3 y3 1 x3 c3 1 
 , 
is  x1 y1 1 
 x1 y1 1 
 2  x2 y2 1 2  x2 y2 1 
 x3 y3 1 
 x3 y3 1 
(from equations (9) and (10) of Theorem 1.1.16) where ci = (xi2 + yi2) (i = 1, 2, 3).
(ii) We can also find the equation of the circle passing through three non-collinear points in the following
ways.
(a) First we suppose that the equation of the circle passing through the given three points P, Q and
R in general form. Substitute the coordinates of P, Q and R in this equation. We get three
equations involving three unknowns g, f and c. Solve them for g, f and c. Substitute these
values in the supposed equation, we get the required circle.
(b) In this method, we suppose that the centre of the circle passing through the points P, Q and R as
C(a, b). Construct the equations from CP = CQ and CP = CR. These two equations yield two
simultaneous equations in a and b. Solve them for a and b. Thus the centre of the required circle
is known. Next find the radius of the circle (i.e., CP). Now we can write the equation of
required circle using
(x  h)2 + (y  k)2 = r2 where (h, k) is the centre and r is the radius of the circle.
(c) In this method, first we find the equations of any two sides of PQ, QR and RP. Next find the
intersection of perpendicular bisector of two sides. It is the centre of required circle. The
distance from the centre to any point of three given points is the radius. We compute this radius.
Using (x  h)2 + (y  k)2 = r2, we can find the equation of required circle.
(iii) P(x1, y1), Q(x2 , y2), R(x3 , y3) and S(x4 , y4) are said to be concyclic if these points lie on the same
circle.
1.1.18 Example
Let us find the equation of the circle passing through P(1, 1), Q(2, - 1) and R(3, 2).
We find the equation of the required circle using Theorem 1.1.16.
Here (x1, y1) = (1, 1); (x2, y2) = (2, 1); (x3, y3) = (3, 2) and
c1 =  (x12 + y12) = (1 + 1) =  2
c2 =  (x22 + y22) = (4 + 1) =  5
c3 =  (x32 + y32) = (9 + 4) =  13
By Theorem 1.1.16, the equation of circle is

1 1 1 2 1 1
2 2
2 1 1 (x  y )  5 1 1x
3 2 1  13 2 1
1 2 1 1 1 2
 2 5 1 y  2 1 5  0
3  13 1 3 2  13
i.e., 5(x2 + y2)  25x  5y + 20 = 0
i.e., x2 + y2  5x  y + 4 = 0.
Other methods
This problem can also be solved in the following ways.
Method 1 (Using Note 1.1.17 ii(a))
Let the equation of the circle through P, Q and R be
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0. ... (1)
Since it passes through P(1, 1), Q(2, 1) and R(3, 2), we have
2 + 2g + 2f + c = 0
5 + 4g  2f + c = 0
13 + 6g + 4f + c = 0
5 1
Solving the above three equations for g, f and c we get g   , f   and c = 4. Substituting these
2 2
values in (1), we get the equation of the required circle as
x2 + y2  5x  y + 4 = 0.
Method 2 (Using Note 1.1.17 ii(b))
Let C = (a, b) be the centre of the required circle. Then CP = CQ and CP = CR.
CP = CQ  CP2 = CQ2
 (a  1)2 + (b  1)2 = (a  2)2 + (b + 1)2
 2a  4b = 3 ... (2)
CP = CR  CP2 = CR2
 (a  1)2 + (b  1)2 = (a  3)2 + (b  2)2
 4a + 2b = 11 ... (3)
Circle 17
5 1
Solving (2) and (3) we get a = and b = . Now the radius of the required circle is
2 2
2 2
 5  1 5
CP = 1    1    .
 2  2 2
2 2 2
 5  1  5
 x     y     
 2  2  2
i.e, x2 + y2  5x  y + 4 = 0.
Method 3 (Using Note 1.1.17 ii(c))
The perpendicular bisector of QR is
x + 3y  4 = 0 ... (4)
Similarly the perpendicular bisector of PR is
4x + 2y  11 = 0 ... (5)
The point of intersection of (4) and (5) is the centre of the required circle. Hence the
5 1
centre is  ,  say C.
2 2
The radius of the required circle is CP or CQ or CR.
5
CP = .
2
Hence the required circle is
2 2 2
 5  1  5
 x     y     

 2  2  2 
i.e., x2 + y2  5x  y + 4 = 0.

1. Problem : Find the equation of the circum-circle of the triangle formed by the line
ax + by + c = 0 (abc  0), and the coordinate axes. Y
Solution : Let the line ax + by + c = 0 cut the X, Y axes

B
atAand B respectively (see Fig. 1.16), the figure is drawn
c c
for   0 and   0 .
a b X
O A
ax + by + c = 0
We have to find circle passing through A, B and the origin (0, 0). Fig. 1.16
 c   c
Clearly A =   , 0  and B =  0,   .
 a   b
Let the equation of required circle be
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c' = 0 ... (1)
Since (0, 0) is a point lying on (1), we have
c' = 0 ... (2)
Since the points A and B are also lying on (1), we have
c2  c
 0  2 g    0  0  0
2
a  a
c2  c
and 0  0  2 f    0  0
2
b  b
c c
i.e., g and f  .
2a 2b
Substituting g, f and c' values in (1) we get
c c
x2  y 2  x y  0
a b
i.e., ab(x2 + y2) + c(bx + ay) = 0, which is the required circle.
2. Problem : Find the equation of the circle which passes through the vertices of the triangle
formed by L1 = x + y + 1 = 0, L2 = 3x + y  5 = 0 and L3 = 2x + y  5 = 0.
Solution : Suppose L1, L2; L2, L3 and L3, L1 intersect at A, B and C respectively.
Consider a curve whose equation is
k(x + y + 1)(3x + y  5) + l(3x + y  5)(2x + y  5) + m(2x + y  5)(x + y + 1) = 0 ... (1)
We can verify the fact that this curve passes through A, B and C.
Hence we find k, l and m such that the equation (1) represents a circle. If the equation (1)
represents a circle we have (by Theorem 1.1.5).
(i) coefficient of x2 = coefficient of y2
3k + 6l + 2m = k + l + m
i.e., 2k + 5l + m = 0. ... (2)
(ii) coefficient of xy = 0
4k + 5l + 3m = 0. ... (3)
Circle 19
Applying cross multiplication rule for (2) and (3) we get

5 1 2 5
5 3 4 5
k l m
 
15  5 4  6 10  20
k l m
i.e.,  
10 2 10
k l m
i.e.,   .
5 1  5
Hence the required equation is
5(x + y + 1) (3x  y  5)  1(3x + y  5)(2x + y  5)  5(2x + y  5) (x + y + 1) = 0
i.e., x2 + y2  30x  10y + 25 = 0.
3. Problem : Find the equation of the circle which passes through the vertices of the triangle formed by
x y
x = 0, y = 0 and   1.
a b
Solution : Observe that the vertices of the triangle are (0, 0), (a, 0) and (0, b)
Let the equation of the circle be x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
Since, the circle (1) passes through (0, 0) (a, 0) and (0, b),
we have c = 0, a2 + 2ga = 0 and b2 + 2fb = 0
a b
Therefore, c = 0, g and f
2 2
Hence, the required circle equation is x2 + y2ax  by = 0
1.1.20 Parametric equations of a circle

Parametric equations of a circle describe the coordinates of a point on the circle in terms of a single
variable (say). We call this single variable as parameter. Now we derive the parametric equations of a circle.
1.1.21 Theorem : The parametric equations of a circle with centre (h, k) and radius r (> 0) are given by
x = h + r cos 
Y Y'
y = k + r sin 
where 0 <  < 2. P(x, y)
r
Proof : Let the centre of the circle be C. C 
N
X'
Then C = (h, k). Let P(x, y) be any point on the circle with
JJJJG JJJG
the centre C and radius r. Draw CX parallel to OX and CY'
JJJG O D M X
parallel to OY . Join C and P. Note that CP = r.
Fig. 1.17
ˆ   .
Let PCX
Draw a line from P parallel to Y-axis meeting CX' at N and meeting X-axis at M.
Then OM = x; PM = y (see Fig. 1.17, it is drawn for the case h > 0, k > 0).
Now draw a line parallel to Y-axis from C meeting the X-axis at D. Then OD = h;
CD = k. The triangle CPN is a right angled triangle.
CN DM OM  OD xh
 cos     
CP CP CP r
i.e., x h = r cos .
 x = h + r cos  ... (1)
PN PM  MN PM  CD yk
Consider sin     
CP CP CP r
i.e., y k = r sin 
 y = k + r sin  ... (2)
Hence the equations (1) and (2) constitute the parametric equations of a circle where 0 < < 2.
Conversely if x = h + r cos , y = k + r sin  where 0 < < 2 then (x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2.
Therefore the point (x, y) lies on the circle. Hence equations (1) and (2) are the parametric equations of the
circle where 0 < < 2.
1.1.22 Note
(i) If the centre of the circle is the origin, then parametric equations of the circle having radius r is
x = r cos , y = r sin  where 0 < < 2.
Circle 21
(ii) The point (h + r cos 1, k + r sin 1) is referred as the point 1 (a particular value of the parameter
) on the circle having the centre (h, k) and radius r.

1. Problem : Obtain the parametric equations of the circle x2 + y2 = 1.
Solution : Here the centre of the circle is (0, 0) and Y
radius is r = 1 (see Fig. 1.18)
The parametric equations of the circle x2 + y2 = 1 P(cos , sin )
1
are 
X
O
x = 1 . cos  = cos 
y = 1 . sin  = sin , 0 < < 2
(by Note 1.1.22(i))
Fig. 1.18
Note that every point on this circle can be expressed as (cos , sin ).
2. Problem : Obtain the parametric equation of the circle represented by
x2 + y2 + 6x + 8y 96 = 0.
Solution : Here the centre (h, k) of the circle is (3, 4) and radius
r  9  16  (96)  11.
By Theorem 1.1.21, the parametric equation of the given circle are
x = 3 + 11 cos 
y = 4 + 11 sin 
where 0 < < 2.
Exercise 1(a)
I. 1. Find the equations of circles with centre C and radius r where

(i) C = (2, 3), r = 4 (ii) C = (1, 2), r = 5
(iii) C = (a, b), r = a + b
(iv) C = (a, b), r = a 2  b 2 (| a | > | b |)

(v) C = (cos , sin ), r = 1. (vi) C = (7, 3), r = 4
 1  5 4
(vii) C =   ,  9  , r = 5 (viii) C =  ,   , r = 6
 2  2 3
5
(ix) C = (1, 7), r = (x) C = (0, 0), r = 9.
2
2. Find the equation of the circle passing through the origin and having the centre at (4, 3).
3. Find the equation of the circle passing through (2, 1) having the centre at (2, 3).
4. Find the equation of the circle passing through (2, 3), having the centre at (0, 0).
5. Find the equation of the circle passing through (3, 4) and having the centre at (3, 4).
6. Find the value of a if 2x2 + ay2  3x + 2y  1 = 0 represents a circle and also find its radius.
7. Find the values of a, b if ax2 + bxy + 3y2  5x + 2y  3 = 0 represents a circle. Also find the radius and
centre of the circle.
8. If x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy  12 = 0 represents a circle with centre (2, 3) find g, f and its radius.
9. If x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy = 0 represents a circle with centre (4, 3) then find g, f and the radius of the
circle.
10. If x2 + y2  4x + 6y + c = 0 represents a circle with radius 6 then find the value of c.
11. Find the centre and radius of each of the circles whose equations are given below :
(i) x2 + y2  4x  8y  41 = 0 (ii) 3x2 + 3y2  5x  6y + 4 = 0
(iii) 3x2 + 3y2 + 6x  12y  1 = 0 (iv) x2 + y2 + 6x + 8y  96 = 0
(v) 2x2 + 2y2  4x + 6y  3 = 0 (vi) 2x2 + 2y2  3x + 2y  1 = 0
(vii) 1  m 2 (x2 + y2)  2cx  2mcy = 0

(viii) x2 + y2 + 2ax  2by + b2 = 0.
12. Find the equations of the circles for which the points given below are the end points of a diameter.
(i) (1, 2), (4, 6) (ii) (4, 3), (3, 4)
(iii) (1, 2), (8, 6) (iv) (4, 2), (1, 5)
(v) (7, 3), (3, 5) (vi) (1, 1), (2, 1)
(vii) (0, 0), (8, 5) (viii) (3, 1) (2, 7)
13. Obtain the parametric equation of each of the following circles.
(i) x2 + y2 = 4 (ii) 4(x2 + y2) = 9
(iii) 2x2 + 2y2 = 7 (iv) (x  3)2 + (y  4)2 = 82.
(v) x2 + y2  4x  6y  12 = 0 (vi) x2 + y2  6x + 4y  12 = 0
Circle 23
II. 1. If the abscissae of points A, B are the roots of the equation x2 + 2ax  b2 = 0 and ordinates of A, B are
roots of y2 + 2py  q2 = 0 then find the equation of a circle for which AB is a diameter.
2. (i) Show that A(3, 1) lies on the circle x2 + y2  2x + 4y = 0. Also find the other end of the
diameter through A.
(ii) Show that A(3, 0) lies on x2 + y2 + 8x +12y + 15 = 0 and find the other end of diameter
throughA.
3. Find the equation of a circle which passes through (2, 3) and (4, 5) and having the centre on
4x + 3y + 1 = 0.
4. Find the equation of a circle which passes through (4, 1), (6, 5) and having the centre on
4x + 3y  24 = 0.
5. Find the equation of a circle which is concentric with x2 + y2  6x  4y  12 = 0 and passing through
(2, 14)
6. Find the equation of the circle whose centre lies on the X-axis and passing through (2, 3) and (4, 5).
7. If ABCD is a square then show that the points A, B, C and D are concyclic.
III. 1. Find the equation of circle passing through each of the following three points
(i) (3, 4), (3, 2), (1, 4) (ii) (1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6),
(iii) (2, 1), (5, 5), (6, 7), (iv) (5, 7), (8, 1), (1, 3),
(v) (0, 0), (2, 0), (0, 2).
2. (i) Find the equation of the circle passing through (0, 0) and making intercepts 4, 3 on X-axis and
Y-axis respectively.
(ii) Find the equation of the circle passing through (0, 0) and making intercept 6 units on X-axis and
intercept 4 units on Y-axis.
3. Show that the following four points in each of the following are concyclic and find the equation of the
circle on which they lie.
(i) (1, 1), (6, 0), (2, 2), (2, 8) (ii) (1, 2) (3, 4), (5, 6), (19, 8)
(iii) (1, 6) (5, 2), (7, 0), (1, 4) (iv) (9, 1), (7, 9) (2, 12), (6, 10)
4. If (2, 0), (0, 1) (4, 5) and (0, c) are concyclic then find c.
5. Find the equation of the circumcircle of the triangle formed by the straight lines given in each of the
following :
(i) 2x + y = 4, x + y = 6, x + 2y = 5
(ii) x + 3y  1 = 0, x + y + 1 = 0, 2x + 3y + 4 = 0
(iii) 5x  3y + 4 = 0, 2x + 3y  5 = 0, x + y = 0
(iv) x  y  2 = 0, 2x  3y + 4 = 0, 3x  y + 6 = 0
6. Show that the locus of the point of intersection of the lines x cos  + y sin  = a,
x sin   y cos  = b ( is a parameter) is a circle.
7. Show that the locus of a point such that the ratio of distance of it from two given points is constant
k(  + 1) is a circle.
1.2 Position of a point in the plane of a circle-Definition of a tangent

In earlier classes, we have learnt that the tangent at any point of a circle is a straight line which meets the
circle at that point only. The point is called the point of contact. This tangent is perpendicular to the radius drawn
from the centre to the point of contact. In this section we give another definition of a tangent to the circle using the
limit concept. Using this definition we find an equation of tangent at any point in section 1.3. We also learn the
position of a point with respect to a circle and power of a point. Further, we define the length of a tangent from a
point and obtain a formula for it.
1.2.1 Notation
Now we introduce certain notations that will be used in the rest of this section and subsequently.
(i) The expression x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c is denoted by S
i.e., S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c.
(ii) The expression xxi + yyi + g(x + xi) + f(y + yi) + c is denoted by Si
Thus S1  xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c,
S2  xx2 + yy2 + g(x + x2) + f(y + y2) + c.
(iii) The expression xi xj + yi yj + g(xi + xj) + f(yi + yj) + c is denoted by Sij (i, j = 1, 2, 3, ...) For example
S12 = x1x2 + y1y2 + g(x1 + x2) + f(y1 + y2) + c. Y
S11 = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c.

1.2.2 Position of a point with respect to a circle
A circle in a plane divides the plane into three parts namely Interior
(i) the interior of the circle (see Fig. 1.19(a))
(ii) the circumference which is the circular curve (see Fig.1.19(b)) O
X
(iii) the exterior of the circle (see Fig. 1.19(c)).

Fig. 1.19(a)
Y Y
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Circumference 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
Exterior of the circle
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123
X X
O O
Fig. 1.19(b) Fig. 1.19(c)
Circle 25
1.2.3 Theorem : Let S = 0 be a circle in a plane and P(x1, y1) be any point in the same plane. Then
(i) P lies in the interior of the circle  S11 < 0.
(ii) P lies on the circle  S11 = 0.
(iii) P lies in the exterior of the circle  S11 > 0.
Proof : Let S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 be the equation of the given circle and P(x1, y1) be any point in the
plane. Then C(g, f ) is the centre and r = g 2  f 2  c is the radius of the circle.
(i) P lies in the interior of the circle Y
 CP < r (see Fig. 1.20)

P
 CP2 < r2 C
 (x1 + g)2 + (y1 + f )2 < g2 + f 2  c

X
 x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c < 0 O
 S11 < 0. Fig. 1.20
(ii) P lies on the circle Y
 CP = r (see Fig. 1.21) P
 CP2 = r2
C
 (x1 + g)2 + (y1 + f )2 = g2 + f 2  c
 x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c = 0 O
X
 S11 = 0. Fig. 1.21
(iii) P lies in the exterior of the circle Y

P
 CP > r (see Fig. 1.22)

 CP2 > r2. C
 (x1 + g)2 + (y1 + f )2 > g2 + f 2  c

X
 x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c > 0 O
 S11 > 0. Fig. 1.22
1.2.4 Example
Let S  x2 + y2 6x + 8y  96 = 0 be the equation of circle and P(1, 2) be a point in the plane.
Here (x1, y1) = (1, 2)
S11 = 12 + 22 + 6(1) + 8(2)  96 = 69.
Since S11 < 0, by Theorem 1.2.3, the point (1, 2) is in the interior of the circle. Note that the centre of the
circle is (3, 4) and radius r = 11. The distance from the centre to the point (1, 2) is 52 which is less than the
radius 11. Hence, the point (1, 2) is inside the circle.
1.2.5 Definition
Let P be any point on a given circle and Q be a neighbouring point of P lying on the circle.
Join P and Q. Then PQ is a secant (see Fig. 1.23(a)).
Y Y
P P
X X
O O
L
Fig. 1.23(a) Fig. 1.23(b)
The limiting position of the line (secant) PQ when Q  P along the circle, is called the tangent
at P (see Fig. 1.23(b)).
Explanation
Let the equation of PQ be L1  a1x + b1y + c1 = 0. Let Q1 be another neighbouring point on the
Y L1
circle such that PQ1 < PQ (see Fig. 1.24). Let the equation of PQ1 L2
L3
be L2  a2x + b2y + c2 = 0. Q
L4
L5
Q1
Similarly choose Q2 on the circle such that PQ2 < PQ1. Q2
Q3
Let the equation of PQ2 be L3  a3x + b3y + c3 = 0. Let the Q4
T
limit of L 1, L 2, L 3, ..., (straight line equations) be P L= 0
X
L  ax + by + c = 0 as Q  P along the circle. Then L is called the O
tangent to the circle at P. Fig. 1.24

Y
1.2.6 Length of tangent
If P is an external point to the circle S = 0 and P
PT is the tangent from P to the circle S = 0 then PT
is called the length of the tangent from P to the
circle (see Fig. 1.25) T
X
O
Fig. 1.25
Circle 27
1.2.7 Power of a Point

Suppose S = 0 is the equation of a circle with centre C and radius r. Let P(x1, y1) be any point in the
plane. Then CP2  r2 is defined as the power of P with respect to S = 0 (see Fig. 1.26(a), (b), (c)).
Y Y
P
C C
r r
X X
O O
Fig. 1.26(a) Fig. 1.26(b)
P
C
r
X
O
Fig. 1.26(c)
1.2.8 Note
A point P(x1, y1) lies in the interior of the circle, on the circle or in the exterior of the circle according
as the power of P with respect to the circle is negative, zero or positive respectively.
1.2.9 Theorem : The power of a point P(x1, y1) with respect to the circle S = 0 is S11.
Proof : As per the notation specified in 1.2.1, S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 .
The power of P(x1, y1) is CP2  r2 where C is the centre (g, f ) and r is the radius of the circle. Then
2
CP2  r2 = (x1 + g)2 + (y1 + f )2   g 2  f 2  c 
 
= x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c
= S11
Hence the power of P(x1, y1) with respect to S = 0 is S11.
1.2.10 Example
Let us find the power of (1, 2) with respect to the circle x2 + y2 + 6x + 8y  96 = 0.
Here (x1, y1) = (1, 2). By Theorem 1.2.9 the power of P(x1, y1) with respect to S = 0 is S11.
 The power of (1, 2) with respect to given circle is
12 + 22 + 6(1) + 8(2)  96 = 69.
1.2.11 Theorem : Let S = 0 be a circle and P(x1, y1) be any point in the plane. If a line through P meets
the circle at A and B then the power of P is equal to PA . PB.
Y
Proof : Let
A1
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1) B1 A P
A3 2
A4
be a circle. There will be infinitely many lines through the point P B2
C
meeting the circle at two points (see Fig. 1.27). However the B3
product PA. PB is the same, though the points A and B are B4

X
different for different lines passing through P. O
Fig. 1.27
Any point (x, y) on a straight line passing through (x1, y1) must satisfy the equations
x = x1 + r cos 
y = y1 + r sin  ... (2)
where r is the distance from (x1, y1) to (x, y) and  is the angle made by the line with the positive X-axis.
To get the common points of the circle (1) and the line (2), we have to solve the equations (1)
and (2). Therefore put x = x1 + r cos , y = y1 + r sin  in (1). Then
(x1 + r cos )2 + (y1 + r sin )2 + 2g(x1 + r cos ) + 2f(y1 + r sin ) + c = 0.
i.e., x12 + 2x1 r cos  + r2 cos2  + y12 + 2ry1 sin  + r2 sin2 
+ 2gx1 + 2g r cos  + 2fy1 + 2f r sin  + c = 0
i.e., r2 (cos2  + sin2 ) + 2r[(x1 + g) cos  + (y1 + f ) sin ] + x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c = 0
i.e., r2 + 2r[(x1 + g) cos  + (y1 + f ) sin ] + S11 = 0 ... (3)
Let r1, r2 be roots of (3). Then r1 . r2 = S11
i.e., PA . PB = S11
Since the power of P is S11, we have
PA . PB = Power of P.
Circle 29
1.2.12 Corollary
If S = 0 is a circle and P(x1, y1) is an exterior point with respect to S = 0 then the length of the
tangent from P(x1, y1) to S = 0 is S11 (see Fig. 1.28).
Y
Proof : Let the tangent drawn from P touch the circle at A
(Fig. 1.28). By Theorem 1.2.11, we have P(x1, y1)
PA . PA = S11
PA2 = S11
A
 PA = S11 .
X
i.e., the length of tangent from P(x1, y1) to O
S = 0 is S11 . Fig. 1.28
1.2.13 Example
Let us find the length of tangent from (12, 17) to the circle x2 + y2 6x  8y  25 = 0.
By Corollary 1.2.12, the length of tangent from (12, 17) to the given circle is
(12)2  (17) 2  6(12)  8(17)  25  100  10.

1. Problem : Locate the position of the point (2, 4) with respect to the circle
x2 + y2  4x  6y + 11 = 0.
Solution: Here (x1, y1) = (2, 4) and S  x2 + y2  4x  6y + 11 = 0.
 S11 = (2)2 + (4)2  4(2)  6(4) + 11 = 1.
Since S11 < 0, by Theorem 1.2.3, the point (2, 4) is inside the given circle.
2. Problem : Find the length of the tangent from (1, 3) to the circle x2 + y2  2x + 4y  11 = 0.
Solution : Here (x1, y1) = (1, 3) and S  x2 + y2  2x + 4y  11 = 0. By Corollary 1.2.12, the length of the
tangent is S11 .
Hence the required length of the tangent
= (1)2  (3) 2  2(1)  4(3)  11 .
= 9.
= 3.
3. Problem : If a point P is moving such that the length of tangents drawn from P to
x2 + y2  2x + 4y  20 = 0 ... (1)
and x2 + y2  2x  8y + 1 = 0 ... (2)
are in the ratio 2 : 1 then show that the equation of the locus of P is
x2 + y2  2x  12y + 8 = 0.
Solution : Let P(x1, y1) be any point on the locus and PT1 , PT 2 be the lengths of tangents from P to the circles
(1) and (2) respectively. Then we have
PT1 2

PT 2 1
i.e., x12  y12  2 x1  4 y1  20  2 x12  y12  2 x1  8 y1  1

i.e., 3(x12 + y12)  6x1  36y1 + 24 = 0.
The equation of the locus of P is
x2 + y2  2x  12y + 8 = 0.
Exercise 1(b)
I. 1. Locate the position of the point P with respect to the circle S = 0 when
(i) P(3, 4) and S  x2 + y2  4x  6y  12 = 0
(ii) P(1, 5) and S  x2 + y2  2x  4y + 3 = 0
(iii) P(4, 2) and S  2x2 + 2y2  5x  4y  3 = 0
(iv) P(2, 1) and S  x2 + y2  2x  4y + 3 = 0
2. Find the power of the point P with respect to the circle S = 0 when
(i) P = (5, 6) and S  x2 + y2 + 8x + 12y + 15.
(ii) P = (1, 1) and S  x2 + y2  6x + 4y  12.
(iii) P = (2, 3) and S  x2 + y2  2x + 8y  23
(iv) P = (2, 4) and S  x2 + y2  4x  6y  12
3. Find the length of tangent from P to the circle S = 0 when
(i) P = (2, 5) and S  x2 + y2  25
(ii) P = (0, 0) and S  x2 + y2  14x + 2y + 25
(iii) P = (2, 5) and S  x2 + y2  5x + 4y  5
II. 1. If the length of the tangent from (5, 4) to the circle x2 + y2 + 2ky = 0 is 1 then find k.
2. If the length of the tangent from (2, 5) to the circle x2 + y2  5x + 4y + k = 0 is 37 then find k.
III. 1. If a point P is moving such that the lengths of tangents drawn from P to the circles
x2 + y2  4x  6y  12 = 0 and x2 + y2 + 6x + 18y + 26 = 0 are in the ratio 2 : 3 then find the equation
of the locus of P.
2. If a point P is moving such that the lengths of tangents drawn from P to the circles
x2 + y2 + 8x + 12y + 15 = 0 and x2 + y2  4x  6y  12 = 0 are equal then find the equation of the
locus of P.
Circle 31
1.3 Position of a straight line in the plane of a circle

Condition for a line to be tangent
In the earlier section we learnt the position of a point with respect to a circle. In this section we shall learn
the position of a straight line in a plane with respect to a circle.
1.3.1 Different cases of position of a straight line with respect to a circle

Given a straight line L = 0 and a circle S = 0 we have Y L
three possibilities, namely : Point 2
(i) The line meets the circle in two distinct points

(see Fig. 1.29).
Point 1
X
O
Fig. 1.29
Y
(ii) The line meets the circle in one and only one Only one point
point (i.e., touching the circle) (see Fig. 1.30).
X
O
Fig. 1.30
(iii) The line L does not meet the circle i.e., L and the
Y
circle have no common points (see Fig. 1.31).
Now we examine under what conditions the above
three situations arise.
L
X
O
Fig. 1.31
1.3.2 Theorem : A straight line y = mx + c
c2
(i) meets the circle x2 + y2 = r2 in two distinct points if  r2 .
2
1 m
c2
(ii) touches the circle x2 + y2 = r2 if 2
 r2 .
1 m
c2
(iii) has no points in common with the circle x2 + y2 = r2 if 2
 r2 .
1 m
Proof : The equation of the given circle is
x2 + y2 = r2 ... (1)
and the equation of the given straight line is
y = mx + c (i.e., mx  y + c = 0) ... (2)
If any point (x, y) is common to (1) and (2), the coordinates of the point satisfy both the
equations (1) and (2). To solve them we eliminate y from (1) and (2). Substituting (2) in (1) we get
x2 + (mx + c)2 = r2
i.e., x2 (1 + m2) + 2mcx + (c2  r2) = 0 ... (3)
The roots of (3) are real, coincident or imaginary according as
0
(2mc)2  4(1 + m2) (c2  r2) 
i.e., 0
4m2 c2  4(c2 + m2c2  r2  r2m2)2 
i.e., c2  r2 (1 + m2) 
 0
c2  r2 .
i.e.,
(1  m )  2
c2
Case (i) : If 2
 r 2 then the straight line given by (2) meets the circle in two distinct points
(1  m )
(see Fig. 1.29)
c2
Case (ii) : If 2
 r 2 , then the straight line given by (2) touches the circle (see Fig. 1.30)
(1  m )
c2
Case (iii) : If 2
 r 2 then the straight line given by (2) does not cut or touch the circle
(1  m )
(see Fig. 1.31). Hence they do not have common points.
1.3.3 Corollary
The condition that the straight line y = mx + c (i) intersects a circle, (ii) touches the circle, (iii) does
not meet the circle is that the perpendicular distance from the centre of the circle to the line is less than or
is equals to or greater than its radius respectively.
Proof : By Theorem 1.3.2, the straight line y = mx + c intersects or touches or does not meet the circle
x2 + y2 = r2 according as
Circle 33
c2  r2
(1  m ) 2
i.e., |c|  . ... (1)

r
1  m2
The perpendicular distance from the centre (0, 0) to y = mx + c is
|c| .
2 ... (2)
1 m
From (1) and (2) the result follows.
1.3.4 Note
(i) For all real values of m the straight line y = mx + r 1  m 2 is a tangent to the circle
x2 + y2 = r2 and the slope of the tangent is m.
(ii) A straight line y = mx + c is a tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = r2 if c = +r 1  m 2 .

(iii) The equation of tangent to the circle S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 having the slope
m is (y + f) = m(x + g) + r 1  m 2 where r is the radius of the circle. For,
the centre of the circle C = (g, f ) and r = g 2  f 2  c . Shift the origin to (g, f )
HJJJG HJJJG
without changing the direction of axes. Let the new axes be CX, CY .
HJJG HJJG
If P is any point in the plane and (i) P = (x, y) with respect to OX, OY
HJJJG HJJJG
(ii) P = (X, Y) with respect to CX, CY (see 2.1.2 of Inter Mathematics - IB Text book) then
x=Xg ... (1)

y=Yf ... (2)
The transformed equation of S = 0 is X2 + Y2 = r2. By Note 1.3.4(i) the equation of tangent
with slope m to the circle is
Y = mX + r 1  m 2 ... (3)
HJJG HJJG
Equation (3) with respect to old axes OX, OY is
y + f = m(x + g) + r 1  m 2 ... (4)
(from (1) and (2))

Thus the equation of tangent to the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 having slope m is given by
the equation (4).

1. Problem: If S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents a circle then show that the straight
line lx + my + n = 0
( gl  mf  n) 2
(i) touches the circle S = 0 if (g2 + f 2  c) =
(l 2  m 2 )
( gl  mf  n) 2
(ii) meets the circle S = 0 in two points if g2 + f 2  c >
(l 2  m 2 )
( gl  mf  n) 2
(iii) will not meet the circle if g2 + f 2  c <
.
(l 2  m 2 )
Solution : Let C be the centre and r be the radius of the circle S = 0. Then C = (g, f ) and
r= g2  f 2  c
(i) The given straight line touches the circle if
| l (  g)  m (  f )  n |
r= (by Corollary 1.3.3)
l2  m2
| (lg  mf  n) |
i.e., g2  f 2  c 
l2  m2
Squaring both sides, we get
(lg  mf  n) 2
g2  f 2  c 
(l 2  m 2 )
(ii) The given line lx + mx + n = 0 meets the circle S = 0 in two points if
2 2 ( gl  mf  n) 2
( g  f  c)  (by Corollary 1.3.3)
l2  m2
(iii) The given line lx + my + n = 0 will not meet the circle S = 0 if
( gl  mf  n) 2
( g 2  f 2  c)  (by Corollary 1.3.3)
l2  m2
2. Problem: Find the length of the chord intercepted by the circle x2 + y2 + 8x  4y  16 = 0 on the
line 3x  y + 4 = 0.
Solution: The centre of the given circle C = (4, 2) and radius r = 16  4  16  6 . Let the perpendicular
distance from the centre to the line 3x  y + 4 = 0 be d. Then
Circle 35
| 3(4)  (2)  4 |
d=
32  (1)2 Y
10
= = 10 (see Fig. 1.32)
10 B
6
Length of the chord = 2 r 2  d 2 C
10
(4, 2)
= 2 (6)2  10 )2 X
O
= 2 26 .
Fig. 1.32
3. Problem : Find the equation of tangents to x2 + y2  4x + 6y  12 = 0 which are parallel to

x + 2y  8 = 0.
1
Solution: Here g = 2; f = 3; r = 4  9  12  5 and the slope of the required tangent is  . By Note
2
1.3.4 (eqn. 4) the equations of tangents are
1 1
y+3 =  ( x  2)  5 1 
2 4
2(y + 3) =  x + 2 + 5 5
i.e., x + 2y + (4 + 5 5 ) = 0.
4. Problem : Show that the circle S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 touches the
(i) X-axis if g2 = c.
(ii) Y-axis if f 2 = c.
Solution: We know that by Theorem 1.1.8 the intercept made by S = 0 on X-axis is 2 g 2  c . If the circle
touches the X-axis then 2 g 2  c  0  g 2  c. Similarly (ii) can be proved.
1.3.6 Chord joining two points on a circle.
In the next section we derive the equation of the chord joining two points on a circle.
1.3.7 Theorem : If P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) are two points on the circle S = 0 the equation of the secant
PQ is S1 + S2 = S12.
Proof : Observe that the two points on the secant are known. Its equation can be found using two-point form of
a straight line. This procedure can be adopted for analytical problems. The intention of this theorem is to find the
equation of the chord involving g, f, c, x1, x2, y1 and y2 which will be used in finding the equation of tangent.
The proof of the theorem runs as follows,
Since P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) are distinct , we may suppose that x1  x2. Then the equation of PQ is
y y
y  y1  2 1 ( x  x1 ) ... (1)
x 2  x1
Since P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) are lying on the circle S = 0 we have
x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c = 0 and x22 + y22 + 2gx2 + 2fy2 + c = 0.
Subtracting and simplifying, we get
y2  y1 ( x1  x2  2 g )
 ... (2)
x2  x1 ( y1  y2  2 f )
Substituting (2) in (1), we obtain
( x1  x2  2 g )
y  y1  ( x  x1 ) ... (3)
( y1  y2  2 f )
(x  x1) (x1 + x2 + 2g) + (y  y1) (y1 + y2 + 2f ) = 0
xx1 + yy1 + xx2 + yy2 + 2gx + 2fy = x1x2 + y1y2 + x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1
By adding g(x1 + x2) + f(y1 + y2) + 2c on both sides to the above equation we obtain
S1 + S2 = S12 + S11
S1 + S2 = S12 (' S11 = 0)
The equation of secant PQ is S1 + S2 = S12.

1.3.8 Equation of tangent at a point on the circle
In the next section we derive the equation of tangent at a point on the circle
1.3.9 Theorem : The equation of the tangent at the point P(x1, y1) to the circle
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is S1 = 0.
Proof : Let Q(x2, y2) be a neighbouring point of P and lying on the circle. By Theorem 1.3.7 the equation of
PQ is S1 + S2 = S12
i.e.,
xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f (y + y1) + c + xx2 + yy2 + g(x + x2) + f (y + y2) + c
= x1x2 + y1y2 + g(x + x2) + f (y + y2) + c
As Q  P (i.e., x2  x1, y2  y1) this equation becomes
xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f (y + y1) + c + xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f (y + y1) + c
= x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c
Circle 37
i.e., S1 + S1 = S11
i.e., 2 S1 = S11
But S11 = 0, as P(x1, y1) lying on S = 0. Hence S1 = 0
i.e., xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f (y + y1) + c = 0.
1.3.10 Note
The equation of the tangent at the point (x1, y1) to the circle x2 + y2 = r2 is xx1 + yy1  r2 = 0.
1.3.11 Point of Contact

If a straight line lx + my + n = 0 touches the circle S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 at P. (x1, y1) then
this line is the tangent to the circle S = 0 at P(x1, y1) and hence by Theorem 1.3.9 its equation is
(x1 + g)x + (y1 + f )y + (gx1 + fy1 + c) = 0 and therefore (x1 + g), (y1 + f ), gx1 + fy1 + c are proportional to
l, m, n respectively. Using these three proportions it is possible to find the point of contact of the given tangent to
the circle S = 0.

1. Problem: Find the equation of the tangent to x2 + y2  6x + 4y  12 = 0 at (1, 1).
Solution : Here (x1, y1) = (1, 1) and S  x2 + y2  6x + 4y  12 = 0.
The equation of the tangent is x(1) + y(1)  3(x  1) + 2(y + 1)  12 = 0 (by Theorem 1.3.9)
i.e., 4x  3y + 7 = 0.
2. Problem: Find the equation of the tangent to x2 + y2  2x + 4y = 0 at (3, 1). Also find the equation
of tangent parallel to it.
Solution: Here (x1, y1) = (3, 1) and
S  x2 + y2  2x + 4y = 0 ... (1)
 The equation of tangent at (3, 1) is x(3) + y(1) (x + 3) + 2(y  1) = 0
i.e., 3x  y  x  3 + 2y  2 = 0
i.e., 2x + y  5 = 0 ... (2)
Slope of the tangent is m = 2. For the circle (1), g = 1; f = 2;
radius r = 1  4  0  5 . By Note 1.3.4, the equations of tangents to (1) are

y + 2 = 2(x  1) + 5 1  4
(y + 2) = 2(x  1) + 5
2x + y + 5 = 0.
One of these equations namely 2x + y  5 = 0 is the tangent at (3, 1).

 The tangent parallel to 2x + y  5 = 0 is 2x + y + 5 = 0.
3. Problem: If 4x  3y + 7 = 0 is a tangent to the circle represented by x2 + y2  6x + 4y  12 = 0
then find its point of contact.
Solution: Let (x1, y1) be the point of contact. Then by 1.3.11, we have
x1  3 y 2  3 x1  2 y1  12 
 1    ... (1)
4 3  7 
From first and second equalities of (1), we get
3x1 + 4y1 = 1 ... (2)
Now by taking first and third equalities of (1), we get
19x1  8y1 = 27 ... (3)
Solving (2) and (3) we obtain
x1 = 1; y1 = 1
Hence the point of contact is (1, 1).
4. Problem: Find the equations of circles which touch 2x  3y +1 = 0 at (1, 1) and having radius 13 .
Solution: The centres of the required circles lie on a line (see Fig. 1.33) which is perpendicular to
2x  3y + 1 = 0 and passing through (1, 1)
i.e., on 3x + 2y  5 = 0. Y
 The centres are situated on 3x + 2y  5 = 0 at a distance

13 from (1, 1). Thus the centres are given by 2x  3y + 1 = 0
  2  3  13
1  13  , 1  13   and
(1, 1)
  13  13  X
O
13
  2  3 
1  13  , 1  13  
  13  13 
(See Intermediate Mathematics - IB Text book)

i.e., (1, 4) and (3, 2) (see Fig. 1.33) Fig. 1.33
The required circles are

(x + 1)2 + (y  4)2 = 13 and
(x  3)2 + (y + 2)2 = 13
i.e., x2 + y2 + 2x  8y + 4 = 0 and x2 + y2  6x + 4y = 0.
Circle 39
5. Problem: Show that the line 5x + 12y  4 = 0 touches the circle x2 + y2  6x + 4y + 12 = 0.

Solution: Here g = 3; f = 2; c = 12 and radius = 9  4  12  1 ... (1)
The given straight line touches the circle if the perpendicular distance from the centre i.e., (3, 2) to
the given straight line equals to the radius of the given circle.
Let d be the perpendicular distance from the centre to the given straight line. Then
| 5(3)  12(2)  4 |
d =
(5) 2  (12) 2
=1 ... (2)
From the facts (1) and (2) we can conclude that the given straight line touches the given circle
(by Corollary 1.3.3).
1.3.13 Theorem : If 1 [i.e., (g + r cos 1, f + r sin 1) where r is the radius of the circle]
and 2 [i.e., (g + r cos 2,  f + r sin 2)] are two points on
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
then the equation of the chord joining these points is
         
( x  g ) cos  1 2   ( y  f ) sin  1 2   r cos  1 2  ... (2)
 2   2   2 
Proof : Let A and B be the points on the circle (1) corresponding to 1 and 2 (these are parametric values
of ). Then
A = (g + r cos 1, f + r sin 1)
B = (g + r cos 2, f + r sin 2)
The equation of the chord AB is
r (sin 2  sin 1 )
( y  f  r sin 1 )  ( x  g  r cos 1 )
r (cos 2  cos 1 )
Simplifying the above equation, we get
        
( x  g) cos 1 2   ( y  f ) sin  1 2   r cos 1 2  .
 2   2   2 
1.3.14 Note
(i) The equation of the tangent at  of the circle S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is given by
(x + g) cos + (y + f ) sin = r where r is the radius of the circle S = 0.
(ii) For the circle x2 + y2 = r2, the equation of the chord joining the points 1 and 2 (Particular values
    
of the parameter ) is x cos 1 2
 y sin 1 2
 rcos  1 2
.
2 2  2 
(iii) For the circle x2 + y2 = r2, the equation of the tangent at  is given by x cos  + y sin = r.

1. Problem : If the parametric values of two points A and B lying on the circle x2+y26x+4y 12 = 0
are 30o and 60o respectively then find the equation of the chord joining A and B.
Solution: Here g = 3; f = 2; r = 9  4  12  5.

The equation of the chord joining the points 1 = 30o, 2 = 60o is (by Theorem 1.3.13)
60 0  30 0  60 0  30 0   0 0
( x  3) cos  ( y  2) sin    5 cos 60  30 
2  2   2 
   
i.e., (x  3) cos 450 + (y + 2) sin 450 = 5 cos 150
( x  3)  ( y  2) ( 3  1)
 5
2 2 2
i.e., 2x + 2y (7 + 5 3 ) = 0.
2. Problem: Find the equation of the tangent at the point 30o (parametric value of ) of the circle
x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y  39 = 0.
Solution : Here g = 2; f = 3; c = 39; r = 4  9  39  52  2 13. By Note 1.3.14(i) the required
equation is
(x + 2) cos 300 + (y + 3) sin300 = 2 13
3 1
i.e., ( x  2)  ( y  3)   2 13
2 2
i.e., 3x  y  3  2( 3  2 13)  0 .
3. Problem: Find the area of the triangle formed by the tangent at P(x1, y1) to the circle
x2 + y2 = a2 Y ... (1)
with the coordinate axes where x1 y1  0. B
Solution : The equation of the tangent at P(x1, y1) to the circle (1) (x1, y1)
P
(see Fig. 1.34) is
X
xx1 + yy1  a2 = 0 ... (2) O A
Let this tangent cut the X-axis at A and Y-axis at B. We

have to find the area of the triangle OAB. Fig. 1.34
Circle 41
The x, y intercepts of (2) are ax and ay respectively.

2 2
1 1
 Required area of the triangle
= AOB area
1 a2 a2
= 
2 x1 y1
a4 Y
Normal at P
= .
2 | x1 y1 |
1.3.16 Normal
The normal at any point P of the circle is the C
tangent at P
line which passes through P and is perpendicular to P
the tangent at P (see Fig. 1.35)
X
O
Fig. l.35
1.3.17 Equation of Normal

We find the equation of normal at a point lying on the circle.
1.3.18 Theorem : The equation of the normal at P(x1, y1) of the circle
S  x2 + y2 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
is (x x1) (y1 + f ) (y  y1) (x1 + g) = 0.
Proof : Let C be the centre of the circle given by (1). Then C = (g, f ). We know that normal at any point
passes through the centre of the circle (see Fig. 1.35).
y1  f
The slope of CP 
x1  g
Hence the equation of the normal at P(x1, y1) is
( y1  f )
( y  y1 )  ( x  x1 )
( x1  g)
i.e., (x  x1) (y1 + f )  (y  y1) (x1 + g) = 0
1.3.19 Note
The equation of the normal to the circle x2 + y2 = r2 at P(x1, y1) is xy1  yx1 = 0.

1. Problem : Find the equation of the normal to the circle x2 + y2  4x  6y + 11 = 0 at (3, 2). Also find
the other point where the normal meets the circle.
Solution: Let A(3, 2), C be the centre of given circle and the normal at A meet the circle at B(a, b). From the
hypothesis, we have
2g = 4 i.e., g = 2
2f = 6 i.e., f = 3;
x1 = 3 and y1 = 2.
By Theorem 1.3.18, the equation of normal at A(3, 2) is
(x  3) (2  3) (y  2) (3  2) = 0
i.e., x + y  5 = 0.
The centre of the circle is the mid point of A and B (points of intersection of normal and circle)
a3
 2  a 1
2
b2
and  3  b  4.
2
Hence the normal at (3, 2) meets the circle at (1, 4).
2. Problem: Find the area of the triangle formed by the normal at (3, 4) to the circle
x2 + y2  22x  4y + 25 = 0 with the coordinate axes.
Solution: Here 2g = 22; 2f =  4 and x1 = 3 and y1 =  4.
By Theorem 1.3.18, the equation of normal is
(x  3) (4 2)  (y + 4) (3  11) = 0
i.e., 3x  4y  25 = 0 ... (1)
 25   25 
The straight line (1) cuts the x-axis at  , 0  and y-axis  0,   .
 3   4 
Hence the required area is
1 25 25
=  
2 3 4
625
= 
24
Circle 43
3. Problem: Show that the line lx + my + n = 0 is a normal to the circle S = 0 if and only if
gl+mf =n.
Solution: The straight line lx + my + n = 0 is normal to the circle
S = x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
 if the centre (g, f ) of the circle lies on lx + my + n = 0
 l(g) + m(f ) + n = 0
 lg + mf = n.
Exercise 1(c)
I. 1. Find the equation of the tangent at P of the circle S = 0 where P and S are given by
(i) P = (7, 5), S  x2 + y2  6x + 4y  12
(ii) P = (1, 1), S  x2 + y2  6x + 4y  12
(iii) P = (6, 9), S  x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y  39
(iv) P = (3, 4), S  x2 + y2  4x  6y + 11.
2. Find the equation of the normal at P of the circle S = 0 where P and S are given by
(i) P = (3, 4), S  x2 + y2 + x + y  24
(ii) P = (3, 5), S  x2 + y2  10x  2y + 6
(iii) P = (1, 3), S  3(x2 + y2)  19x  29y + 76
(iv) P = (1, 2), S  x2 + y2  22x  4y + 25.
II. 1. Find the length of the chord intercepted by the circle x2 + y2  x + 3y  22 = 0 on the
line y = x  3.
2. Find the length of the chord intercepted by the circle x2 + y2  8x  2y  8 = 0 on the
line x + y + 1 = 0.
3. Find the length of the chord formed by x2 + y2 = a2 on the line x cos + y sin = p.
4. Find the equation of the circle with centre (2, 3) and touching the line 3x  4y + 1 = 0
5. Find the equation of the circle with centre (3, 4) and touching y-axis.
6. Find the equation of tangents of the circle x2 + y2  8x  2y + 12 = 0 at the points whose ordinates
are 1.
7. Find the equation of tangents of the circle x2 + y2  10 = 0 at the points whose abscissae are 1.
x y
III. 1. If x 2 + y 2 = c 2 and   1 intersect at A and B then find AB . Hence deduce the
a b
condition that the line touches the circle.
2. The line y = mx + c and the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 intersect at A and B.

If AB = 2 then show that c 2 = (1 + m 2) (a 2  2).
3. Find the equation of the circle with centre (2, 3) cutting a chord length 2 units on
3x + 4y + 4 = 0.
4. Find the equation of tangent and normal at (3, 2) of the circle x2 + y2  x  3y  4 = 0.
5. Find the equation of tangent and normal at (1, 1) to the circle 2x2 + 2y2  2x  5y + 3 = 0.
6. Prove that the tangent at (3, 2) of the circle x2 + y2 = 13 touches the circle
x2 + y2 + 2x  10y  26 = 0 and find its point of contact.
7. Show that the tangent at (1, 2) of the circle x2 + y2  4x  8y + 7 = 0 touches the circle
x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y = 0 and also find its point of contact.
8. Find the equations of the tangents to the circle x2 + y2  4x + 6y  12 = 0 which are parallel to
x + y  8 = 0.
9. Find the equations of the tangents to the circle x2 + y2 + 2x  2y  3 = 0 which are perpendicular to
3x  y + 4 = 0.
10. Find the equation of the tangents to the circle x2 + y2  4x  6y + 3 = 0 which makes an angle 450 with
X-axis.
11. Find the equation of the circle passing through (1, 0) and touching x + y  7 = 0 at (3, 4).
12. Find the equations of circles passing through (1, 1), touching the lines 4x + 3y + 5 = 0 and
3x  4y  10 = 0.
13. Show that x + y + 1 = 0 touches the circle x2 + y2  3x + 7y + 14 = 0 and find its point of contact.
1.4 Chord of contact and polar
1.4.1 Theorem : If P(x1, y1) is an exterior point of the circle.

S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
then there exist two tangents from P to the circle S = 0 (see Fig. 1.36).
Proof : Let C be the centre and r be the radius of the circle (1). Then C = (g, f ) and r  g 2  f 2  c . Let
m be the slope of a tangent passing through (x1, y1). By Note 1.3.4 (iii) the equation of the tangent with slope
m is
Circle 45
P(x1, y1)
( y  f )  m( x  g )  r 1  m 2 Y
T2
If it passes through (x1, y1), we have
( y1  f )  m( x1  g )  r 1  m 2
C
or [(y1 + f )  m(x1 + g)]2 = r2 (1 + m2) T1
or m2 [(x1 + g)2  r2]  2m (x1 + g) (y1 + f ) + (y1 + f )2  r2 = 0 ... (2)

X
O
The discriminant of (2) is Fig. 1.36
4(x1 + g) (y1 + f )  4[(x1 + g)  r ] [(y1 + f )  r ]
2 2 2 2 2 2
or 4r 2 [ x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  c] (' r 2  g 2  f 2  c)

or 4r2 S11
Since P(x1, y1) is an exterior point to the circle S = 0, we have S11 > 0.
 The discriminant of (2) is positive and hence we have two real and distinct values of m say m1 and m2.
For these two values we have two tangents from P(x1, y1) to the circle (1).
1.4.2 Note
(i) If the discriminant of (2) is zero then the roots of equation (2) coincide and hence the tangents
described above coincide. This situation arises when the point is on the circle.
(ii) When P(x1, y1) is a point in the interior of the circle S = 0 then S11 < 0 and hence the discriminant of
(2) is negative so that equation (2) has no real roots and hence there are no tangents passing
through P to the circle.
(iii) If  is the angle between the tangents through a point P(x1, y1) to the circle S = 0 then
 r
tan   
2 S11 where r is the radius of the circle. Y
T P
For if PT and PT are two tangents to the circle
S = 0 through P (which is an exterior point with respect
C
to the circle S = 0) then the triangles  PTC,
 P T  C are identical (see Fig. 1.37) T
X
O
 TP̂C  T P̂C  /2 Fig. 1.37
   TC r
 tan    
2 PT S11
1
(iv) The area of the triangle  PTC as shown in the Fig. 1.37 is .r S11 .
2

1. Problem : Find the condition that the tangents drawn from the exterior point (g, f) to
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 are perpendicular to each other.
Solution : If the angle between the tangents drawn from P(x1, y1) to S = 0 is  then
 r
tan    (by Note 1.4.2 (iii))
2 S11
where r is the radius of the circle S = 0.

Here (x1, y1) = (g, f)
2 2
 S11 = g2 + f + 2g2 + 2f + c
2
i.e., S11 = 3g2 + 3f + c
0  90  g2  f 2  c
  90  tan   
 2 3g 2  3 f 2  c
 3g2 + 3f 2 + c = g2 + f 2  c
 2g2 + 2f 2 + 2c = 0
 g2 + f 2 + c = 0.
Thus the tangents drawn from (g, f ) to the circle S = 0 are perpendicular if and only if g2 + f 2 + c = 0.
In this case note that c < 0.
2. Problem : If 1, 2 are the angles of inclination of tangents through a point P to the circle x2 + y2 = a2
then find the locus of P when cot 1 + cot 2 = k.
Solution: The equation of the tangent to x2 + y2 = a2 having the slope m is
y  mx  a 1  m 2 ... (1)
Let P(x1, y1) be a point on the locus. If the tangents (1) passes through P then
y1  mx1  a 1  m 2
or y1  mx1   a 1  m 2
or ( y1  mx1 )2  a 2 (1  m2 )
or m 2 ( x12  a 2 )  2mx1 y1  y12  a 2  0.
If m1, m2 are the roots of the above equation then
2x y
m1  m2  tan 1  tan 2  2 1 12 ... (2)
x1  a
y12  a 2
and m1 m2  tan 1. tan 2  ... (3)
x12  a 2
Circle 47
Given that cot 1  cot 2  k

tan 2  tan 1
 k
tan 1 tan 2
2x1 y1
k (from (2) and (3))
y12  a 2
or k (y12  a 2 )  2 x1 y1 ... (4)
Also, conversely if P(x1, y1) satisfies the equation (4) then it can be shown that cot 1 + cot 2 = k,
thus the locus of P is k(y2  a2) = 2xy.
Y
A
1.4.4 Chord of Contact P
If the tangents drawn through P(x1, y1) to a

C
circle S = 0 touch the circle at points A and B then the
secant AB is called the chord of contact of P with B
Chord of contact of P
respect to S = 0 (see Fig. 1.38). O X
Fig. 1.38
1.4.5 Theorem : If P(x1, y1) is an exterior point to the circle
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 then the equation of the chord of contact of P with respect to
S = 0 is S1 = 0.
Proof: Let the tangents drawn from P(x1, y1) to the circle S = 0 touch at A(x2, y2) and B(x3, y3).
The equation of tangent at A(x2, y2) is xx2 + yy2 + g(x + x2) + f(y + y2) + c = 0.
Similarly the equation of tangent at B(x3, y3) is xx3 + yy3 + g(x + x3) + f(y + y3) + c = 0.
These two tangents are passing through P(x1, y1)
 x1x2 + y1y2 + g(x1 + x2) + f(y1 + y2) + c = 0 ... (1)
and x1x3 + y1y3 + g(x1 + x3) + f(y1 + y3) + c = 0 ... (2)
Thus the two points A(x2, y2) and B(x3, y3) satisfy the following linear equation in x and y
xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0. ... (3)
Note that equation (3) can be written as
x(x1 + g) + y(y1 + f ) + (gx1 + fy1 + c) = 0. ... (4)
Clearly equation (4) represents a straight line. Equations (2) and (3) show that the points
A(x2, y2) and B(x3, y3) are satisfying equation (4) (hence equation (3)).
The equation of the chord of contact AB is given by (3) i.e., S1 = 0.
1.4.6 Note
(i) If the point P(x1, y1) is on the circle S = 0 then the tangent itself can be defined as the
chord of contact.
(ii) If the point P(x1, y1) is an interior point of the circle S = 0 then the chord of contact does
not exist.

1. Problem : Find the chord of contact of (2, 5) with respect to the circle
x2 + y2  5x + 4y  2 = 0 .
Solution : Here (x1, y1) = (2, 5). By Theorem 1.4.5 the required chord of contact is
5
xx1 + yy1  (x + x1) + 2(y + y1)  2 = 0.
2
Substituting x1 and y1 values, we get
5
x(2) + y(5)  (x + 2) + 2(y + 5)  2 = 0
2
i.e., x  14y  6 = 0.
2. Problem : If the chord of contact of a point P with respect to the circle
x2 + y2 = a2 ... (1)
cut the circle at A and B such that AÔB  90 0 then show that P lies on the circle
x2 + y2 = 2a2.
Solution : Let P(x1, y1) be a point and let the chord of contact of it cut the circle in A and B such that
AÔB  90 0 . The equation of the chord of contact of P(x1, y1) with respect to (1) is
xx1 + yy1  a2 = 0 ... (2)
The equation to the pair of lines OA and OB is given by
2
2 2  xx  yy 
2
x  y  a  1 2 1  0
 a 
or a2(x2 + y2)  (xx1 + yy1)2 = 0
or x 2 ( a 2  x12 )  2 x1 y1 xy  y 2 ( a 2  y12 )  0 ... (3)
Since AÔB  90 0, we have the coefficient of x2 in (3) + coefficient of y2 in (3) = 0
 a 2  x12  a 2  y12  0
i.e., x12  y12  2a 2

Hence the point P(x1, y1) lies on the circle x2 + y2 = 2a2.
Circle 49
1.4.8 Pole and polar A
Let S = 0 be a circle and P be any point in

the plane other than the centre of S = 0. If any Y
line drawn through the point P meets the circle in Q R
R1 P
two points Q and R, then the locus of the points of Q1 R2
R3
intersection of tangents drawn at Q and R is a Q2 C R4
Q3
line, called polar of P and P is called pole of the Q4
polar (see Fig. 1.39). Polar of P
X
O Fig. 1.39
1.4.9 Theorem : The equation of the polar of P(x1, y1) with respect to S = 0 is S1 = 0.
Proof: Let QR be any chord drawn through P(x1, y1) and let the tangents at Q and R meet at the point A(, ).
Then QR is a chord of contact of A(, ).
 The equation of QR is
x + y + g(x + ) + f(y + ) + c = 0.
It is passes through P(x1, y1), therefore
x1 + y1 + g(x1 + ) + f(y1 + ) + c = 0
  A( , ) satisfies S1 = 0.
 The equation of polar of P(x1, y1) is S1 = 0.
1.4.10 Note
(i) Suppose a point A(, ) which lies outside or on the circle satisfies the equation
S1  xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0.
Then x1 + y1 + g(x1 + ) + f(y1 + ) + c = 0 so that the point P(x1, y1) lies on the straight line
x + y + g( + x) + f( + y) + c = 0 which is the chord of contact of A(, ) of the circle S = 0. i.e.,
A( ) is a point on the polar of the point P(x1, y1).
Thus every point A(, ) on the line S1 = 0 which is outside or on the circle is the intersection of the
tangents at the points of intersection of a line viz.
Y
x + y + g(x + ) + f( + y) + c = 0
through P(x1, y1) and the circle. P
(ii) If P(x1, y1) is an exterior point of C
the circle then the chord of contact

of P will be the polar of P (see
X
O
Fig. 1.40). Polar of P
Fig. 1.40
(iii) If P(x1, y1) lies on the circle then the Y
polar of P coincides with the tangent

at P(x1, y1) (see Fig.1.41). C
R
Q Polar of P
P
X
O
Fig. 1.41
(iv) If P(x1, y1) is inside the circle then

the polar of P does not intersect the Y
Q1
circle. (see Fig. 1.42). Q
Polar of P
P R1
C
R
X
O
Fig. 1.42
(v) If C is the centre of the circle then the polar of P has slope  ( x1  g ) and hence it is perpendicular to
( y1  f )
(y  f )
CP (whose slope is 1 ).
( x1  g )
(vi) If P is the centre of a circle S = 0 then the polar of P does not exist i.e., the polar of P(g, f ) of
the circle S = x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 does not exist.
(vii)
P(x1, y1) Tangent Chord of Polar of P
at P contact at P
Interior of Does not Does not S1 = 0
the circle exist exist P is different
from centre
on the circle S1 = 0 S1 = 0 S1 = 0
Exterior Does not
of the circle exist S1 = 0 S1 = 0
1.4.11 Theorem : The pole of lx + my + n = 0 (n  0) with respect to the circle x2 + y2 = a2 is

 a 2l a 2m 
 ,  .
 n n 
 
Proof : Let P(x1, y1) be the pole of
lx + my + n = 0 ... (1)
Circle 51
with respect to the circle

x2 + y2 = a2 ... (2)
By Theorem 1.4.9, the polar of P with respect to the circle (2) is
xx1 + yy1  a2 = 0 ... (3)
The equations (1) and (3) represent the same straight line
x1 y a2
  1 
l m n
2
a l  a 2m
Hence x1  , y1  .
n n
  a 2l  a 2 m 
Therefore the pole of lx + my + n = 0 with respect to the circle (2) is  , .

 n n 
1.4.12 Note
The pole of lx + my + n = 0 with respect to S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is
 lr 2 mr 2 
  g  ,  f 
l g  mf  n l g  mf  n 
where r is the radius of the circle if lg + mf  n  0.

1. Problem : Find the equation of the polar of (2, 3) with respect to the circle
x2 + y2 + 6x + 8y  96 = 0.
Solution : Here (x1, y1) = (2, 3) and S  x2 + y2 + 6x + 8y  96 = 0. Hence by Theorem 1.4.9, the equation of
polar is x(2) + y(3) + 3(x + 2) + 4(y + 3)  96 = 0 i.e., 5x + 7y  78 = 0.
2. Problem : Find the pole of x + y + 2 = 0 with respect to the circle
x2 + y2  4x + 6y  12 = 0.
Solution: Here lx + my + n = 0 is x + y + 2 = 0 and S = 0 is S  x2 + y2  4x + 6y  12 = 0. Therefore,
l = 1; m = 1; n = 2; g = 2; f = 3; and radius of the circle r  4  9  12  5. By Note 1.4.12, the pole of
lx + my + n = 0 with respect to S = 0 is
 lr 2 mr 2 
  g  ,  f  .
l g  mf  n l g  mf  n 
 The pole of x + y + 2 = 0 with respect to the circle x2 + y2  4x + 6y  12 = 0 is
 (1) (5) 2 (1) (5) 2 
2  ,  3  
 (1) ( 2 )  (1)(3)  2 (1) (  2 )  (1) (3)  2 
 
i.e., (2  25, 3 25)
i.e., (23, 28)
 The pole of x + y + 2 = 0 with respect to the given circle is (23, 28).
3. Problem : Show that the poles of the tangents to the circle

x2 + y2 = a2 ... (1)
with respect to the circle
(x + a)2 + y2 = 2a2 ... (2)
2
lie on y + 4ax = 0.
Solution : Let P(x1, y1) be the pole of the tangent to the circle (1) with respect to the circle (2). Then the polar
of P with respect to the circle given by (2) is a tangent to the circle given by (1). Now, the polar of P with respect
to (2) is
xx1 + yy1 + a (x + x1)  a2 = 0
i.e., x(x1 + a) + yy1 + (ax1  a2) = 0. ... (3)
This line is a tangent to circle (1)
0  0  ax1  a 2
 a
( x1  a)2  y12
i.e., y12  4ax1  0 .
 The poles of the tangents to circle (1) with respect to (2) lie on the curve
y2 + 4ax = 0.
1.4.14 Theorem : The polar of P(x1, y1) with respect to the circle S = 0 passes through Q(x2, y2)  the
polar of Q passes through P.
Proof : Suppose that the polar of P(x1, y1) with respect to the circle
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
passes through Q(x2, y2).
We shall prove that the polar of Q(x2, y2) passes through P.
The polar of P with respect to (1) is S1 = 0. If it passes through Q(x2, y2) then
S12 = 0 ... (2)
Now the polar of Q(x2, y2) with respect to the circle (1) is
S2 = 0. ... (3)
It passes through P if S12 = 0. In view of (2) the condition S12 = 0 is satisfied. Hence the polar of P passes
through Q. Then the polar of Q with respect to the circle S = 0 passes through P. Similarly the converse part can
be proved.
1.4.15 Conjugate points

Two points P and Q are said to be conjugate points with respect to the circle S = 0 if Q lies on the
polar of P (observe that if Q lies on the polar of P then P lies on the polar of Q).
Circle 53
1.4.16 Note
The condition that the two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) are conjugate points with respect to the circle
S = 0 is S12 = 0.
1.4.17 Conjugate lines
If P and Q are conjugate points with respect to the circle S = 0 then the polars of P and Q are called
conjugate lines with respect to the circle S = 0.
1.4.18 Theorem : Let S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
be a circle with radius r and l1x + m1y + n1 = 0, ... (2)
l2x + m2y + n2 = 0 ... (3)
be two straight lines. Then the following statements are equivalent.
(i) l1x + m1y + n1 = 0, l2x + m2y + n2 = 0 are conjugate lines with respect to the circle (1)
(ii) r2 (l1l2 + m1m2) = (l1 g + m1f  n1) (l2g + m2 f  n2)
Proof : (i)  (ii)
Suppose that the lines given by (2) and (3) are conjugate. Then the pole of (2) i.e.,
 l1r 2 m1r 2 
 g  ,  f  
 l g  m f  n l g  m f  n 
 1 1 1 1 1 1
lies on (3). Here r is the radius of the circle (1). Since (2) and (3) are conjugate, this point lies on (3).
 l1r 2   m1r 2 
 l2  g    m2  f    n2  0
 (l1g  m1 f  n1 )   (l1 g  m1 f  n1 ) 
(l1l2  m1m2 ) r 2
i.e. (l2 g  m2 f  n2 )  0
(l1 g  m1 f  n1 )
i.e., r2 (l1 l2 + m1 m2) = (l1 g + m1f  n1) (l2g + m2f  n2).

Thus (i)  (ii) is proved. Now we prove (ii)  (i)
Suppose r2(l1 l2 + m1m2) = (l1g + m1f  n1) (l2 g + m2f  n2)
r 2 (l1l2  m1m2 )
  l2 g  m2 f  n2
l1 g  m1 f  n1
 l1 r 2   m1 r 2 
 l 2  g    m2   f    n2  0
 (l1 g  m 1 f  n )
1   (l1 g  m1 f  n )
1 
 The pole of (2) lies on (3)

 The lines given by (2) and (3) are conjugate.
1.4.19 Note
Two lines l1x + m1 y + n1 = 0 and l2x + m2y + n2 = 0 are conjugate with respect to the circle x2 + y2 = a2
if and only if a2(l1 l2 + m1m2) = n1n2.

1. Problem : Show that (4, 2) and (3, 6) are conjugate with respect to the circle x2 + y2  24 = 0.
Solution : Here (x1, y1) = (4, 2) and (x2, y2) = (3, 6) and S  x2 + y2  24 = 0. Two points (x1, y1) and
(x2, y2) are conjugate with respect to the circle S = 0 if S12 = 0. In this case
x1x2 + y1y2  24 = 0.
For the given points S12 = (4) (3) + (2) (6)  24 = 0.
 The given points are conjugate with respect to the given circle.
2. Problem : If (4, k) and (2, 3) are conjugate points with respect to the circle x2 + y2 = 17 then find k.
Solution : Here (x1, y1) = (4, k), (x2, y2) = (2, 3) and S  x2 + y2  17 = 0. Since the given points are conjugate,
we have S12 = 0.
i.e., x1x2 + y1y2  17 = 0
i.e., (4) (2) + (k) (3)  17 = 0
 k = 3.
3. Problem : Show that the lines 2x + 3y + 11 = 0 and 2x  2y  1 = 0 are conjugate with respect to the
circle x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y  12 = 0.
Solution: Here l1 = 2, m1 = 3, n1 = 11; l2 = 2, m2 = 2, n2 = 1 and g = 2, f = 3, c = 12. Further the radius of the
circle r  4  9  12  1 . By Theorem 1.4.18, we have l1x + m1y + n1 = 0,
l2x + m2y + n2 = 0 are conjugate with respect to S = 0 if
r2(l1 l2 + m1m2) = (l1g + m1f  n1) (l2g + m2f  n2) ... (1)
L.H.S. of (1) = (1)2 [(2) (2) + (3) (2) = 2
R.H.S. of (1) = (4 + 9  11) (4  6 + 1) = 2
 Condition (1) is satisfied by the given lines with respect to the given circle. Hence they are conjugate
lines.
4. Problem : Show that the area of the triangle formed by the two tangents through P(x1, y1) to the circle.
r (S11 )3 / 2
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 and the chord of contact of P with respect to S = 0 is where r
S11  r 2
is the radius of the circle.
Circle 55
Solution : Let PA and PB be two tangents through P

to the circle S = 0 and  be the angle between these A
Y
two tangents. We know that
P
 r 
tan   
2 S11 (By Note 1.4.2(iii))
Required area (see Fig. 1.43) B
= APB area O
X
Fig. 1.43
1
= PA . PB. sin 
2

1 2 tan ( )
 S11 S11 . 2
2 2 
1  tan ( )
2
 r 
S11  
 S 
  11 
2
r
1
S11
r ( S11 )3 / 2
 .
S11  r 2
1.4.21 Definition
Let C be the centre and r be the radius of the circle S = 0. Two points P and Q are said to be
inverse points with respect to the circle S = 0 if C, P, Q are collinear such that P, Q are on the same
side of C and CP. CQ = r2.
1.4.22 Theorem : Let C be the centre and r be the radius of the circle S  x2 + y2  r2 = 0. Two points
P and Q are inverse points if and only if Q is the point of intersection of the polar of P with respect to
S = 0 and the line joining P and C.
Y
Proof: Suppose that P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) are the inverse P
points. Then
(i) CP. CQ = r2
Q
(ii) C, P, Q are collinear X
C
From (i), we get Polar of P
( x12  y12 ) ( x22  y22 ) r 4
... (1)
O
From (ii), we get CPQ area = 0
i.e., x1y2  x2y1 = 0 ... (2) Fig. 1.44
Equation (1) is equivalent to

x12 x22  y12 y22  x12 y22  x22 y12  r 4
x12 x22  y12 y22  ( x1 y2  x2 y1 ) 2  2 x1 x2 y1 y2  r 4
( x1 x2  y1 y2 ) 2  0  r 4 (by (2))
x1x2  y1y2 = + r2
Since P, Q lie on the same side of C, we get x1 x2 > 0, y1 y2 > 0.
 x1x2  y1y2 = r2.
Thus P, Q are conjugate points.
 Q lies on the polar of P.
Thus Q is the intersection of CP and the polar of P.
Conversely suppose Q is the intersection of the polar of P and CP. We shall prove that CP.CQ = r2
Equation of polar of P is xx1  yy1  r2 = 0
0  0  r2 r2
CQ  
x12  y12 x12  y12
r2
Thus CP . CQ = x12  y12 .  r2 .
x12  y12
Hence P and Q are inverse points.
1.4.23 Note
The inverse of the point P with respect to the circle S = 0 is the foot of the perpendicular from the centre of
the circle S = 0 to the polar of P.
1.4.24 Example
Let us find the inverse point of (2, 3) with respect to the circle x2 + y2  4x  6y + 9 = 0.
Let P = (2, 3) and C be the centre of the circle. Then C = (2, 3). The polar of P is
x(2) + y(3)  2 (x  2)  3(y + 3) + 9 = 0
i.e., x = 1.
The equation of the line CP is

33
y 3  ( x  2)
2 1
i.e., y = 3.
From (1) and (2), we get the common point of x = 1 and y = 3 as (1, 3).
 The inverse point of (2, 3) is (1, 3).
Circle 57
1.4.25 Equation of chord with given middle point

Now, we derive the equation of chord when the middle point of it is known.
1.4.26 Theorem : If P(x1, y1) is the mid - point of a chord AB (other than the diameter) of the circle
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 then the equation of secant AB is S1 = S11.
Proof : Let C be the centre of the circle S = 0. Then C = (g, f )  (x1, y1). We know that AB is
perpendicular to CP (see Fig. 1.45). We may suppose that y1   f.
Slope of AB Y
1
= 
Slope of CP
(x  g) C
=  1
( y1  f )
A P B
Thus the equation of AB is given by
(x  g) X
O
y  y1   1 ( x  x1 ) Fig. 1.45
( y1  f )
i.e., (y  y1) (y1 + f ) + (x  x1) (x1 + g) = 0
i.e., xx1 + yy1 + gx + fy
= x12  y12  gx1  fy1
Adding gx1 + fy1 + c on both sides to the above equation, we obtain
S1 = S11.
Note that if y1 = f then the equation of secant is x = x1.

1. Problem : Find the mid point of the chord intercepted by
x2 + y2  2x  10y + 1 = 0 ... (1)
on the line x  2y + 7 = 0. ... (2)
Solution : Let P(x1, y1) be the mid-point of the chord intercepted by the circle (1) on the line given
by (2).
The equation of secant along the chord is S1 = S11
2 2
i.e., xx1 + yy1  (x + x1)  5(y + y1) + 1 = x1  y1  2 x1  10 y1  1
2 2
i.e., x(x1  1) + y(y1  5)  ( x1  y1  x1  5 y1 ) = 0 ... (3)
Equations (2) and (3) represent the same chord
x1  1 y1  5  ( x12  y12  x1  5 y1 )
   = K(say)
1 2 7
x1 = K + 1 ... (4)
y1 = 2K + 5 ... (5)

x12  y12  x12  5 y1  7 K ... (6)
Substituting (4) and (5) in (6) we get
(K + 1)2 + (2K + 5)2  (K + 1)2  5(2K + 5) =  7K
i.e., 5K2  2K = 0
2
 K = 0 or K = .
5
For K = 0, the point (x1, y1) = (1, 5) which is not a point on the chord x  2y + 7 = 0. Hence K = 0
rejected.
2  7 21 
For K = , the point (x1, y1) =  , 
5 5 5 
 7 21 
 Mid point of the chord is  , .
5 5 
Other Method
Let C be the centre of the circle. Then C(1, 5). Let P(x1, y1) be mid point of the chord intersected by (2)
on the circle (1). Then (x1, y1) is the foot of the perpendicular of C to the chord given by (2).
We have (by a result proved in Intermediate Mathematics - IB Text Book) that
x1  1 y1  5  (1  10  7)
 
1 2 (1  4)
x1  1 y1  5 2
i.e.,  
1 2 5
7 21
 x1  , y1 
5 5
 7 21 
Thus  ,  is the mid point of the given chord.
5 5 
2. Problem : Find the locus of mid-points of the chords of contact of x2 + y2 = a2 from the points lying on
the line lx + my + n = 0.
Solution : Let P(x1, y1) be a point on the locus. Then the point P is the mid-point of a chord of the circle
x2 + y2 = a2 ... (1)
and this chord is chord of contact of a point lying on
lx + my + n = 0 ... (2)
Circle 59
i.e., the pole of this chord is on the line given by (2). The equation of the chord of the circle (1) having
P(x1, y1) as its midpoint is
2 2
xx1 + yy1 = x1  y1
2 2
i.e., xx1 + yy1  ( x1  y1 ) = 0 ... (3)
The pole of (3) with respect to the circle (1) is
  a 2 x1  a 2 y1 
 
  (x2  y2 ) ,  (x2  y2 )  (by Theorem 1.4.11)
 1 1 1 1 
 a 2 x1 a 2 y1 
 2 
i.e.,  x  y 2 , x2  y2 
 1 1 1 1 
This point lies on the line given by (2)
a 2 x1 a 2 y1
 l 2 m 2 n  0
x1  y12 x1  y12
 a 2 (lx1  my1 )  n( x12  y12 )  0

Hence the locus of P is a2(lx + my) + n(x2 + y2) = 0.
Exercise 1(d)
I. 1. Find the condition that the tangents drawn from (0, 0) to
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 be perpendicular to each other.
2. Find the chord of contact of (0, 5) with respect to the circle x2 + y2  5x + 4y  2 = 0.
3. Find the chord of contact of (1, 1) to the circle x2 + y2 = 9.
4. Find the polar of (1, 2) with respect to x2 + y2 = 7.
5. Find the polar of (3, 1) with respect to 2x2 + 2y2 = 11.
6. Find the polar of (1, 2) with respect to x2 + y2  10x  10y + 25 = 0.
7. Find the pole of ax + by + c = 0 (c  0) with respect to x2 + y2 = r2.
8. Find the pole of 3x + 4y  45 = 0 with respect to x2 + y2  6x  8y + 5 =0
9. Find the pole of x  2y + 22 = 0 with respect to x2 + y2  5x + 8y + 6 = 0.
10. Show that the points (6, 1) and (2, 3) are conjugate points with respect to the circle
x2 + y2  2x + 2y + 1 = 0.
11. Show that the points (4, 2) and (3, 5) are conjugate points with respect to the circle
x2 +y2  3x  5y + 1 = 0.
12. Find the value of k if kx + 3y  1 = 0, 2x + y + 5 = 0 are conjugate lines with respect to the circle
x2 + y2  2x  4y  4 = 0.
13. Find the value of k if x + y  5 = 0 and 2x + ky  8 = 0 are conjugate with respect to the circle
x2 + y2  2x  2y  1 = 0.
14. Find the value of k if the points (1, 3) and (2, k) are conjugate with respect to the circle x2 + y2 = 35.
15. Find the value of k if the points (4, 2) and (k, 3) are conjugate points with respect to the circle
x2 + y2  5x + 8y + 6 = 0
II. 1. Find the acute angle between the tangents drawn from (3, 2) to the circle x2 + y2  6x + 4y  2 = 0.
2. Find the acute angle between the pair of tangents drawn from (1, 3) to the circle
x2 + y2  2x + 4y  11 = 0.
3. Find the acute angle between the pair of tangents drawn from (0, 0) to the circle x2 + y2  14x + 2y +
25 = 0.
4. Find the locus of P if the tangents drawn from P to x2 + y2 = a2 include an angle .
5. Find the locus of P if the tangents drawn from P to x2 + y2 = a2 are perpendicular to each other.
6. Find the slope of the polar of (1, 3) with respect to the circle
x2 + y2  4x  4y  4 = 0. Also find the distance from the centre to it.
7. If ax + by + c = 0 is the polar of (1, 1) with respect to the circle
x2 + y2 + 4x + 2y + 1 = 0 and H.C.F. of a, b, c is equal to one then find a2 + b2 + c2.
III. 1. Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of tangents at the points where
x + 4y  14 = 0 meets the circle x2 + y2  2x + 3y  5 = 0.
2. If the polar of the points on the circle x2 + y2 = a2 with respect to the circle x2 + y2 = b2 touches the circle
x2 + y2 = c2 then prove that a, b, c are in Geometrical progression.
3. Tangents are drawn to the circle x2 + y2 = 16 from the point P(3, 5). Find the area of the triangle
formed by these tangents and the chord of contact of P.
4. Find the locus of the point whose polars with respect to the circles x2 + y2  4x  4y  8 = 0 and
x2 + y2  2x + 6y  2 = 0 are mutually perpendicular.
5. Find the locus of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to any chord of the circle
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 which subtends a right angle at the origin.
1.5 Relative Positions of two circles

The number of common tangents that can be drawn to two given circles depend on their relative positions.
We shall describe the various possible relative positions of two circles. First, let us recall that any two intersecting
common tangents of two circles and the line joining the centres of the circles are concurrent, equivalently the
point of intersection of two common tangents (if exists) of two circles and the centres of these two circles are
collinear. In this section we learn the different possible relative position of two circles and the number of common
tangents exists in each case.
Circle 61
1.5.1 Definition Y
A straight line L is said to be a Common tangent

common tangent to the circles S = 0 and
S' = 0 if it is tangent to both S = 0 and
S' = 0 (see Fig. 1.46). S=0
S' = 0
X
O
Fig. 1.46
1.5.2 Definition
Two circles are said to be touching each other if they have only one common point (see
Fig. 1.47(a), 1.47(b))
Y
Y
X
O X
O
Fig. 1.47(a) Fig. 1.47(b)
1.5.3 Relative positions of two circles

Let C1, C2 be the centres and r1, r2 be the radii of two Y
circles S = 0 and S' = 0 respectively. Further let C1C 2 represents

the line segment from C1 to C2. The following cases arise with
regard to the relative position of two circles. C1
C2
(i) C1C2 > r1 + r2
In this case the two circles will be apart X
O
i.e., one will be away from the other Fig. 1.48
(see Fig.1.48). Y
(ii) C1C2 = r1 + r2
r2
In this case the two circles touch each other externally r1 C2
(see Fig.1.49). C1 P
O X
Fig. 1.49
(iii) |r1  r2| < C1C2 < r1 + r2 Y
In this case the two circles intersect in two distinct

points (see Fig.1.50). C1 C2
X
O
Fig. 1.50
Y
(iv) C1C2 = |r1  r2|
The two circles touch each other internally (see
P
Fig.1.51) in this case. C1 C2
X
O
Fig.1.51
(v) C1C2 < |r1  r2|
Y
In this case the two circles do not intersect / touch
and one circle will be completely inside the other (see C1
Fig. 1.52).
C2
X
O
Fig. 1.52
1.5.4 Note Y
If C1C2 = 0 then the centres of the two circles coincide

and they are concentric circles (see Fig. 1.53). C1
C2
X
O
Fig. 1.53
Before the discussion on the number of common tangents in the above cases, we give a proof of a useful
result. In the next two sections the figures are drawn without drawing the axes for convenience.
1.5.5 A useful result

Let (i) C1 and C2 be the centres of two circles (ii) r1 and r2 are radii of these circles (iii) one pair of
common tangents meet C1C 2 in P and other pair meet in Q (see Fig. 1.54). Let these common tangents meet the
circles at T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7 and T8 as shown in Fig. 1.54. Then PC1T1 and PC2T2 are similar triangles.
Circle 63
T6
T3
T5
C1 T2
r1 r2
P
C2
T1 T4
Q
T7 T8
Fig. 1.54
C1T1 CP
  1
C 2 T2 C2P
r1 CP
 1
r2 C2P
Similarly QC1T7, QC2T8 are similar,
C1T7 CQ
  1 .
C 2 T8 C2Q
r1 CQ
 1 .
r2 C 2Q
 The points P and Q divide C1 C2 in the ratio of the radii (i.e., r1 : r2).
1.5.6 Common tangents, Centre of similitude

Now we discuss the number of common tangents that exist for the cases specified in the section 1.5.3
Case (i) : Each of the given pair of circles lies in the exterior of the other i.e., C1C2 > r1 + r2.
Subcase (i) : r1  r2 (r1, r2 are radii of the circles)
C1
P
C2
Q
Fig. 1.55
In this case, there is a possibility of having two pairs of common tangents. The pair of common
tangents intersecting at a point on the line segment C1C 2 is called transverse pair of common tangents
and the pair of common tangents intersecting at a point not in C1C 2 (see Fig. 1.55) is called as direct
pair of common tangents. The points P, Q are collinear with the centres C1 and C2 of given circles. The
point of intersection of transverse pair of common tangents P is called the internal centre of similitude and
the point of intersection of direct pair of common tangents Q is called external centre of similitude. Note
that P divides C1C2 in the ratio r1 : r2 internally and Q divides C1C 2 in the same ratio externally. Also note
that C1C2 > r1 + r2. In this case the number of distinct common tangents is 4.
subcase (ii) : C1C 2 > r1 + r2 and r1 = r2. In this case the direct common tangents are parallel and the
external centre of similitude doesnt exist. (see Fig. 1.56).
C1 C2
Fig. 1.56
To find the equations of parallel common tangents, suppose the tangent equation as y = mx + c. The
slope m = slope of C1C2. From this fact the value of m is known.
m( g1 )  f1  c
r1  (radius is equal to perpendicular distance)
1  m2
Using the above equation we can find c. In this case the number of common tangents is 4.
Case (ii) : C1C 2 = r1 + r2
Given circles touch each other externally (see Fig. 1.57).
P
Q
C1 C2
Fig. 1.57
In this case the internal centre of similitude P is the point of contact of two given circles. At P there is only
one common tangent. Through Q, there will be two common tangents. In this case the number of common
tangents is 3.
Case (iii) : |r1  r2 | < C1C 2 < r1 + r2
(i.e., Given circles intersecting each other)
Circle 65
Q
C1 C2
Fig. 1.58
In this case the internal centre of similitude does not exist.

Only two common tangents through Q can be drawn (see Fig.1.58)
Case (iv) : C1C2 = |r1  r2 |
(i.e., Given circles touch each other internally)
In this case internal centre of similitude does not exist P
C1 C2
and the external centre of similitude Q is the point of contact
of the two circles. Only one common tangent exists at Q.
Thus the number of common tangents in the present case is
one (see Fig.1.59)
Fig.1.59
case (v): C1C 2 < |r1  r2 |

(i.e., one circle lies entirely in the interior of the other circle) C1
In this case the number of common tangents is zero
(see Fig. 1.60). C2
Fig. 1.60

1. Problem : Show that four common tangents can be drawn for the circles given
by x2 + y2  14x + 6y + 33 = 0 ... (1)
and x + y  30x  2y + 1 = 0
2 2
... (2)
and find the internal and external centres of similitude.
Solution : Centres of the given circles are C1 = (7, 3) and C2 = (15, 1) and radii of given circles are
r1 = 5, r2 = 15.
Now C1C 2  (7  15) 2  (3  1) 2  10 5 .

r1 + r2 = 20
 C1C2 > r1 + r2 (' C1C 2  500 , r1  r2  400 )
 Four common tangents exist for the given circles (by 1.5.6 sub case(i))
Now r1 : r2 = 5 : 15 = 1 : 3.
The internal centre of similitude
 (3) (7)  (1)(15) (3) (3)  (1) (1) 
  , 
 3 1 3 1 
3 
  ,  2
2 
The external centre of similitude
 (3) (7)  (1) (15) 3(3)  (1) (1) 
  , 
 3 1 3 1 
= (18, 5).
2. Problem : Prove that the circles
x2 + y2  8x  6y + 21 = 0
and x2 + y2  2y  15 = 0
have exactly two common tangents. Also find the point of intersection of those tangents
Solution : Let C1, C2 be the centres and r1, r2 be the radii of circles given by (1) and (2) respectively. Then
C1 = (4, 3), C2 = (0, 1); r1 = 2 and r2 = 4.
 C1C 2  20  2 5
|r1  r2| = |2  4| = 2 and r1 + r2 = 6.
|r1  r2| < C1 C2 < r1 + r2 (' 4  20  36 )
 Given circles intersect each other and have exactly two common tangents.
Now r1 : r2 = 2 : 4 = 1 : 2.
The external centre of similitude is
 8  0 6 1 
 ,   (8,5) .
 2 1 2 1 
Thus the point of intersection of common tangents is (8, 5).
3. Problem : Show that the circles x2 + y2  4x  6y  12 = 0 ... (1)
and x2 + y2  6x  18y  26 = 0 ... (2)
touch each other. Also find the point of contact and common tangent at this point of contact.
Solution : Let C1, C2 be the centres of the circles (1) and (2) and r1, r2 be the radii of these circles. Then
C1 = (2, 3), C2 = (3, 9); r1 = 5, r2 = 8.
Circle 67
Now C1C 2  ( 2  3) 2  (3  9) 2  13
r1 + r2 = 5 + 8 = 13
 C1C 2  r1  r2 .
 The given circles touch each other externally.
The point of contact P(x1, y1) divides C1C 2 in the ratio r1 : r2 = 5 : 8.
 16  15 24  45 
 P( x1 , y1 )   , 
 85 85 
 1  21 
  , 
 13 13 
The common tangent at this point of contact is
1  21   1  21 
x    y    2 x    3 y    12  0
 13   13   13   13 
i.e., 5x + 12y + 19 = 0.
4. Problem : Show that the circles x2 + y2  4x  6y  12 = 0. ... (1)
and 5(x + y )  8x  14y  32 = 0
2 2
... (2)
touch each other and find their point of contact.
4 7
Solution : Here the centres of (1) and (2) are C1 = (2, 3), C2 =  ,  . The radii of (1) and (2) are r1 = 5,
5 5
r2 = 3 and C1C 2 = 2.
Note that C1C 2 = |r1  r2|
Hence the circles (1) and (2) are touch each other internally. The point of contact P divides C1C 2 in the
ratio 5 : 3 externally.
 4 7
 (3) (2)  5  (3)(3)  5  
P 5, 5
 35 35 
 
 
= (1, 1).
Thus the point of contact of the given circles is (1, 1).
Now we shall derive the combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn from an external point to a circle.
1.5.8 Theorem : The combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn from an external point P(x1, y1)
to the circle S = 0 is SS11 = S12 .
Proof Y
Suppose that the tangents drawn from A

P to the circle S = 0 touch the circle at A and B
(see Fig. 1.61). P
The equation of AB is S1 = 0.
B
Q(x2, y2)
X
O
Fig. 1.61
i.e. xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f (y + y1) + c = 0 ... (1)
Let Q(x2, y2) be any point on these tangents. Now the locus of Q will be the equation of pair
of tangents drawn from P.
The segment PQ is divided by the line AB (whose equation is S1 = 0) in the ratio S11 : S12
 PB : QB =  S11 : S12 or S11 : S12
according as S11 S12 < 0 or S11 S12 > 0
PB S
  11 ... (2)
QB S12
But PB  S11 and QB  S22 (lengths of tangents from P and Q)
PB S11
  ... (3)
QB S22
2
S11 S
2
 11
S12 S22
S11 S22 = S12
2
Hence the locus of Q(x2, y2) is

2
S11 S = S1 .

1. Problem : Find the equation of the pair of tangents from (10, 4) to the circle x2 + y2 = 25.
Solution : Here (x1, y1) = (10, 4). By Theorem 1.5.8, the equation of the pair of tangents is
given by (100 + 16  25) (x2 + y2  25) = (10x + 4y  25)2
i.e., 9x2 + 80xy  75y2  500x  200y + 2900 = 0.
Circle 69
2. Problem : Find the equations to all possible common tangents of the circles
x2 + y2  2x  6y + 6 = 0 ... (1)
and x2 + y2 =1 ... (2)
Solution : Let C1, C2 be the centres and r1, r2 be the radii of the circles given by (1) and (2). Then
C1 = (1, 3); C2 = (0, 0); r1 = 2 ; r2 = 1. Here C1C2  10 , r1 + r2 = 3, |C1C2| > r1 + r2 and r1  r2.
1 
Here there exist four common tangents. The centres of similitudes are  , 1 and (1, 3). The
3 
required common tangents are given by
2
1  x 
( x 2  y 2  1)   1  1    y  1 ... (3)
9  3 
and (x2 + y2  1) (1 + 9  1) = (x  3y  1)2 ... (4)
Equation (3) is equivalent to
4y2 + 3xy  3x  9y + 5 = 0
i.e., (y  1) (4y + 3x  5) = 0 ... (5)
Now equation (4) can be expressed as
(x + 1) (4x  3y  5) = 0 ... (6)
From equations (5) and (6), we get the equations of common tangents as y  1 = 0,
3x + 4y  5 = 0, x + 1 = 0 and 4x  3y  5 = 0.
Exercise 1(e)
I. 1. Discuss the relative position of the following pair of circles

(i) x2 + y2  4x  6y  12 = 0, (ii) x2 + y2 + 6x + 6y + 14 = 0,
x2 + y2 + 6x + 18y + 26 = 0 x2 + y2  2x  4y  4 = 0
(iii) (x  2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 9, (iv) x2 + y2  2x + 4y  4 = 0
(x + 1)2 + (y  3)2 = 4 x2 + y2 + 4x  6y  3 = 0
2. Find the number of possible common tangents that exist for the following pairs of circles.
(i) x2 + y2 + 6x + 6y + 14 = 0, (ii) x2 + y2  4x  2y + 1 = 0,
x2 + y2  2x  4y  4 = 0 x2 + y2  6x  4y + 4 = 0
(iii) x2 + y2  4x + 2y  4 = 0 (iv) x2 + y2 = 4,
x2 + y2 + 2x  6y + 6 = 0 x2 + y2  6x  8y + 16 = 0
(v) x2 + y2 + 4x  6y  3 = 0
x2 + y2 + 4x  2y + 4 = 0.
3. Find the internal centre of similitude for the circles
x2 + y2 + 6x  2y + 1 = 0 and x2 + y2  2x  6y + 9 = 0
4. Find the external centre of similitude for the circles
x2 + y2  2x  6y + 9 = 0 and x2 + y2 = 4.
II. 1. (i) Show that the circles x2 + y2  6x  2y + 1 = 0, x2 + y2  2x  8y + 13 = 0 touch each other.
Find the point of contact and the equation of common tangent at their point of contact.
(ii) Show that x2 + y2  6x  9y + 13 = 0, x2 + y2  2x  16y = 0 touch each other. Find the point
of contact and the equation of common tangent at their point of contact.
2. Find the equation of the circle which touches the circle x2 + y2  2x  4y  20 = 0 externally at (5, 5)
with radius 5.
3. Find the direct common tangents of the circles x2 + y2  22x  4y  100 = 0 and
x2 + y2  22x  4y + 100 = 0.
4. Find the transverse common tangents of the circles x2 + y2  4x  10y + 28 = 0 and
x2 + y2  4x  6y + 4 = 0.
5. Find the pair of tangents from (4, 10) to the circle x2 + y2 = 25.
6. Find the pair of tangents drawn from (0, 0) to x2 + y2  10x  10y + 40 = 0.
III. 1. Find the equation of the circle which touches x2 + y2  4x  6y  12 = 0 at (1, 1) internally with a
radius of 2.
2. Find all common tangents of the following pairs of circles.
(i) x2 + y2 = 9 and x2 + y2  16x  2y + 49 = 0
(ii) x2 + y2 + 4x + 2y  4 = 0 and x2 + y2  4x  2y + 4 = 0.
3. Find the pair of tangents drawn from (3, 2) to the circle x2 + y2  6x  4y  2 = 0.
4. Find the pair of tangents drawn from (1, 3) to the circle x2 + y2  2x  4y  11 = 0 and also find the angle
between them.
5. Find the pair of tangents from the origin to the circle x2 + y2  2gx  2fy + c = 0 and hence deduce a
condition for these tangents to be perpendicular.
6. From a point on the circle x2 + y2  2gx  2fy + c = 0 two tangents are drawn to the circle
x2 + y2  2gx  2fy + c sin2 + (g2 + f 2) cos2 = 0 (0 <  < /2). Prove that the angle between them
is 2.
Circle 71
Key Concepts
v The locus of a point in a plane such that its distance from a fixed point in the plane is always the same is
called a circle.
v The equation of a circle with centre (h1k) and radius r is (x  h)2 + (y  k)2 = r2
v The equation of a circle in standard form is x2 + y2 = r2
v The equation of a circle in general form is x2 + y2 + 2gx  2fy  c = 0 and its centre is (g, f ), radius
is g 2  f 2  c.
v The intercept made by x2 + y2 + 2gx  2fy  c = 0
(i) on X-axis is 2 g 2  c if g2 > c
(ii) on Y-axis is 2 f 2  c of f 2 > c.
v If the extremities of a diameter of a circle are (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) then its equation is
(x  x1) (x  x2) + (y  y1) (y  y2) = 0
v The equation of a circle passing through three non- collinear points (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is
x1 y1 1 c1 y1 1 x1 c1 1 x1 y1 c1
x2 y 2 1 ( x 2  y 2 )  c2 y2 1 x  x2 c2 1 y  x2 y2 c2  0.
x3 y3 1 c3 y3 1 x3 c3 1 x3 y3 c3
where ci   ( xi2  yi2 )

v The centre of the circle passing through three non- collinear points (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is
 c1 y1 1 x1 c1 1 
 
 c2 y 2 1 x2 c2 1 
 c3 y3 1 x3 c3 1 
 , 
 x1 y1 1 x1 y1 1 
 
 (2) x2 y2 1 (2) x2 y 2 1 
 x3 y3 1 x3 y3 1 
 
v The parametric equations of a circle with centre (h, k) and radius (r > 0) are given by
x = h + r cos 
y = k + r sin  0 <  < 2
v A point P(x1, y1) is an interior point or on the circumference or an exterior point of a circle
S = 0  S11  0.

v The power of P(x1, y1) with respect to the circle S = 0 is S11.
v A point P(x1, y1) is an interior point or on the circumference or exterior point of the circle S = 0  the
power of P with respect to S = 0 is negative, zero and positive.
v If a straight line through a point P(x1, y1) meets the circle S = 0 at A and B then the power of P is equal
to PA . PB.
v The length of the tangent from P(x1, y1) to S = 0 is S11 .
v The straight line L = 0 intersects, touches or does not meet the circle S = 0 according as
l < r, l = r or l > r where l is the perpendicular distance from the centre of the circle to the line L = 0
and r is the radius.
2
v For every real value of m the straight line y = mx + r 1  m is a tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = r2.
v If r is the radius of the circle S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 then for every real value of m the straight
line
y + f = m(x + g) + r 1  m 2
will be a tangent to the circle.
v If P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) are two points on the circle S = 0 then the secants ( PQ ) equation is
S1 + S2 = S12.
v The equation of tangent at (x1, y1) of the circle S = 0 is S1 = 0.
v If 1, 2 are two points on S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 then the equation of the chord joining the
points 1, 2 is
        
( x  g ) cos  1 2   ( y  f ) sin  1 2   r cos 1 2 
 2   2   2 
v The equation of the tangent at  of the circle S = 0 is (x + g) cos  + (y + f ) sin  = r.
v The equation of normal at (x1, y1) of the circle
S = 0 is (x  x1) (y1  f )  (y  y1) (x1 + g) = 0.
v The chord of contact of P(x1, y1) (exterior point) with respect to S = 0 is S1 = 0.
v The equation of the polar of a point P(x1, y1) with respect to S = 0 is S1 = 0.
Circle 73
v P(x1, y1) Tangent at P Chord of contact at P Polar of P

Interior Does not Does not exist S1 = 0
of the circle exist (not defined) (P is different from
the centre of the circle)
on the circle S1 = 0 S1 = 0 S1 = 0
Exterior of Does not
the circle exist S1 = 0 S1 = 0
v The pole of lx + my + n = 0 with respect to S = 0 is
 lr 2 mr 2 
  g  lg  mf  n ,  f  lg  mf  n 
where r is the radius of the circle.

v The polar of P(x1, y1) with respect to S = 0 passes through Q(x2, y2)  the polar of Q with respect to
S = 0 passes through P.
v The points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are conjugate points with respect to S = 0 if S12 = 0.
v Two lines l1x + m1y + n1 = 0, l2x + m2y + n2 = 0 are conjugate with respect to
x2 + y2 = a2  a2(l1l2 + m1m2) = n1n2.
v Two points P, Q are said to be inverse points with respect to S = 0 if CP. CQ = r2 where C is the centre
and r is radius of the circle S = 0.
v If (x1, y1) is the mid-point of a chord of the circle S = 0 then its chord equation is S1 = S11.
v The pair of common tangents to the circles S = 0, S = 0 touching at a point on the line segment C1C 2
(C1, C2 are centres of the circles) is called transverse pair of common tangents.
v The pair of common tangents to the circles S = 0, S = 0 intersecting at a point not in C1C 2 is called as
direct pair of common tangents.
v The point of intersection of transverse (direct) common tangents is called internal (external) Centre of
similitude.
v Situation No.of common tangents
1. C1C 2 > r1 + r2 4
2. r1 + r2 = C1C 2 3
3. |r1  r2 | < C1C 2 < r1 + r2 2
4. C1C2 = |r1  r2 | 1
5. C1C2 < |r1  r2 | 0
v The combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn from an external point P(x1, y1) to the circle
S = 0 is SS11 = S12.
Historical Note
It is not easy to trace the origin of the studies on circle. Babylonians, ancient Egyptians, Greeks,
Chinese and Indians contributed to the studies on circle to begin with.
Probably the first writings about the circle and the circular shapes are in Rigveda. For construction of
Yagna Vedikas - sacrifical altars, many geometrical shapes were in use. These are referred to in sulbasutras.
Ever since the shape of a circle was identified there were attempts to find the circumferences and areas of
the circles.
Answers
Exercise 1(a)
I. 1. (i) x2 + y2  4x + 6y  3 = 0 (ii) x2 + y2  2x  4y  20 = 0
(iii) x2 + y2  2ax + 2by  2ab = 0 (iv) x2 + y2  2ax + 2by b2 = 0

(v) x2 + y2  2x cos  2y sin  = 0 (vi) x2 + y2  14x + 6y  42 = 0
(vii) 4x2 + 4y2  4x + 72y  225 = 0 (viii) 36x2 + 36y2  180x + 96y  1007 = 0
(ix) 4x2 + 4y2  8x  56y  175 = 0 (x) x2 + y2  81 = 0
2. x2 + y2  8x + 6y = 0 3. x2 + y2  4x  6y  3 = 0
4. x2 + y2  13 = 0 5. x2 + y2  6x  8y  11 = 0
6. a = 2, radius = 21 / 4
 5 1
7. a = 3; b = 0; radius = 65 / 6 , center =  ,   .
6 3
8. g =  2; f = 3; radius = 5 9. g = 4; f = 3; radius = 5
10. c = 23
5 
11. (i) centre = (2, 4); radius = 61 (ii) centre =  , 1 ; radius = 13 / 6
6 
4
(iii) centre = (1, 2) ; radius = (iv) centre = (3, 4); radius = 11
3
Circle 75
 3 19 3 1 21
(v) centre = 1,   ; radius = (vi) centre  ,   ; radius =
 2 2 4 2 4
 c mc 

(vii) centre =  ,  ; radius = c
2 
 1 m 1  m2 
(viii) centre = (a, b); radius = a.
12. (i) x2 + y2  5x  8y + 16 = 0 (ii) x2 + y2  x  y  24 = 0
(iii) x2 + y2  9x  8y + 20 = 0 (iv) x2 + y2  5x  7y + 14 = 0
(v) x2 + y2  10x  2y + 6 = 0 (vi) x2 + y2  3x  1 = 0
(vii) x2 + y2  8x  5y = 0 (viii) x2 + y2  5x  8y + 13 = 0.
13. (i) x = 2cos , y = 2 sin , 0 <  < 2
3 3
(ii) x = cos ; y  sin , 0 <  < 2
2 2
7 7
(iii) x  cos , y  sin , 0 <  < 2
2 2
(iv) x = 3 + 8 cos , y = 4 + 8 sin , 0 <  < 2
(v) x = 2 + 5 cos , y =  + 5 sin , 0 <  < 2
(vi) x = 3 + 5 cos , y = 2 + 5 sin , 0 <  < 2
II. 1. x2 + y2  2ax  2py  (b2 + q2) = 0 2. (i) (1, 3) (ii) (5, 12)
3. x2 + y2  2x  2y  23 = 0 4. x2 + y2  6x  8y  15 = 0
5. x2 + y2  6x  4y  156 = 0 6. 3(x2 + y2)  14x  67 = 0
III. 1. (i) x2 + y2  4x  6y  11 = 0 (ii) x2 + y2  22x  4y  25 = 0
(iii) x2 + y2  x  12y  5 = 0 (iv) 3(x2 + y2)  29x  19y + 56 = 0
(v) x2 + y2  2x  2y = 0
2. (i) x2 + y2  4x  3y = 0 (ii) x2 + y2  6x  4y = 0
14
4. c =
3
5. (i) x2 + y2  17x  19y  50 = 0 (ii) x2 + y2  12x  12y  7 = 0
(iii) 49(x2 + y2)  280 x  259y  245 = 0 (iv) x2 + y2  24x  16y  52 = 0.
Exercise 1(b)
I. 1. (i) interior (ii) exterior (iii) exterior (iv) exterior

2. (i) 44 (ii) 0 (iii) 10 (iv) 24
3. (i) 2 (ii) 5 (iii) 34
II. 1. k = 5 (2) k = 2
III. 1. 5(x2 + y2)  60x  126y  212 = 0 2. 4x + 6y + 9 = 0
Exercise 1(c)
I. 1. (i) 4x  3y  43 = 0 (ii) 4x  3y  7 = 0
(iii) 2x  3y  39 = 0 (iv) x  y  7 = 0
2. (i) xy1=0 (ii) 2x  y  11 = 0
(iii) 11x  13y + 28 = 0 (iv) y = 2
II. 1. 4 6 2. 2 7
3. 2 a 2  p 2 4. x2 + y2  4x  6y  12 = 0
5. x2 + y2  6x  8y  16 = 0 6. x = 4  5 , x = 4  5
7. x + 3y  10 = 0
x  3y  10 = 0
a 2b 2 1 1 1
III. 1. AB  2 c 2  2 2
condition is 2  2  2
(a  b ) a b c
3. x2 + y2  4x  6y  8 = 0 4. 5x + y  17 = 0, x  5y  7 = 0
Circle 77
5. 2x  y  1 = 0 ; x + 2y  3 = 0
6. (5, 1) 7. (1, 1) 8. x + y + 1 + 5 2 = 0
9. x + 3y  2 + 5 2 = 0 10. x  y  + 2 5 = 0 11. x2 + y2  2x  4y  3 = 0
12. x2 + y2  2x  4y  4 = 0 or 25(x2 + y2)  26x + 68y + 44 = 0
13. (2, 3)
Exercise 1(d)
I. 1. g2 + f 2 = 2c 2. 5x  14y  16 = 0 3. x + y  9 = 0
4. x + 2y  7 = 0 5. 6x  2y = 11 6. 4x + 7y  30 = 0
  ar 2  br 2 
7.  c , c  8. (6, 8) 9. (2, 3)
 
12. 2 13. 2 14. 11
28
15. .
3
7 7 
II. 1. Cos 1 ( ) 2. Cos 1 ( ) 3.
8 25 2
4. x2 + y2 = a2 cosec2(/2) 5. x2 + y2  2a2 = 0
6. Slope = 1, distance = 6 2 7. 29
 109 9  108 2
III. 1.  ,  3.
 76 38  17
4. x2 + y2  3x + y  4 = 0 5. 2(x2 + y2) + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
Exercise 1(e)
I 1. (i) touch each other (ii) each lies on the exterior of the other
(iii) touch each other (iv) Cut each other in two points
2. (i) 4 (ii) 2 (iii) 3
(iv) 3 (v) 0
5
3. (0, ) 4. (2, 6)
2
 3 14 
II. 1. (i)  ,  , 4x  3y + 6 = 0 (ii) (5, 1), 4x  7y  13 = 0
5 5 
2. x2 + y2  18x  16y  120 = 0
3. 3x + 4y  50 = 0, 7x  24y  250 = 0
4. x  1 = 0, 3x + 4y  21 = 0
5. 75x2  9y2  80xy + 200x + 500y  2900 = 0
6. 3x2  10xy + 3y2 = 0.
III. 1. 5x2  5y2  2x + 6y  18 = 0
2. (i) 4x  3y  15 = 0, 12x + 5y  39 = 0
y  3 = 0, 16x + 63y  195 = 0
(ii) y  2 = 0, 4x  3y  10 = 0
x  1 = 0, 3x  4y  5 = 0
3. x2  15y2  6x + 60y  51 = 0
1  7 
4. 9x2  16y2  18x + 96y  135 = 0, Cos  
 25 
5. (gx + fy)2 = c(x2 + y2); g2 + f 2 = 2c.
System of Circles 79
All mans miseries derive from not being able to sit

quietly in a room alone
- Blaise Pascal
Introduction
In this chapter, we shall discuss the angle

between two intersecting circles and obtain a
condition for their orthogonality. Also, we shall learn
about the radical axis of two circles, its properties,
common chord, common tangent of two circles and
the radical centre.
Ptolemy
(ca. 83 - 161)
2.1 Angle between two intersecting circles
Ptolemy, was a Greek -Egyptian
mathematician, geographer,
We have learnt that two circles will intersect
astronomer, and astrologer who
each other if the distance between their centres lies flourished in Alexandria, Roman
between the absolute value of the difference of their Egypt. The first notable value of 
after that of Archimedes, was given
radii and the sum of their radii. For such circles we by Ptolemy of Alexandria, as 377/
define the angle between them. 120 i.e., 3.1416. His famous book
was Almagest.
2.1.1 Definition T1
Y
T2
The angle between two intersecting circles is defined
as the angle between the tangents at the point of intersection
P
of the two circles (see Fig. 2.1)
T1 Pˆ T2 is the angle between the circles at P.

X
O
Fig. 2.1
2.1.2 Note
If two circles S = 0, S’ = 0 intersect at P and Q then the angle between the two circles at
the points P and Q are equal.
2.1.3 Theorem : If (i) C1, C2 are the centres of two given intersecting circles (ii) d = C1 C2
(iii) r1, r2 are radii of these circles (iv)  is the angle between these circles, then
d 2  r12  r22
cos  = .
2r1r2
Proof : Let P be a point of intersection of two given circles. Let the Y
tangents drawn to two circles at P intersect the line joining the centres
P
at T1 and T2 (see Fig. 2.2). Then T1PT2 = . r1 r2
Consider C1PC2 = C1PT2 + T2PC2 C1 T1 T2 C2
Q
= 900 + 900 
X
= 1800  O
Fig. 2.2
From C1PC2, we have
2
C1C2 = C1P2 + C2P2  2(C1P) (C2P) cos C1PC2
2
i.e., d = r12 + r22  2r1r2 cos(1800 )
d 2  r12  r22
 cos  = .
2r1r2
Note that cos  is independent of the point of intersection (coordinates of the point of intersection
are not involved). Therefore, the angle at Q is also equal to .
2.1.4 Theorem : If  is the angle between the intersecting circles
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
and x2 + y2 + 2g'x + 2f 'y + c' = 0 ... (2)
c  c  2 gg   2 ff 
then cos  = .
2 g  f 2 c
2
g 2  f 2  c
Proof : Let C1, C2 be the centres and r1, r2 be the radii of the two given circles (1) and (2). Then
C1 = (g, f ); C2 = (g', f '); r1 = g 2  f 2  c ; r2 = g2  f 2  c .

By Theorem 2.1.3, we have
( g   g ) 2  ( f   f )2  ( g 2  f 2  c)  ( g 2  f 2  c)
cos  =
2 g2  f 2  c g 2  f 2  c
c  c  2 gg  2 ff 
i.e., cos  =
2 g2  f 2  c g2  f 2  c

1. Problem: Find the angle between the circles
x2 + y2 + 4x  14y + 28 = 0 ... (1)
x2 + y2  4x  5 = 0 ... (2)
Solution : Here g = 2; f = 7; c = 28; g' = 2; f ' = 0; c' = 5.
Let  be the angle between the circles (1) and (2). Then by Theorem 2.1.4. we have
28  5  2(2) (2)  2( 7) (0)

cos  =
2 4  49  28 4  0  5
= 1/2
 = 60o.
Hence the angle between the two given circles (1) and (2) is 60o.
2. Problem: If the angle between the circles
x2 + y2 12x 6y + 41 = 0 ... (1)
and x + y + kx + 6y 59 = 0
2 2
... (2)
is 45o find k.
k
Solution: Here g = 6; f = 3; c = 41; g' = ; f ' = 3; c' = 59.
2
Given that = 45o.
 By Theorem 2.1.4, we have
k
41  59  2(6)    2(3) (3)
2
cos 450 =
k2
2 36  9  41  9  59
4
1 3k
i.e., 
2 k2
2  68
4
 k = +4.
2.1.6 Definition
Two intersecting circles are said to be orthogonal if the angle between them
is a right angle (i.e., 900)
2.1.7 Condition for orthogonality

Let the two intersecting circles be given by
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
and x2 + y2 + 2g'x + 2f 'y + c' = 0 ... (2)
These two circles are orthogonal
c  c  2 gg  2 ff 
 =0 (By Theorem 2.1.4)
2 2 2 2
2 g  f c g  f   c
 2(gg' + ff ') = c + c'.

Thus, the condition for orthogonality of the two intersecting circles (1) and (2) is
2(gg' + ff ') = c + c'
2.1.8 Note
(i) Two intersecting circles are orthogonal if and only if the square of the distance between their
centres is equal to the sum of the squares of their radii. In this case, a tangent of one circle at the
point of intersection will be normal to the other circle and hence it passes through the centre of the
other circle.
(ii) If two circles are orthogonal, then d2 = r12 + r22 where d is the distance between the centres of the
circles and r1, r2 are their radii.
2.1.9 Theorem
(i) if S =0 S' = 0 are two circles intersecting at two distinct points, then S  S' = 0 (or S'  S = 0)
represents a common chord of these circles.
(ii) if S =0 S' = 0 are two circles touching each other, then S  S' = 0 (or S'  S = 0) is a common
tangent.
Proof : Let
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...(1)
and S'  x2 + y2 + 2g'x + 2f 'y + c' = 0 ...(2)
(i) Let P(x1, y1), Q(x2, y2) be the points of intersection of (1) and (2).
Consider S  S' = 0
2(g  g' ) x + 2(f f ' )y + (c  c' ) = 0 ... (3)
Clearly the points P, Q lie on (3), since S11 = 0, S22 = 0, S'11 = 0, S'22 = 0.
Further, the equation (3) is linear in x and y and hence it represents a line. Therefore
S  S' = 0 is the equation of common chord of circles (1) and (2).
(ii) Let (1) and (2) touch each other at P(x1, y1)
Consider S  S' = 0
i.e., 2(g  g' ) x + 2(f  f ' )y + (c  c' ) = 0 ...(3)
( g  g )
P(x1, y1) is a point on (3) and it represents a line and the slope of (3) is = 
( f  f )
 f  f .
The slope of the line joining the centres of the circles =
 g  g
Thus the line given by (3) is perpendicular to the line of centres and it passes through the point of
contact of the two circles. Hence it is a common tangent.
2.1.10 Theorem
(i) If
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
and
L  lx + my + n = 0 ... (2)
are the equations of a circle and a straight line respectively intersecting each other, then
S + kL = 0 represents a circle passing through the points of intersection of S = 0 and L = 0 for all
real values of k.
(ii) If
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
and
S'  x2 + y2 + 2g' x + 2g' y + c' = 0 ... (3)
are the equations of two intersecting circles,  and  are any real numbers such that +   0,
then  S+S' = 0 represents a circle passing through the points of intersection of (1) and (3).
Proof
(i) Let P(x1, y1) be one of the points of intersection of (1) and (2).
Clearly for any real number k
S + kL  (x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c) + k( lx + my + n) = 0
passes through P(x1, y1). Hence S + kL = 0 represents a circle for any real number k
(problem 10 of 1.1.7)
(ii) Let
L  S  S' = 0 ... (4)
By Theorem 2.1.9 (i) and (ii), L is the common chord or tangent.
Consider
S + S' = 0 ... (5)
where  are any real numbers such that   0
Clearly it passes through the points of intersection of (1) and (3). Further equation (5)
is equivalent to
S + kL = 0 ... (6)

where k= .
(   )
Now S + kL = 0 represents a circle, hence S + S' = 0 represents a circle. Hence the theorem.
2.1.11 Note
(i) The equation S + S' = 0 can also be written as S + kS' = 0. For, since   0, we can assume

that   0 and hence we can express S + S' = 0 by S + kS' = 0 where k   1.

(ii) If k = 1 then S + kS' = S S' = 0 represents a line passing through the points of intersection of the
circles S = 0 and S' = 0. In this case it is the common chord.
(iii) If the circles S = 0 and S' = 0 touch each other i.e., the points of intersection coincide, then
S S' = 0 is a common tangent to the circles.
1. Problem : Find the equation of the circle which passes through (1, 1) and cuts orthogonally each of
the circles
x2 + y2  8x  2y + 16 = 0 ... (1)
and
x2 + y2  4x  4y  1 = 0. ... (2)
Solution : Let the equation of the required circle be
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (3)
Then the circle (3) is orthogonal to (1) and (2).
 By applying the condition of orthogonality given in 2.1.7, we get
2g(4) + 2f(1) = c + 16 ... (4)
and
2g (2) + 2f(2) = c  1 ... (5)
Given that the circle (3) is passing through (1, 1)
 12 + 12 + 2g(1) + 2f(1) + c = 0
2g + 2f + c + 2 = 0 ... (6)
Solving (4), (5) and (6) for g, f and c, we get
7 23
g , f  , c  5
3 6
Thus the equation of the required circle is
3(x2 + y2)  14x + 23y  15 = 0.
2. Problem : Find the equation of the circle which is orthogonal to each of the following three circles
x2 + y2 + 2x + 17y + 4 = 0 ... (1)
x2 + y2 + 7x + 6y + 11 = 0 ... (2)
and x2 + y2  x + 22y + 3 = 0 ... (3)
Solution : Let the equation of the required circle be
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (4)
Since this circle is orthogonal to (1), (2) and (3), by applying the condition of orthogonality given
in 2.1.7, we have
 17 
2(g)(1) + 2(f )   = c + 4 ... (5)
 2
 7
2(g)   + 2(f )(3) = c + 11 ... (6)
 2
and
 1
2( g)    2( f )(11)  c  3 ... (7)
 2
Solving (5), (6) and (7) for g, f, c we get g = 3, f = 2 and c = 44.
Thus the equation of the required circle is x2 + y2  6x  4y  44 = 0.
3. Problem : If the straight line represented by
x cos  + y sin  = p ... (1)
intersects the circle
x2 + y2 = a2 ... (2)
at the points A and B, then show that the equation of the circle with AB as diameter is
(x2 + y2  a2)  2p(x cos  + y sin  p) = 0.
Solution : The equation of the circle passing through the points A and B is (by Theorem 2.1.10(i))
(x2 + y2  a2) + (x cos + y sin p) = 0 ... (3)
The centre of this circle is
  cos   sin  
 , .
 2 2 
If the circle given by (3) has AB as diameter then the centre of it must lie on (1).
 cos   sin 
  (cos  )  (sin  ) = p.
2 2

i.e.,  (cos2 + sin2 ) = p
2
i.e., = 2p.
(x2 + y2  a2)  2p (x cos  + y sin  p) = 0.

4. Problem : Find the equation of the circle passing through the points of intersection of the circles
x2 + y2  8x  6y + 21 = 0 ... (1)
x2 + y2  2x  15 = 0 ... (2)
and (1, 2).
Solution : The equation of circle passing through the points of intersection of (1) and (2) is
(x2 + y2  8x  6y + 21) + (x2 + y2  2x  15) = 0 ... (3)
If it passes through (1, 2), we obtain
(1 + 4  8  12 + 21) + (1 + 4  2  15) = 0
i.e., 6 + (12) = 0
i.e., = 1/2
1 2 2
( x2 + y2  8x  6y + 21) + (x + y  2x  15) = 0
2
i.e., 3(x2 + y2)  18x  12y + 27 = 0.
Exercise 2(a)
I. 1. Find k if the following pairs of circles are orthogonal

(i) x2 + y2 + 2by  k = 0, x2 + y2 + 2ax + 8 = 0.
(ii) x2 + y2  6x  8y + 12 = 0, x2 + y2  4x + 6y + k = 0
(iii) x2 + y2  5x  14y  34 = 0, x2 + y2 + 2x + 4y + k = 0
(iv) x2 + y2 + 4x + 8 = 0, x2 + y2  16y + k = 0
2. Find the angle between the circles given by the equations

(i) x2 + y2  12x  6y + 41 = 0, x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y  59 = 0.
(ii) x2 + y2 + 6x  10y  135 = 0, x2 + y2  4x + 14y  116 = 0.
3
3. Show that the angle between the circles x2 + y2 = a2, x2 + y2 = ax + ay is .
4
4. Show that the circles given by the following equations intersect each other orthogonally
(i) x2 + y2  2x  2y  7 = 0, 3x2 + 3y2  8x + 29y = 0.
(ii) x2 + y2 + 4x  2y  11 = 0, x2 + y2  4x  8y + 11 = 0
(iii) x2 + y2  2x + 4y + 4 = 0, x2 + y2 + 3x + 4y + 1 = 0
(iv) x2 + y2  2lx + g = 0, x2 + y2 + 2my  g = 0
II. 1. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the origin and intersects the circles
below, orthogonally
(i) x2 + y2  4x + 6y + 10 = 0, x2 + y2 + 12y + 6 = 0.
(ii) x2 + y2  4x  6y  3 = 0, x2 + y2  8y + 12 = 0
2. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the point (0, 3) and intersects the
circles given by the equations x2 + y2  6x + 3y + 5 = 0 and x2 + y2  x  7y = 0 orthogonally.
3. Find the equation of the circle passing through the origin, having its centre on the line
x + y = 4 and intersecting the circle x2 + y2  4x + 2y + 4 = 0 orthogonally.
4. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (2, 0), (0, 2) and orthogonal to
the circle 2x2 + 2y2 + 5x  6y + 4 = 0.
5. Find the equation of the circle which cuts orthogonally the circle
x2 + y2  4x + 2y  7 = 0 and having the centre at (2, 3).
III. 1. Find the equation of the circle which intersects the circle x2 + y2  6x + 4y  3 = 0 orthogonally
and passes through the point (3, 0) and touches Y-axis.
2. Find the equation of the circle which cuts the circles x2 + y2  4x  6y + 11 = 0 and
x2 + y210x  4y + 21=0 orthogonally and has the diameter along the straight line 2x + 3y = 7.
3. If P, Q are conjugate points with respect to a circle S  x2 + y2  2gx + 2fy + c = 0 then prove
that the circle PQ as diameter cuts the circle S = 0 orthogonally.
4. If the equations of two circles whose radii are a, a' are S = 0 and S' = 0, then show that the
S S S S
circles   0 and   0 intersect orthogonally.
a a a a
5. Find the equation of the circle which intersects each of the following circles orthogonally.
(i) x2 + y2 + 2x + 4y + 1 = 0, x2 + y2  2x + 6y  3 = 0, 2(x2 + y2) + 6x + 8y  3 = 0
(ii) x2 + y2 + 4x + 2y + 1 = 0, 2(x2 + y2) + 8x + 6y  3 = 0, x2 + y2 + 6x  2y  3 = 0
6. If the straight line 2x + 3y = 1 intersects the circle x2 + y2 = 4 at the points A and B, then find
the equation of the circle having AB as diameter.
7. If x + y = 3 is the equation of the chord AB of the circle x2 + y2  2x + 4y  8 = 0, find the
equation of the circle having AB as diameter.
8. Find the equation of the circle passing through the intersection of the circles x2 + y2 = 2ax and
x y
x2 + y2 = 2by and having its centre on the line  = 2.
a b
2.2 Radical axis of two circles

In this section we shall define the radical axis of two circles and study its properties. Also we
discuss about the common chord, common tangent of two circles and the radical centre of three circles.
2.2.1 Definition
The radical axis of two circles is defined to be the locus of a point which moves so that its
powers with respect to the two circles are equal.
2.2.2 Theorem : If
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
and
S'  x2 + y2 + 2g'x + 2f 'y + c' = 0 ... (2)
are two non-concentric circles, then the radical axis of (1) and (2) is a straight line represented by
S  S' = 0.
i.e., 2(g  g')x + 2(f  f ' )y + (c  c' ) = 0 ... (3)
Proof : Let P(x1, y1) be a point on the radical axis. Then by the definition of radical axis, we have that
the powers of P(x1, y1) with respect to (1) and (2) are equal
x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c = x12 + y12 + 2g'x1 + 2f 'y1 + c'
(' The power of P(x1, y1) with respect to the circle S = 0 is S11)
i.e., 2(g  g')x1 + 2(f  f ' )y1 + (c c' ) = 0

Hence the equation of the locus of P(x1, y1) is
2(g  g')x + 2(f  f ' )y + (c  c' ) = 0 ...(3)
Note that this equation represents a straight line, since the circles are non-concentric and therefore
g  g' or f  f ' . Equation (3) can be written as S  S' = 0.
2.2.3 Note
(i) For the concentric circles with distinct radii, the radical axis does not exist, since there is no point
whose powers with respect to two distinct concentric circles are equal. However if their radii are
equal then the locus is the whole plane.
(ii) While using the formula S  S' = 0 to find the equation of the radical axis, first reduce the equations
of the circles to general form (if they are not in general form).
(iii) Whenever we consider the radical axis of two circles, it means that two circles are non-concentric.
2.2.4 Examples
1. Example : Let us find the equation of the radical axis of the circles
S  x2 + y2  5x + 6y + 12 = 0 ... (1)
and S'  x2 + y2 + 6x  4y  14 = 0 ... (2)
The given equations of circles are in general form. Therefore their radical axis is
(S  S' = 0)
i.e., 11x  10y  26 = 0.
2. Example : Let us find the equation of the radical axis of the circles
2x2 + 2y2 + 3x + 6y  5 = 0 ... (1)
and 3x + 3y  7x + 8y  11 = 0
2 2
... (2)
Here, the given equations of the circles are not in the general form. Reducing them into general
form, we get
3 5
x 2  y2 x  3 y   0,
2 2
7 8 11
and x2  y2  x  y  0
3 3 3
Now the equation of radical axis of given circles is
3 7  8  5 11 
  x  3  y       0
2 3  3  2 3
i.e., 23x + 2y + 7 = 0.
2.2.5 Theorem : The radical axis of any two circles is perpendicular to the line joining their centres.
Proof : Let the equations of two non-concentric circles be
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
and S'  x2 + y2 + 2g'x + 2f 'y + c' =0 ... (2)
Then (g, f )  (g', f ' ). The equation of the radical axis is
2(g  g')x + 2(f  f ' )y + c  c' = 0 ... (3)
 The slope of the radical axis
( g  g)
 
( f  f )
The slope of the line joining the centres is
f  f f  f
 
g  g g  g
Since (the slope of radical axis)  (slope of the line joining centres)
( g  g) ( f  f )
    1,
( f  f ) ( g  g)
the radical axis is perpendicular to the line joining the centres.
2.2.6 Theorem : If the centres of any three circles are non-collinear, then the radical axes
of each pair of the circles chosen from these three circles are concurrent.
Proof : Let the equations of three circles (whose centres are not collinear) be
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
S'  x2 + y2 + 2g'x + 2f 'y + c' =0 ... (2)
and S''  x2 + y2 + 2g''x + 2f ''y + c'' = 0 ... (3)
(see Fig. 2.3, the figure is drawn for the case of all centres lying in the first quadrant)
S=0 L1
Y
S' = 0
S'' = 0
L3 L2
X
O
Fig. 2.3
The radical axis L1(say) of (1) and (2) is

L1  2(g  g')x + 2(f  f ' )y + (c  c' ) = 0 ... (4)
Similarly the radical axis L2 (say) of (2) and (3) is
L2  2(g'  g'')x + 2(f '  f '' )y + (c'  c'' ) = 0 ... (5)
and the radical axis L3(say) of (3) and (1) is
L3  2(g''  g)x + 2(f ''  f )y + (c''  c) = 0 ... (6)
Now L1 + L2 + L3 = 0 gives that L1, L2 and L3 are concurrent.
2.2.7 Definition
The point of concurrence of the radical axes of each pair of the three circles whose centres are
not collinear is called the radical centre.
2.2.8 Note
The lengths of tangents from the radical centre to these three circles are equal.
2.2.9 Example
Let us find the radical centre of the circles
x2 + y2  2x + 6y = 0 ... (1)
x2 + y2  4x  2y + 6 = 0 ... (2)
and x + y  12x + 2y + 3 = 0
2 2
... (3)
The radical axis of (1) and (2); (2) and (3); (3) and (1) are respectively
x + 4y  3 =0 ... (4)
8x  4y + 3 = 0 ... (5)
10x + 4y  3 = 0 ... (6)
 3
Solving (4) and (5) for the point of intersection we get  0,  which is the required
 4
radical centre. Observe that the coordinates of this point satisfies (6) also.
2.2.10 Theorem : If the circle
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
cuts each of the two circles
S'  x2 + y2 + 2g'x + 2f 'y + c' = 0 ... (2)
and S  x + y + 2g''x + 2f ''y + c'' = 0
2 2
... (3)
orthogonally then the centre of S = 0 lies on the radical axis of S' = 0 and S'' = 0.
Proof : The radical axis of (2) and (3) is

2(g'  g'')x + 2(f '  f '' )y + (c'  c'' ) = 0 ... (4)
We shall prove that (g, f ) (which is the centre of S = 0) lies on (4).
Since the circles (1) and (2); (1) and (3) are orthogonal, we have
2gg' + 2f f ' = c + c' ... (5)
2gg'' + 2ff '' = c + c'' ... (6)
Subtracting (6) from (5), we get
2(g'  g'')g + 2(f '  f '' ) f = c'  c''
i.e., 2(g'  g'')(g) + 2(f '  f '' )(f ) + (c'  c'' ) = 0
Therefore (g, f ) lies on (4). Hence the centre of (1) lies on the radical axis of (2) and (3).
i.e., if any circle cuts two other circles orthogonally then the centre of the circle lies on the radical
axis of other two circles.
2.2.11 Theorem : The radical axis of two circles is
(i) the common chord when the two circles intersect at two distinct points.
(ii) the common tangent at the point of contact when the two circles touch each other.
Proof : Let the equations of two circles be
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
S'  x2 + y2 + 2g'x + 2f 'y + c' = 0 ... (2)
and the radical axis of these circles be L, then
L  S  S' = 2(g  g' )x + 2(f  f ' )y + c  c' = 0 ... (3)
(i) Let the circles given by (1) and (2) intersect at
Y
two distinct points P and Q (see Fig. 2.4)
P
By Theorem 2.1.9, S  S' = 0 is the common chord.
Hence (i) is proved.
Q
Common chord
X
O
Fig. 2.4
(ii) Let the two circles given by (1) and (2) touch each other at P (see Fig. 2.5, 2.6)
By Theorem 2.1.9 (ii) the common tangent is S  S' = 0 i.e., L = 0. Hence (ii) is proved.
Y Y
P(x1, y1) P(x1, y1)
Common
Common tangent
tangent
X X
O O
Fig. 2.5 Fig. 2.6
2.2.12 Theorem : The radical axis of any two circles (whose common tangent is not perpendicular to
the line join of their centres) bisects the line joining the points of contact of common tangent to the
circles.
Proof : Let
S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ... (1)
and S' = x2 + y2 + 2g'x + 2f 'y + c' = 0 ... (2)
be two circles and T1, T2 be the points of contact of common tangent to the circles S = 0 and
S' = 0 (see Fig. 2.7)
Y
We know that radical axis of two circles is
perpendicular to the line joining the centres of the circles T2
(by Theorem 2.2.5) and the common tangent is not P
perpendicular to the line joining the centres T1
Radical axis
(hypothesis). Therefore common tangent and radical
X
axis intersect at a point. O
Fig. 2.7
Let T1 T2 (common tangent) intersect the radical axis of (1) and (2) at P(x1, y1).
The powers of P with respect to the circles S = 0 and S' = 0 are equal. Therefore
PT1 . PT1 = PT2 . PT2 (by Theorem 1.2.11)
2 2
PT1 = PT2 .
i.e., PT1  PT2
i.e., P is the mid point of T1 and T2. Thus the radical axis of the two circles bisects each of their
common tangents (see Fig. 2.7)

1. Problem : Find the equation and length of the common chord of the two circles.
S  x2 + y2 + 3x + 5y + 4 = 0 ... (1)
and S'  x2 + y2 + 5x + 3y + 4 = 0 ... (2)
Solution: The common chord of two intersecting circles is Y
their radical axis (by Theorem 2.2.11(i)). ho
rd
c
on
 The equation of common chord is S  S' = 0. Co
mm
i.e., xy = 0 ... (3) X

C2 B O
The centre of the circle (1) is D
 3 5 3 A
C1 (say) =   ,   and radius r1 = C1
 2 2 2
(see Fig. 2.8)
C1D = length of the perpendicular from C1 to AB Fig. 2.8
3  5
   
2  2
=
(1) 2  (1) 2
1
=
2
Length of the common chord AB
= 2  AD
2 2
= 2 AC1  C1D
9 1
=2 2 2
= 4.
2. Problem : Show that the circles
S  x2 + y2  2x  4y  20 = 0 ... (1)
and S'  x2 + y2 + 6x + 2y  90 = 0 ... (2)
touch each other internally. Find their point of contact and the equation of common tangent.
Solution : Let C1, C2 be the centres and r1, r2 be the radii of the given circles (1) and (2).
Then C1 = (1, 2); C2 = (3, 1); r1 = 5; r2 = 10.
C1C2 = distance between the centres = 5

|r1  r2| = |5  10| = 5 = C1C2.
 The given two circles touch internally. In this case, the common tangent is nothing
but the radical axis (by Theorem 2.2.11(ii)). Therefore its equation is S  S' = 0.
i.e., 4x + 3y  35 = 0
Now we find the point of contact. The point of contact divides C1C 2 in the ratio 5 : 10
i.e., 1 : 2 (externally)
 Point of contact
 (1)(3)  2(1) (1)(1)  2(2) 
=  , 
 1 2 1 2 
= (5, 5).
3. Problem : Find the equation of the circle whose diameter is the common chord of the circles
S  x2 + y2 + 2x + 3y + 1 = 0 ... (1)
and S'  x2 + y2 + 4x + 3y + 2 = 0 ... (2)
Solution : Here the common chord is the radical axis of (1) and (2). The equation of the radical axis is
S  S' = 0.
i.e., 2x + 1 = 0 ...(3)
The equation of any circle passing through the points of intersection of (1) and (3) is
(S + L = 0)
(x2 + y2 + 2x + 3y + 1) + (2x + 1) = 0
x2 + y2 + 2(+ 1)x + 3y + (1 + ) = 0 ... (4)
 3
The centre of this circle is   (  1),  .
 2
For the circle (4), 2x + 1 = 0 is one chord. This chord will be a diameter of the circle (4)
if the centre of (4) lies on (3).
 2{(+ 1)} + 1 = 0
1
   .
2
Thus the equation of the circle whose diameter is the common chord of (1) and (2) is
1
(Put    in equation (4))
2
2(x2 + y2) + 2x + 6y + 1 = 0.
2.2.14 Theorem : Let S' = 0, S'' = 0, S''' = 0 be three circles whose centres are non-collinear and no two
circles of these are intersecting then the circle having
(i) radical centre of these circles as the centre and
(ii) length of the tangent from the radical centre to any one of these three circles as radius cuts the
given three circles orthogonally.
Proof : Let C be the radical centre of three given circles. As no two circles of given three circles are intersecting
the point C is exterior to these circles. Choose C as the origin. Let the equations of the three circles be
S'  x2 + y2 + 2g'x + 2f 'y + c' = 0 ... (1)
S''  x2 + y2 + 2g''x + 2f ''y + c'' = 0 ... (2)
S'''  x2 + y2 + 2g'''x + 2f '''y + c''' = 0 ... (3)
Since, the origin is an external point to these circles,
we have c', c'', c''' are positive.
The lengths of the tangents from C to circle (1), (2) and (3) are
c c , c respectively
Since, these lengths are equal, we have c = c  c = r say ...(4)
Now, the equation of the circle with centre C and radius r is
x2 + y2  r2 = 0 ...(5)
Then 2[g'.0 + f '.0] = 0 = c'  r2 (using (4))
Hence, the circle (5) cuts the circle (1) orthogonally.
Similarly , the circle (5) cuts the circles (2) and (3) orthogonally.
Thus the circle having radical centre of three circles as the centre of the circle and having the length of
tangent from the radical centre to one of these circles as radius cuts the given three circles orthogonally.
2.2.15 Example
Let us find the equation of a circle which cuts each of the following circles orthogonally
S'  x2 + y2 + 3x + 2y + 1 = 0 ... (1)
S''  x2 + y2  x + 6y + 5 = 0 ... (2)
and S'''  x2 + y2 + 5x  8y + 15 = 0 ... (3)
The centre of the required circle is radical centre of (1), (2) and (3) and the radius is the length
of the tangent from this point to any one of the given three circles. First we shall find the radical
centre. For, the radical axis of (1) and (2) is
xy=1 ... (4)
and the radical axis of (2) and (3) is
3x  7y = 5. ... (5)
The point of intersection (3, 2) of (4) and (5) is the radical centre of the circles (1), (2) and (3).
The length of tangent from (3, 2) to the circle (1)
= 32  2 2  3(3)  2(2)  1 = 3 3 .
Thus the required circle is
(x  3)2 + (y  2)2 = (3 3 )2
i.e., x2 + y2  6x  4y  14 = 0.
Exercise 2(b)
I. 1. Find the equation of the radical axis of the following circles.

(i) x2 + y2  3x  4y + 5 = 0, 3(x2 + y2 7x + 8y  11 = 0
(ii) x2 + y2 + 2x + 4y + 1 = 0, x2 + y2 + 4x + y = 0
(iii) x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y  7 = 0, 4(x2 + y2) + 8x + 12y  9 = 0
(iv) x2 + y2  2x  4y  1 = 0, x2 + y2  4x  6y + 5 = 0
2. Find the equation of the common chord of the following pair of circles.
(i) x2 + y2  4x  4y + 3 = 0, x2 + y2 5x  6y + 4 = 0
(ii) x2 + y2 + 2x + 3y + 1 = 0, x2 + y2 + 4x + 3y + 2 = 0
(iii) (x  a)2 + (y  b)2 = c2, (x  b)2 + (y  a)2 = c2 (a  b)
II. 1. Find the equation of the common tangent of the following circles at their point of contact
(i) x2 + y2 + 10x  2y + 22 = 0, x2 + y2+ 2x  8y + 8 = 0
(ii) x2 + y2  8y  4 = 0, x2 + y2  2x  4y = 0
2. Show that the circles x2 + y2  8x  2y + 8 = 0 and x2 + y2  2x + 6y + 6 = 0 touch each other
and find the point of contact.
3. If the two circles x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy = 0 and x2 + y2 + 2g'x + 2f 'y = 0 touch each other then
show that f 'g = fg'.
4. Find the radical centre of the following circles.
(i) x2 + y2  4x  6y + 5 = 0, x2 + y2 2x  4y  1 = 0, x2 + y2 6x  2y = 0
(ii) x2 + y2 + 4x  7 = 0, 2x2 + 2y2 + 3x + 5y  9 = 0, x2 + y2+ y = 0
III. 1. Show that the common chord of the circles x2 + y 2  6x  4y + 9 = 0 and
x2 + y2  8x  6y + 23 = 0 is the diameter of the second circle and also find its length.
2. Find the equation and length of the common chord of the following circles.
(i) x2 + y2 + 2x + 2y + 1 = 0, x2 + y2+ 4x + 3y + 2 = 0
(ii) x2 + y2  5x  6y + 4 = 0, x2 + y2  2x  2 = 0
3. Prove that the radical axis of the circles x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 and
x2 + y2 + 2g'x + 2f 'y + c' = 0 is the diameter of the latter circle (or the former bisects the
circumference of the latter) if 2g'(g  g') + 2f '(f  f ') = c c'.
4. Show that the circles x2 + y2 + 2ax + c = 0 and x2 + y2 + 2by + c = 0 touch each other if
1 1 1
2
 2  .
a b c
5. Show that the circles x2 + y2  2x = 0 and x2 + y2 + 6x  6y + 2 = 0 touch each other. Find the
coordinates of the point of contact. Is the point of contact external or internal?
6. Find the equation of the circle which cuts the following circles orthogonally
(i) x2 + y2 + 4x  7 = 0, 2x2 + 2y2 + 3x + 5y  9 = 0, x2 + y2+ y = 0
(ii) x2 + y2 + 2x + 4y + 1 = 0, 2x2 + 2y2 + 6x + 8y  3 = 0, x2 + y2  2x + 6y  3 = 0
(iii) x2 + y2 + 2x + 17y + 4 = 0, x2 + y2 + 7x + 6y + 11 = 0, x2 + y2  x + 22y + 3 = 0
(iv) x2 + y2 + 4x + 2y + 1 = 0, 2(x2 + y2) + 8x + 6y  3 = 0, x2 + y2 + 6x  2y  3 = 0
Key Concepts
v We denote x2 + y2  2gx  2fy  c by S and x2 + y2  2 g  x  2 f  y  c by S
v If C1, C2 are the centres and r1, r2 are radii of two intersecting circles S = 0 and S = 0, C1 C2 = d and
d 2  r12  r22
 is the angle between them, then cos  
2r1r2
v If  is the angle between the two intersecting circles S = 0 and S = 0 then
c  c  2 gg   2ff 
cos  
2 g2  f 2  c g 2  f  2  c 
v Two circles S = 0 and S = 0 are orthogonal iff 2( gg   ff )  c  c.
v If S = 0, S = 0 are any two intersecting circles and  are any two real numbers such that
  0 then S S = 0 represents a circle passing through the intersection of the circles
S = 0, S = 0.
v If S = 0, S = 0 are any two intersecting circles and k is any real number where k  1, then S
+ k S = 0 represents a circle passing through the points of intersection of them.
v If S = 0 and a straight line L = 0 intersect then for any real number k, S + kL = 0 represents a
circle passing through their intersection.
v The equation of the common chord of two intersecting circles S = 0, S = 0 is S  S = 0.
v The equation of common tangent at the point of contact when the circles S = 0, S = 0 touch
each other is S  S = 0.
v The radical axis of two circles is defined to be the locus of a point which moves so that its
powers with respect to the two circles are equal.
v The radical axis of S = 0 and S = 0 is S  S = 0.
v If the centres of any three circles are non-collinear, then the radical axes of each pair of circles
chosen from these three circles are concurrent.
v The radical axis of two circles S = 0 and S = 0 is
(i) the common chord when the two circles intersect at two distinct points.
(ii) the common tangent at the point of contact when the circles touch each other.
v The radical axis of any two circles bisects the line segment joining the points of contact of
common tangent of these two circles.
Historical Note
Ptolemy believed in the geocentric theory of revolving universe and stated that the other heavenly
bodies revolved in epicycles and small circles.
The study of circles goes back beyond history. The invention of the wheel was a fundamental
discovery of the properties of a circle.
The first theorems relating to circles are attributed to Thales (624 - 547 B.C.). Book III of
Euclids elements deal with properties of circles and related properties.
In India Sulbasutras (First Millennium B.C.) contain a discussion of circles.
Answers
Exercise 2(a)
I. 1. (i) 8 (ii) 24 (iii) 1 (iv) 8

 2
2. (i) (ii)
4 3
II. 1. (i) 2(x2 + y2)  7x + 2y = 0 (ii) x2 + y2 + 6x  3y = 0
2. 3(x2 + y2)  2x + 4y  15 = 0 3. x2 + y2  4x  4y = 0
4. 7(x2 + y2)  8x  8y  12 = 0 5. x2 + y2  4x  6y + 9 = 0
III. 1. x2 + y2  6x  6y + 9 = 0 2. x2 + y2  4x  2y + 3 = 0
5. (i) x2 + y2  5x  14y  34 = 0 (ii) x2 + y2  14x  5y  34 = 0
6. 13(x2 + y2)  4x  6y  50 = 0 7. x2 + y2  6x  4 = 0
8. x2 + y2  3ax  by = 0
Exercise 2(b)
I. 1. (i) x + 10y  13 = 0 (ii) 2x  3y  1 = 0
(iii) 8x + 12y  19 = 0 (iv) x + y  3 = 0

2. (i) x + 2y  1 = 0 (ii) 2x + 1 = 0
(iii) x  y = 0
II. 1. (i) 4x + 3y  7 = 0 (ii) x  2y  2 = 0
 11 7 
2.  ,  
5 5
4. (i) (7/6, 11/6) (ii) (2, 1)

III. 1. 2 2
2 14
2. (i) 2x + y  1 = 0, (ii) x  2y  2 = 0, 2 .
5 5
 1 3
5.  ,  , internal.
 5 5
6. (i) x2 + y2  4x  2y  1 = 0 (ii) x2 + y2  5x  14y  34 = 0

(iii) x2 + y2  6x  4y  44 = 0 (iv) x2 + y2  14x  5y  34 = 0
Parabola 103
The universe cannot be read until we have learnt the language

and become familiar with the characters in which it is written.
It is written in mathematical language and the letters are
triangles, circles and other geometrical figures
- Galilei Galilieo
Introduction
In the preceding chapters, we have studied various forms
of the equations of circles and systems of circles. In this chapter
we shall study about parabola. The name parabola (the shape
described when you throw a ball in air) was given by Apollonius
(Ca. 262 B.C. - Ca. 190 B.C.).
3.1 Conic Sections

Apollonius
In fact circle, parabola, ellipse, hyperbola, a pair of a straight (ca. 262 - 190 B.C.)
lines, a straight line and a point are called as conic sections
because each is a section of a double napped right circular cone Apollonius was born in ca. 262
with a plane. These curves have a very wide range of applications B.C., some 25 years after
Archimedes. He flourished in the
in planetary motion, design of telescopes and antennas, reflectors
reigns of Ptolemy Euergetes and
in flash lights etc. Ptolemy Philopator (247-205
More generally, suppose the cutting plane makes an angle B.C). His treatise on conics
 with the axis of the cone and suppose the generating angle of earned him fame as The Great
the cone is . Then the section is Geometer, an achievement that
has assured his fame for ever.
(i) a circle if    , (Fig. 3.1(a))
2
(ii) an ellipse if      , (Fig. 3.1(b))

2
(iii) a parabola if , (Fig. 3.1(c))
(iv) a hyperbola if 0 < <, (Fig. 3.1(d))
(v) Degenerated conic sections
We get the degenerated sections when the plane passes through the vertex of the cone.
(a) a point when      , (Fig. 3.1(e))
2
(b) a straight line when , (Fig. 3.1(f)) a generator of the cone.
(c) a pair of intersecting straight lines when 0 < (Fig. 3.1(g), 3.1(h))
It is the degenerated case of a hyperbola.
Note : A pair of parallel straight lines, however, is not a conic section as there is no plane which cuts
the cone along two parallel lines.
 
 
  

Fig. 3.1(a) Fig. 3.1(b) Fig. 3.1(c) Fig. 3.1(d)


 

 

0 = <  0 < < 

Fig. 3.1(e) Fig. 3.1(f) Fig. 3.1(g) Fig. 3.1(h)
Fig. 3.1
A conic section, can also be defined as the locus of a point moving on a plane such that its distances
from a fixed point and a fixed straight line are in constant ratio.
Parabola 105
It can be proved that these two approaches to define a conic section (as plane section of a cone and
as locus) are equivalent. But it is beyond the scope of this book. Further, in view of the analytic approach
of the second definition, we shall adopt the same throughout this book.
3.1.1 Conic
The locus of a point moving on a plane such that its distances from a fixed point and a fixed
straight line in the plane are in a constant ratio e, is called a conic.
The fixed point is called the focus and is usually denoted by S.
The fixed straight line is called the directrix.
The constant ratio e is called the eccentricity.
Directrix
The straight line of the plane passing through the focus
and perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis.
Therefore the locus of a point P moving on a plane such
that SP  e (constant) where PM is the perpendicular distance
PM
from P to the directrix, is called a conic M P
If e = 1, the conic is called a parabola.
If 0 < e < 1, the conic is called an ellipse.
S axis
If e > 1, the conic is called a hyperbola.
Fig. 3.2
3.1.2 Equation of a parabola
In this section we derive the equation of a parabola in the general form.
Let S(, ) be the focus and the directrix be lx + my + n = 0. Thus, by definition of the parabola, the
equation of the parabola is
| lx  my  n |
( x  ) 2  ( y  ) 2 
l2  m2 axis
(or) P
S
2
(lx  my  n)
( x  ) 2  ( y  ) 2  , M
l2  m2
a general equation of second degree in x and y.
The equation of the axis of the above directrix
parabola is m(x )  l(y ) = 0. Fig. 3.3
3.1.3 Equation of a parabola in standard form

To study the nature of the curve, we prefer its equation in the simplest possible form. We proceed
as follows to derive such an equation.
Let S be the focus, l be the directrix as shown in Fig. 3.4. Let Z be the projection of S on l and
A be the midpoint of SZ . A lies on the parabola because SA = AZ. A is called the vertex of the parabola.
Let YAY be the straight line through A and parallel to the directrix. Now take ZX as the X-axis and
YY as the Y-axis.
Then A is the origin (0, 0). Let S = (a, 0), (a > 0). Then Z = (a, 0) and the equation of the directrix
is x + a = 0.
Y
l
P
M
A X
X
Z S
Y
Fig. 3.4
If P(x, y) is a point on the parabola and PM is the perpendicular distance from P to the directrix l,
then SP = e = 1.
PM
 (SP)2 = (PM)2
 (x  a)2 + y2 = (x + a)2
 y2 = 4ax.
Conversely if P(x, y) is any point such that y2 = 4ax then
SP  ( x  a) 2  y 2  x 2  a 2  2ax  4 ax  ( x  a)2  | x  a |  PM .
Hence P(x, y) is on the locus. In other words, a necessary and sufficient condition for the point
P(x, y) to be on the parabola is that y2 = 4ax.
Thus the equation of the parabola is y2 = 4ax.
3.1.4 Remark
(i) If the focus is situated on the left side of the directrix, the equation of the parabola with the vertex
as origin and the axis as X-axis is y2 = 4ax [Since in this case the focus S is (a, 0)].
(ii) The vertex being the origin, if the axis of the parabola is taken as Y-axis, equation of parabola is
x2 = 4ay or x2 = 4ay according as the focus is above (or) below the X-axis.
(iii) If S lies on l, then the locus is a straight line passing through S and perpendicular to l. We take this
case as the degenerated parabola.
Parabola 107
3.1.5 Nature of the curve

In this section we shall study the nature of the parabola or trace the curve represented by the
equation y2 = 4ax , (a > 0).
(i) If y = 0, then 4ax = 0 and x = 0.
 The curve passes through the origin (0, 0).
(ii) If x = 0 then y2 = 0, which gives y = 0, 0 (twice). Hence Y-axis is a tangent to the parabola at the
origin.
(iii) Let P(x, y) be any point on the parabola. Since a > 0 and y2 = 4ax, we have x > 0 and y = + 4ax .
 For any positive real value of x, we obtain two values of y of equal magnitude but of opposite
in signs. This shows that the curve is symmetric about X-axis and lies in first and fourth quadrants.
The curve does not exist on the left side of the Y-axis (i.e., second and the third quadrants) since
x > 0 for any point (x, y) on the parabola.
(iv) As x increases infinitely, the two values of y also increase infinitely in magnitude. So the two
branches of the parabola lying on opposite sides of the X-axis extended to infinity towards the
positive direction of the X-axis. Hence it is an open curve.
3.1.6 Note
(i) As noted earlier, S is called the focus and the line l is called the directrix of the parabola. For the
parabola y2 = 4ax (a > 0), the focus is S(a, 0), directrix is x + a = 0 and axis is y = 0. The point
A(0, 0) is called vertex of the parabola.
(ii) If the vertex is at (h, k) and the axis of the parabola parallel to X-axis, then by shifting the origin
to (h, k) by translation of axis and using the result y2 = 4ax we can obtain its equation as
(y  k)2 = 4a(xh).
3.1.7 Definitions (Chord, focal chord, double ordinate and latus rectum)
Chord : The line joining two points of a parabola is called a chord of a parabola.
Focal chord : A chord passing through focus is called a focal chord.
Double ordinate : A chord through a point P on the parabola, which is perpendicular to the
axis of the parabola, is called the double ordinate of the point P.
Latus rectum : The double ordinate passing through the focus is called the latus rectum of
the parabola.
P
3.1.8 Remark
From y2 = 4ax, for any positive x, P(x, 2 ax ),
P (x, 2 ax ) are points on the parabola y2 = 4ax and X X
PP is perpendicular to the axis and hence is the double
ordinate through P.
P
Fig. 3.5
3.1.9 Length of the latus rectum Y
The equation of the parabola is y2 = 4ax ... (1)

Let LS L  be the latus rectum of the L(a, l)
parabola (Fig. 3.6)
X X
S(a, 0)
Let SL = l, then coordinates of L are (a, l)
L  (a, l)
L lies on the parabola (1)
 l2 = 4a .a = 4a2.  l = 2a and so, LS L  = 2(SL) = 4a,
which is the length of the latus rectum. Y
Fig. 3.6
3.1.10 Note : When latus rectum is known, the equation of
the parabola is known in its standard form, and the size and
shape of the curve are determined accordingly. Y
3.1.11 Various forms of the parabola
l
(i) y2 = 4ax (a > 0) (Fig. 3.7)
Focus = (a, 0). A
X
Equation of the directrix x + a = 0. S(a, 0) X
x +a = 0
Axis of the parabola y = 0.

Vertex = (0, 0).
Y
Fig. 3.7
(ii) y2 = 4ax(a > 0) (Fig. 3.8) Y
Focus = (a, 0).
Equation of the directrix x  a = 0. A

X X
S(a, 0)
Axis of the parabola : y = 0.
xa=0
Vertex = (0, 0). Y
Fig. 3.8
Parabola 109
(iii) x2 = 4ay(a > 0) (Fig. 3.9) Y
Focus = (0, a).
Equation of the directrix y + a = 0. S(0,a)
X X
Axis of the parabola x = 0. A
y +a = 0
Vertex = (0, 0). Y
Fig. 3.9
Y
y a = 0
(iv) x2 =  4ay(a > 0) (Fig. 3.10)
X A
Focus = (0, a). X
S(0,a)
Equation of the directrix y  a = 0.
Axis of the parabola x = 0.
Vertex = (0, 0). Y

Fig. 3.10
(v) (y  k)2 = 4a(x  h) (a > 0) (Fig. 3.11)

x h+a= 0
Focus = (h + a, k).
Equation of the directrix x  h + a = 0.
Axis of the parabola y  k = 0. A S y k=0
Vertex = (h, k).
Fig. 3.11
(vi) (y  k)2 = 4a(x  h) (a > 0) (Fig. 3.12)

x ha= 0
Focus = (h  a, k).
Equation of the directrix x  h  a = 0.
Axis of the parabola y  k = 0. y k=0
S A
Vertex = (h, k).
Fig. 3.12
(vii) (x  h)2 = 4a(y  k) (a > 0), (Fig. 3.13)

Focus = (h, a + k).
Equation of the directrix y  k + a = 0.
S
Axis of the parabola x  h = 0.
A
Vertex = (h, k).
yk+a = 0
Y xh=0
Fig. 3.13
(viii) (x  h)2 = 4a(y  k) (a > 0), (Fig. 3.14)

Focus = (h, k  a). y ka = 0
A
Equation of the directrix y  k  a = 0.
S
Axis of the parabola x  h = 0.
Vertex = (h, k).
xh=0
Fig. 3.14
(lx  my  n) 2
(ix) (x )2 + (y )2 = , (Fig. 3.15)
l 2  m2 Y axis
Focus = ().
Equation of the directrix lx + my + n = 0.
S()
Axis of the parabola m(x )  l(y ) = 0. A
Vertex : Point A in Fig. 3.15. X X
directrix
Y
Fig. 3.15
3.1.12 Note
By observing equations of the above figures (i) to (viii), we may conclude that the equation of a
parabola
(i) whose axis is parallel to the X-axis is x = ly2 + my + n.
(ii) whose axis is parallel to the Y-axis is y = lx2 + mx + n, where l, m, n are real numbers, l 0.
Parabola 111
3.1.13 Definition (Focal distance)

Y
The distance of a point on the parabola from
M P(x1, y1)
its focus is called the focal distance of the point.
If P(x1, y1) is a point on the parabola y2 = 4ax
whose focus is S(a, 0) then from Fig. 3.16 a x1
X X
Z A S N
Focal distance of P = SP
x+ a = 0
= PM
= NZ
= NA + AZ Y
Fig. 3.16
= x1 + a.
3.1.14 Parametric equations of a parabola

The point (at2, 2at) satisfies the equation y2 = 4ax of a parabola for all real values of t. Conversely
if P(x, y) is a point on y2 = 4ax(a > 0) then x > 0, a > 0 there exist a t  R such that x = at2 and
y2 = 4a(at2) = 4a2t2 then we get y = 2at or 2at. Therefore P is of the form (at2, 2at) or (a (t)2, 2a(t)).
Hence the parametric equations of a parabola are x = at2, y = 2at. The point P(at2, 2at) is
generally denoted by the point t or P(t) for the sake of brevity.
3.1.15 Notation
Hereafter the following notation will be adapted throughout this chapter.
(i) S  y2  4ax
(ii) S1  yy1  2a(x + x1)
(iii) S12  y1y2  2a(x1 + x2)
(iv) S11  y12  4ax1, where (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are the points in the plane of the parabola
y2 = 4ax.
3.1.16 Parabola and a point in the plane
of the parabola Exterior
(outside)
A parabola divides the plane into two disjoint
parts, one containing the focus is called the interior Interior (inside)
of the parabola and the other is called the exterior of

the parabola (Fig. 3.17).
Parabola
Fig. 3.17
Let P(x1, y1) be a point in the plane of the parabola P(x1, y1)
Y
(Fig. 3.18). Draw PM perpendicular to the X-axis to Q
meet the parabola y2 = 4ax at Q = (x1, 2 ax1 ) and

M(x1, 0). X X
A M
(PM)2 = y12, (MQ)2 = 4ax1.
Y
Fig. 3.18
(i) P lies outside the parabola (i.e., P is an external point)  (MP)2 > (MQ)2
 y12 > 4ax1  y12  4ax1> 0  S11 > 0.
If x1 < 0, then the point P lies in Quadrant II or in Quadrant III in which case the point P clearly lies
outside the parabola and y12  4ax1 > 0 in this case also.
(ii) P lies on the parabola  MP = MQ  (MP)2 = (MQ)2
 y12 = 4ax1  y12  4ax1= 0  S11 = 0.
(iii) P lies inside the parabola (i.e., P is an internal point)  MP < MQ  (MP)2 < (MQ)2
 y12 < 4ax1  y12  4ax1 < 0  S11< 0.
Thus P(x1, y1) lies outside, on or inside the parabola S  y2  4ax = 0 according as S11  0.

1. Problem : Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, and the equations of the directrix and axes of
the following parabolas.
(i) y2 = 16x (ii) x2 = 4y (iii) 3x2  9x + 5y 2 = 0 (iv) y2  x + 4y + 5 = 0.
Solution
(i) y2 = 16x, comparing with y2 = 4ax, we get 4a = 16  a = 4.
The coordinates of the vertex = (0, 0).
The coordinates of the focus = (a, 0) = (4, 0).
Equation of the directrix : x + a = i.e., x + 4 = 0.
Axis of the parabola y = 0.
(ii) x2 = 4y, comparing with x2 = 4ay, we get 4a = 4  a = 1.
The coordinates of the vertex = (0, 0).
The coordinates of the focus = (0, a) = (0, 1).
The equation of the directrix y  a = 0 i.e., y  1 = 0.
Equation of the axis x = 0.
Parabola 113
(iii) 3x2  9x + 5y  2 = 0.
3(x2  3x) = 2  5y  3(x2  2 x ( 23 ) + 94 ) = 2  5y + 27
4 .
x  32   
2
  53 y  74 , comparing with (x  h)2 = 4a(y  k) we get
5 ,h= 3 , k= 7 .
a = 12 2 4
 
 Coordinates of the vertex = (h, k) = 23 , 47 .
Coordinates of the focus = (h, k  a) =  32 , 74  12  2 3  .

5  3, 4
Equation of the directrix is y  k  a = 0 i.e., 6y  13 = 0.

Equation of the axis is x  h = 0 i.e., 2x  3 = 0.
(iv) y2  x + 4y + 5 = 0  (y (2))2 = (x  1), comparing with (y  k)2 = 4a(x  h),
we get (h, k) = (1, 2) and a = 14 , coordinates of the vertex (h, k) = (1, 2)

coordinates of the focus (h + a, k) = 45 ,  2 
Equation of the directrix x  h + a = 0 i.e., 4x  3 = 0.
Equation of the axis y  k = 0. i.e., y + 2 = 0.
2. Problem : Find the equation of the parabola whose vertex is (3, 2) and focus is (3, 1).
Solution : The abcissae of the vertex and focus are equal to 3. Hence the axis of the parabola is x = 3,
a line parallel to y-axis, focus is above the vertex.
a = distance between focus and vertex = 3.
 Equation of the parabola (x  3)2 = 4(3) (y + 2) i.e., (x  3)2 = 12(y + 2).
3. Problem : Find the coordinates of the points on the parabola y2 = 2x whose focal distance is 5 .
2
Solution : Let P(x1, y1) be a point on the parabola y2 = 2x whose focal distance is 25 then y12 = 2x1 and
x1 + a = 25  x1 + 12 = 25  x1 = 2
y12 = 2(2) = 4  y1 = +2.
 The required points are (2, 2) and (2, 2).
4. Problem : Find the equation of the parabola passing through the points (1, 2), (1, 1) and (2, 1)
and having its axis parallel to the X-axis.
Solution: Since the axis is parallel to X-axis the equation of the parabola is in the form of x = ly2 + my + n.
Since the parabola passes through (1, 2), we have
1 = l(2)2 + m(2) + n  4l + 2m + n = 1 ... (1)
Similarly, since the parabola passes through (1, 1) and (2, 1), we have
lm+n=1 ... (2)
l+m+n=2 ... (3)

Solving (1), (2) and (3) we get l =  67 , m = 12 and n = 83 .
Hence the equation of the parabola is x =  67 y2 + 12 y + 83 (or) 7y2  3y + 6x  16 = 0.

5. Problem : A double ordinate of the curve y2 = 4ax is of length 8a. Prove that the lines from the
vertex to its ends are at right angles.
Solution : Let P = (at2, 2at) and P = (at2, 2at) be the ends of double ordinate P P . Then,
8a = P P = 0  (4at ) 2 = 4at  t = 2.
Y
 P = (4a, 4a), P = (4a, 4a) P
HJJG HJJG
Slope of OP  slope of OP = 4  
4a
a  4a   1
4a  4a

 PO P = 2 . 450 4a
HJJG X
O(0, 0) 450 L(4a, 0)
Aliter : Let the double ordinate be PP meeting the axis at L.
4a
 PL = L P = 4a. If P = (x1, 4a), then
16a2 = 4ax1  x1 = 4a (see Fig. 3.19).
P
 OL = 4a.  OLP is right isosceles.
   Fig. 3.19
POL = , similarly LO P = . Consequently PO P = .
4 4 2
6. Problem
(i) If the coordinates of the ends of a focal chord of the parabola y2 = 4ax are (x1, y1) and (x2, y2),
then prove that x1x2 = a2, y1y2 = 4a2.
(ii) For a focal chord PQ of the parabola y2 = 4ax, if SP = l and SQ = l then prove that 1  1  1 .
l l a
Solution
(i) Let P(x1, y1) = (at12, 2at1) and Q(x2, y2) = (at22, 2at2) be two end points of a focal chord.
P, S, Q are collinear.
Slope of PS = Slope of QS
2at1 2 at
2
 2 2
at1  a at2  a
t1t22  t1 = t2t12  t2
t1t2 (t2  t1) + (t2  t1) = 0
1 + t1t2 = 0  t1t2 = 1 ... (1)
From (1) x1x2 = at12 at22 = a2(t2 t1)2 = a2
y1y2 = 2at12at2 = 4a2(t2 t1) = 4a2.
The property holds even if the focal chord is the latus rectum.
Parabola 115
(ii) Let P(at12, 2at1) and Q(at22, 2at2) be the extremities of a focal chord of the parabola, then
t1t2 = 1 (from (1))
l = SP = (at12  a) 2  (2 at1  0) 2  a (t12  1) 2  4t12 = a(1 + t12)
l = SQ = (at22  a) 2  (2at2  0) 2  a (t22  1) 2  4t22 = a(1 + t22)

 (l  a) ( l  a) = a2 t12 t22 = a2(t1t2)2 = a2 ['t1t2 = 1]
l l  a(l+ l ) = 0  1  1  1 .
l l a
7. Problem : If Q is the foot of the perpendicular from a point P on the parabola y2 = 8(x3) to its
directrix. S is the focus of the parabola and if SPQ is an equilateral triangle, then find the length of side
of the triangle.
directrix
Solution : Given parabola y2 = 8(x  3), then its vertex
Q P(x1, y1)
A = (3, 0) and Focus = (5, 0) [4a = 8  a = 2] since 600
300
PQS is an equilateral triangle
SQP = 60o  SQZ = 30o (See Fig. 3.20) A (3, 0)
X Z
X
S(5, 0)
From SZQ we have sin 30o =
SZ .
SQ
SZ
Side SQ = = 2(SZ) = 2(4) = 8.
sin 30 o
Hence length of each side of the triangle is 8. Fig. 3.20
8. Problem : The cable of a uniformely loaded suspension bridge hangs in the form of a parabola. The
roadway which is horizontal and 72 mt. long is supported by vertical wires attached to the cable, the
longest being 30 mts. and the shortest being 6 mts. Find the length of the supporting wire attached to
the road-way 18 mts. from the middle.
Y B(36, 24)
A
24 mts
24 mts C
l6
O D
6 mts 6 mts X
P Bridge R Bridge S Q
36 mts 36 mts
Fig. 3.21
Solution : Let AOB be the cable [O is its lowest point and A, B are the highest points]. Let PRQ be the bridge
suspended with PR = RQ = 36 mts (see Fig. 3.21).
PA = QB = 30 mts (longest vertical supporting wires)
OR = 6 mts (shortest vertical supporting wire) [the lowest point of the cable is upright the mid-point R of the
bridge]
Therefore, PR = RQ = 36 mts. We take the origin of coordinates at O, X-axis along the tangent at O to the
HJJG
cable and the Y-axis along RO . The equation of the cable would, therefore, be x2 = 4ay for some a > 0. We get
B = (36, 24) and 362 = 4a  24.
36  36
Therefore, 4a = = 54 mts.
24
If RS = 18 mts. and SC is the vertical through S meeting the cable at C and the X-axis at D, then
SC is the length of the supporting wire required. If SC = l mts, then DC = (l  6) mts.
As such C = (18, l  6).
Since C is on the cable, 182 = 4a (l  6)
182 18  18
 l6= = =6
4a 54
 l = 12 .
Exercise 3(a)
I. 1. Find the vertex and focus of 4y2 + 12x  20y + 67 = 0.

2. Find the vertex and focus of x2  6x  6y + 6 = 0.
3. Find the equations of axis and directrix of the parabola y2 + 6y  2x + 5 = 0.
4. Find the equations of axis and directrix of the parabola 4x2 + 12x  20y + 67 = 0.
5. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is S(1, 7) and vertex is A(1, 2).
6. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is S(3, 5) and vertex is A(1, 3).
7. Find the equation of the parabola whose latus rectum is the line segment joining the points (
3, 2) and (3, 1).
8. Find the position (interior or exterior or on) of the following points with respect to the parabola y2 =
6x, (i) (6, 6) (ii) (0, 1) (iii) (2, 3)
9. Find the coordinates of the points on the parabola y2 = 8x whose focal distance is 10.
10. If (1/2, 2) is one extremity of a focal chord of the parabola y2 = 8x. Find the coordinates of the other
extremity.
Parabola 117
11. Prove that the point on the parabola y2 = 4ax, (a > 0) nearest to the focus is its vertex.
12. A comet moves in a parabolic orbit with the sun as focus. When the comet is 2  107 K.M from the

sun, the line from the sun to it makes an angle with the axis of the orbit. Find how near the comet
2
comes to the sun.
II. 1. Find the locus of the point of trisection of double ordinate of a parabola y2 = 4ax, (a > 0).
2. Find the equation of the parabola whose vertex and focus are on the positive x-axis at a distance a
and a'from the origin respectively.
3. If L and L  are the ends of the latus rectum of the parabola x2 = 6y, find the equations of OL and O L 
where O is the origin. Also find the angle between them.
4. Find the equation of the parabola whose axis is parallel to x-axis and which passes through the points
(2, 1), (1, 2) and (1, 3).
5. Find the equation of the parabola whose axis is parallel to y-axis and which passes through the points
(4, 5), (2, 11) and (4, 21)
III. 1. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is (2, 3) and directrix is the line 2x + 3y  4 = 0. Also
find the length of the latus rectum and the equation of the axis of the parabola.
2. Prove that the area of the triangle inscribed in the parabola y2 = 4ax is
1
8a |(y1  y2) (y2  y3) (y3  y1)| sq. units where y1, y2, y3 are the ordinates of its vertices.
3. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, the equation of the directrix and axis of the
following parabolas.
(i) y2 + 4x + 4y  3 = 0 (ii) x2  2x + 4y  3 = 0
3.2 Equation of tangent and normal at a point on the parabola

In this section, the condition for a straight line to be a tangent to a given parabola is obtained. The
Cartesian and parametric equations of the tangent and the normal at a given point on the parabola are
derived.
3.2.1 Point of intersection of the parabola y2 = 4ax, (a > 0) and the line
y = mx + c, (m  0).
Let y2 = 4ax, (a > 0) ...(1)
and the straight line y = mx + c be given ...(2)
The coordinates of the point of the intersection of the straight line and the parabola satisfy both
the equations (1) and (2) and, therefore, can be found by solving them. Substituting the values of y
from (2) in (1), we have
(mx + c)2 = 4ax, i.e., m2x2 + 2x (mc  2a) + c2 = 0 ...(3)
This is a quadratic equation in x and therefore has two roots which are distinct real (Fig.3.22(i)) equal
(Fig. 3.22(ii)) or imaginary (Fig. 3.22(iii)) according as the discriminant of equation (3) is positive, zero (or)
negative respectively.
The ordinates of the points of intersection y1, y2 can be obtained by substituting x1, x2 for x in y
= mx + c.
y = mx + c y = mx + c
y = mx + c
(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig .3.22
3.2.2 Theorem : The condition for a straight line y = mx + c (m  0) to be a tangent to the parabola
y2 = 4ax is cm = a or c = a/m.
Proof : The x coordinates of the points of intersection of the line y = mx + c and the given parabola are
given by the equation (3) of 3.2.1 i.e.,
m2x2 + 2x(mc  2a) + c2 = 0 ... (1)
The given line will touch the parabola  the two points coincide.
 discriminant of (1) is zero
 4(mc  2a)2  4m2c2 = 0
 16a (a  mc) = 0
a
 a  mc = 0  a = mc (or) c  .
m
3.2.3 Note
(i) When m = 0, the line y = c is parallel to the axis of the parabola y2 = 4ax, i.e., X-axis. Further
c2
yc x .
4a
 c2 
 The straight line intersects the parabola at the point  , c  , (Fig. 3.23).
 4a 
Parabola 119
(c2/4a, c) y=c
X X
Fig. 3.23
a a
(ii) we have seen y = mx + c, (m  0) is a tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax when c  . Hence y  mx 
m m
 a 2a   c 
is always a tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax at  2 ,    , 2c  when m  0.
m m  m 
  2(mc  2a )  ( a  2a ) a
' from (3) of 3.2.1, the abscissa x1    2 and ordinate
 2m 2
m 2
m
ma a 2a 
y1  2   .
m m m 
(iii) If m  0 and c = 0, then the line y = mx is non vertical and passes through the origin which intersects the
 4a 4a 
parabola in two points (0, 0) and  2 ,  . Hence it is not a tangent
m m 
 4a 4a 
' from (3) of 3.2.1, m2x2  4ax = 0  x = 0 or 2 then y = 0 or 
 m m 
(iv) Observe that for a parabola y2 = 4ax, there is one and only one tangent, parallel to Y - axis (i.e.,
Y - axis it self) and there is no tangent parallel to X-axis.
(v) Let P(x0, y0) be a point other than origin, on the parabola y2 = 4ax. If the tangent at P makes an
 a 1
angle  with y-axis, then   . We write t = tan . Then slope of the tangent =  cot   .
2 y0 t
2 2
Hence y0 = 2at and 4ax0 = 4a t gives Y
x0 = at2 (Fig. 3.24). P

If, however, P(x0, y0) is the origin,
then x0 = at2, y0 = 2at where t = 0. X
O
So, any point P(x 0 , y 0 ) on the
parabola y2 = 4ax can always be
written in the form (at2, 2at) for
some t R. Fig. 3.24
3.2.4 Theorem : Two tangents can be drawn from an external point (x1, y1) to the parabola y2 = 4ax.
Proof : Let P(x1, y1) be an external point to the parabola y2 = 4ax then
S11  y12  4ax1  0 ... (1)
a
We have y  mx  is a tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax for all non zero values of m.
m
a
If it passes through the point (x1, y1) then y1  mx1  or m2x1  my1 + a = 0 and its
m
discriminant y12  4ax1  0 [from (1)]. The equation being a quadratic in m, has two distinct real
a a
roots, say, m1 and m2. Then y  m1 x  and y  m2 x  are the two distinct tangents through
m1 m2
(x1, y1).
3.2.5 Theorem : The equation of the chord joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on S = 0 is
S1 + S2 = S12.
Proof : Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be two points on the parabola S  y 2  4 ax  0, then
S11= 0 and S22 = 0. Consider the first degree equation S1 + S2 = S12
i.e., {y y1  2a(x + x1)} + {y y2  2a(x + x2)} = y1y2  2a(x1 + x2)
i.e., 4ax  (y1 + y2)y + y1 y2 = 0 which represents a straight line.
Clearly (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) satisfies the equation(1) (' y12  4ax1  0  y22  4ax2 )
 S1 + S2 = S12 is a straight line passing through P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2).
 The equation of the chord PQ is S1 + S2 = S12.
3.2.6 Theorem : The equation of the tangent at P(x1, y1) to the parabola S = 0 is S1 = 0.
Proof : Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be two points on the parabola S  y 2  4ax  0 then S11 = 0 and S22 = 0.
By Theorem 3.2.5, the equation of the chord PQ is S1 + S2 = S12 ...(1)
The chord PQ becomes the tangent at P when Q approaches P
(i.e., (x2, y2) approaches to (x1, y1)).
 The equation of the tangent at P is obtained by taking limits as (x2, y2) tends to (x1, y1)
on either sides of (1).
So, the equation of the tangent at P given by Lt (S1  S2 )  Lt S12 .
QP QP
i.e., S1 + S1 = S11 [' S2  S1, S12  S11 as (x2, y2)  (x1, y1)]
 2S1 = 0  S1 = 0.
Parabola 121
 The equation of the tangent to the parabola S  y 2  4ax  0 at P(x1, y1) is

S1  yy1  2a( x  x1 )  0.
3.2.7 Theorem : The equation of the normal at P(x 1, y 1) on the parabola S = 0 is
y1
( y  y1 )  ( x  x1 ) .
2a
Proof : By Theorem 3.2.6, the equation of the tangent to the parabola y2  4ax = 0 at P(x1, y1) is
S1  yy1  2a( x  x1 )  0.
2a
 Slope of the tangent at P is .
y1
y
 Slope of the normal at P is  1 .
2a
y1
Hence equation of the normal at P(x1, y1) is (y  y1) =  ( x  x1 ).
2a
3.2.8 Theorem (Parametric form)
(i) Equation of the tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax at a point t is x  yt + at2 = 0.
(ii) Equation of the normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at a point t is y + xt = 2at + at3.
Proof : Let P(t) be a point on the parabola y2 = 4ax then P = (at2, 2at).
(i) We have equation of the tangent at P(x1, y1), is yy1  2a(x + x1) = 0, then replacing (x1, y1) by
(at2, 2at), the equation of tangent is 2at y  2a(x + at2) = 0 i.e., x  yt + at2 = 0.
y
(ii) We have equation of the normal at P(x1, y1) is (y  y1) =  1 ( x  x1 ) then replacing (x1, y1) by
2a
(at2, 2at), the equation of the normal is
2at
( y  2at )  ( x  at 2 )
2a
i.e., y + xt = 2at + at3.
3.2.9 Number of normals through a given point
(i) The equation of the normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at (at2, 2at) is y + xt = 2at + at3, if this line
passes through (x1, y1), then y1 + x1t = 2at + at3 is at3 + t(2a  x1)  y1 = 0. This is a cubic equation
in t and has, at most three real roots.
Hence the number of normals through a given point (x1, y1) to a parabola y2 = 4ax is either 1 or 2
or 3 accordingly as the number of distinct real roots of the cubic equation
at3 + (2a  x1)t  y1 = 0 is 1 or 2 or 3.
Criterion for the number of normals

2a  x1 y
Write H = , G =  1 and  = G2 + 4H3 if x1 = 2a and y1 = 0 then the number of normals = 1.
3a a
Assume either x1  2 a or y1  0
(i) If  > 0 then the number of normals is 1
(ii) If  = 0 then the number of normals is 2
(iii) If  < 0 then the number of normals is 3
The proof of the above is beyond the scope of this book.
(ii) The equation of the tangent t is yt = x + at2. Hence slope of the normal at t is
m =  t  t = m, substituting in the equation of the normal at t (i.e., y + xt = 2at + at3) we get y
 mx =  2am  am3 is y = mx  2am  am3 .
 The equation of the normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax, having slope m, is
y = mx  2am  am3 = m (x  2a  am2).
1. Problem : Find the condition for the straight line lx + my + n = 0 to be a tangent to the parabola
y2 = 4ax and find the coordinates of the point of contact.
Solution : Let the line lx + my + n = 0 be a tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax at (at2, 2at). Then the
equation of the tangent at P(t) is x  yt + at2 = 0 then it represents the given line lx + my + n = 0, then
l m n m n
  2 t  and t 
1  t at l ma
m n
t    m 2 a  nl
l ma
 am 2  2am 
and the point of contact is P(at2, 2at) =  2 ,  or  n ,  2am  .
 l l  l l 
2. Problem : Show that the straight line 7x + 6y = 13 is a tangent to the parabola y2  7x  8y + 14 = 0
and find the point of contact.
Solution : Equation of the given line is 7x + 6y = 13, equation of the given parabola is
y2  7x  8y + 14 = 0.
By eliminating x, we get the ordinates of the points of intersection of line and parabola adding the
equations y2  2y + 1 = 0.
Parabola 123
i.e., (y  1)2 = 0  y = 1, 1.
 The given line is tangent to the given parabola.
If y = 1 then x = 1 hence the point of contact is (1, 1).
3. Problem : Prove that the normal chord at the point other than origin whose ordinate is equal to its
abscissa subtends a right angle at the focus.
Solution : Let the equation of the parabola be y2 = 4ax and P(at2, 2at) be any point ... (1)
on the parabola for which the abscissa is equal to the ordinate. i.e., at2 = 2at  t =0 or t = 2. But
t  0. Hence the point (4a, 4a) at which the normal is
y + 2x = 2a(2) + a(2)3 (or) y = (12a  2x) ... (2)
substituting the value of y = 12a  2x in (1) we get (12a  2x)2 = 4ax (or)
x2  13ax + 36a2 = (x  4a) (x  9a) = 0  x = 4a, 9a
corresponding values of y are 4a and 6a.
Hence the other points of intersection of that normal at P(4a, 4a) to the given parabola is Q(9a, 6a), we have
S(a, 0).
4a  0 4
Slope of the SP  m1   .
4a  a 3
6 a  0 3
Slope of the SQ  m2    .
9a  a 4
Clearly m1m2 = 1, so that SP  SQ .

4. Problem : From an external point P, tangent are drawn to the parabola y2 = 4ax and these tangents
make angles 1, 2 with its axis, such that tan 1 + tan 2 is a constant b. Then show that P lies on the
line y = bx.
Solution : Let the coordinates of P be (x1, y1) and the equation of the parabola y2 = 4ax. Any tangent to
a
the parabola is y  mx  , if this passes through (x1, y1) then
m
a
y1  mx1  i.e., m2x1  my1 + a = 0 ... (1)
m
y y
Let the roots of (1) be m1, m2. Then m1 + m2 = 1  tan 1 + tan 2 = 1 .
x1 x1
[' The tangents make angles 1, 2 with its axis (x - axis) then their slopes m1 = tan 1 and m2 = tan 2].
y1
 b  y1  bx1.
x1
 P(x1, y1) lies on the line y = bx.
5. Problem : Show that the common tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax and x2 = 4by is
xa1/3 + yb1/3 + a2/3b2/3 = 0.
Solution : The equations of the parabolas are y2 = 4ax ... (1)
and x2 = 4by ... (2)
a
Equation of any tangent to (1) is of the form y  mx  . ... (3)
m
If the line (3) is a tangent to (2) also, the points of intersection of (2) and (3) coincide.
2  a
Substituting the value of y from (3) in (2), we get x  4b  mx   i.e., mx2  4bm2x  4ab = 0
 m
which should have equal roots. Therefore its discriminant is zero. Hence
16b2m4  4m (4ab) = 0
16b(bm4  am) = 0
m(bm3  a) = 0. But m  0.
 m = a1/3/b1/3 substituting in (3) the equation of the common tangent
1/ 3
becomes y    x 
a a
(or) a1/3x + b1/3y + a2/3 b2/3 = 0.
a 1/ 3
b ( b )
6. Problem : Prove that the area of the triangle formed by the tangents at (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and
1
(x3, y3) to the parabola y2 = 4ax (a > 0) is | ( y1  y2 ) ( y2  y3 ) ( y3  y1 ) | sq. units.
16a
Solution : Let D(x1, y1) = (at12, 2at1), E(x2, y2) = (at22, 2at2) and F(x3, y3) = (at32, 2at3)
be three points on the parabola y2 = 4ax (a > 0).
The equation of the tangents at D, E and F are, respectively
t1y = x + at12 ... (1)
t2y = x + at22 ... (2)
t3y = x + at32 ... (3)
(1)  (2)  (t1  t2)y = a(t1  t2) (t1 + t2)  y = a(t1 + t2) substituting in (1) we get x = at1t2.
 The point of intersection of the tangents at D and E is P(at1t2, a(t1 + t2)).
Similarly, the points of intersection of tangents at E, F and at F, D are Q(at2t3, a(t2 + t3) and
R(at3t1, a(t3 + t1)) respectively.
at1t2 a(t1  t2 ) 1
1
Area of PQR = Absolute value of at2t3 a(t2  t3 ) 1
2
at1t3 a(t1  t3 ) 1
Parabola 125
t1t 2 t1  t2 1
a2
= Absolute value of t 2 t3 t 2  t3 1
2
t1t3 t1  t3 1
t1 (t 2  t3 ) (t 2  t3 ) 0
a2
= Absolute value of t3 (t 2  t1 ) (t 2  t1 ) 0
2
t1t3 t1  t3 1
t1 1 0
a2
= Absolute value of (t  t ) (t  t ) t3 1 0
2 2 3 2 1
t1t3 t1  t3 1
a2
= | (t2  t3 ) (t2  t1 ) (t1  t3 ) |
2
1
= | 2 a(t1  t2 ) 2 a (t2  t3 ) 2 a (t3  t1 ) |
16 a
1
= | ( y1  y2 ) ( y2  y3 ) ( y3  y1 ) | sq.units.
16 a
7. Problem : Prove that the two parabolas y2 = 4ax and x2 = 4by intersect (other than the origin) at an
 1/3 1/3

angle of Tan 1  3a b (see Fig. 3.25).
2/3 2/3 
 2(a  b ) 
Solution : Without loss of generality we assume a > 0 and b > 0.
Let P(x, y) be the point of intersection of the parabolas other than the origin.
Then
y4 = 16a2x2 Y
= 16a2(4by)

= 64a2by P
x2 =
4by
 y[y3  64a2b] = 0

 y3  64a2b =0 X
O
 y = ( 64a2b)1/3 [' y > 0]
y2= 4
= 4a2/3b1/3 ax
16a 4/3b 2/3 Fig. 3.25

Also from y2 = 4ax, x=
4a
= 4a1/3b2/3
 P = (4a1/3b2/3, 4a2/3b1/3)
Differentiating both sides of y2 = 4ax w.r.t. x, we get

dy 2a

dx y
1/3
 dy  2a 1  a
    2/3 1/3    .
 dx  P 4a b 2  b
If m1 be the slope of the tangent at P to y2 = 4ax, then
1/3
1  a
m1 =  
2  b
1/3
 a
Similarly, we get m2 = 2   where m2 is the slope of the tangent at P to x2 = 4by.
 b
If  is the acute angle between the tangents to the curves at P, then
m2  m1 3a1/3b1/3 1  3a1/3b1/3 
tan    so that   Tan  2/3 2/3  .
1  m1m2 2(a 2/3  b 2/3 )  2(a  b ) 
8. Problem : Prove that the orthocenter of the triangle formed by any three tangents to a parabola lies
on the directrix of the parabola.
Solution : Let y2 = 4ax be the parabola and A = (at12, 2at1), B = (at22, 2at2), C = (at32, 2at3) be any three
points on it.
Now we consider the triangle PQR formed by the tangents to the parabola at A, B, C where
P = (at1t2, a(t1+t2)), Q = (at2t3, a(t2+t3)) and R = (at3t1, a(t3+t1)).
HJJG
Equation of QR (i.e., the tangent at C) is
x  t3 y + at32 = 0.
Therefore, the attitude through P of triangle PQR is
t3 x + y = at1 t2 t3 + a(t1+ t2) ... (1)
Similarly, the attitude through Q is
t1 x + y = at1 t2 t3 + a(t2+ t3) ... (2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get (t3 t1)x = a(t1 t3) i.e., x = a.
Therefore, the orthocenter of the triangle PQR, with abscissa as a, lies on the directrix of the
parabola.
Parabola 127
Exercise 3(b)
I. 1. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola y2 = 6x at the positive end of the latus
rectum.
 3
2. Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the parabola x2  4x  8y + 12 = 0 at  4, .
 2
3. Find the value of k if the line 2y = 5x + k is a tangent to the parabola y2 = 6x.
4. Find the equation of the normal to the parabola y2 = 4x which is parallel to y 2x + 5 = 0.
5. Show that the line 2x  y + 2 = 0 is a tangent to the parabola y2 = 16x. Find the point of contact also.
6. Find the equation of tangent to the parabola y2 = 16x inclined at an angle 60o with its axis and also find
the point of contact.
II. 1. Find the equations of tangents to the parabola y2 = 16x which are parallel and perpendicular respectively
to the line 2x  y + 5 = 0, also find the coordinates of their points of contact.
2. If lx + my + n = 0 is a normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax, then show that al3 + 2alm2 + nm2 = 0.
3. Show that the equation of common tangents to the circle x2 + y2 = 2a2 and the parabola y2
= 8ax are y = + (x + 2a).
4. Prove that tangents at the extremities of a focal chord of a parabola intersect at right angles on the
directrix.
5. Find the condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the parabola x2 = 4ay.
6. Three normals are drawn from (k, 0) to the parabola y2 = 8x one of the normal is the axis and the
remaining two normals are perpendicular to each other, then find the value of k.
7. Show that the locus of point of intersection of perpendicular tangents to the parabola y2 = 4ax
is the directrix x + a = 0.
8. Two parabolas have the same vertex and equal length of latus rectum such that their axes are at
right angle. Prove that the common tangents touch each at the end of latus rectum.
9. Show that the foot of the perpendicular from focus to the tangent of the parabola y2 = 4ax lies
on the tangent at vertex.
10. Show that the tangent at one extremity of a focal chord of a parabola is parallel to the normal at
the other extremity.
III. 1. The normal at a point t1 on y2 = 4ax meets the parabola again in the point t2. Then
prove that t1t2 + t12 + 2 = 0.

2. From an external point P tangents are drawn to the parabola y2 = 4ax and these tangents make angles
1, 2 with its axis, such that cot 1 + cot 2 is a constant d. Then show
that all such P lie on a horizontal line.
3. Show that the common tangents to the circle 2x2 + 2y2 = a2 and the parabola y2 = 4ax intersect at the
focus of the parabola y2 = 4ax.
4. The sum of the ordinates of two points on y2 = 4ax is equal to the sum of the ordinates of two other
points on the same curve. Show that the chord joining the first two points is parallel to the chord
joining the other two points.
5. If a normal chord a point t on the parabola y2 = 4ax subtends a right angle at vertex, then prove that
t=+ 2 .
Key Concepts
v In a parabola eccentricity e = 1
v Equation in standard form y2 = 4ax, (a > 0). Focus (a, 0), equation of directrix
x + a = 0, axis y = 0, and length of latus rectum 4a.
v Its equation when its axis is parallel to the x-axis is x = ly2 + my + n and when axis is parallel to the y-
axis is y = lx2 + mx + n.
v Focal distance of a point P(x1, y1) on the parabola y2 = 4ax, (a > 0) is x1 + a.
v Parametric equations x = at2, y = 2at.
v P(x1, y1) lies outside, on, or inside the parabola S  y 2  4ax  0 according as S11 > 0.
<
a
v y = mx + c, (m  0) is a tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax when c  .
m
a  a 2a 
v y  mx  , (m  0) is always a tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax at  2 , .
m m m 
v A horizontal line cannot be a tangent to the parabola y2 = 4ax.

Parabola 129
v Equation of the tangent at the point (x1, y1) on the parabola S = 0 is S1 = 0.
 y1
v Equation of the normal at the point (x1, y1) on the parabola S = 0 is ( y  y1 )  ( x  x1 ).
2a
v Equation of the tangent at a point t on the parabola y2 = 4ax is x  yt + at2 = 0.
v Equation of the normal at a point t on the parabola y2 = 4ax is y + xt = 2at + at3.
Historical Note
Menaechmus, (380 - 320 BC) an associate of Plato and a pupil of Eudoxus, invented the conic
sections.
The conic sections were named and studied as long ago as when Apollonius of Perga undertook
a systematic study of their properties. The names for the conic sections : ellipse, parabola and
hyperbola were given by Apollonius. Book II of Apollonius treatise on conic sections deals with
properties of asymptotes and conjugate hyperbolas. Kepler was the first to notice that planetary
orbits were ellipses. Galileo (1564 - 1642) proved that the path of a projectile is a parabola.
Newton was then able to derive the shape of orbits mathematically using calculus under the assumption
that the gravitational force goes as the inverse square of distance.
Answers
Exercise 3(a)
I. 1. Vertex  72 , 52 , Focus  174 , 52 

2. Vertex 3,  1  , Focus (3, 1)
2
3. Equation of the axis is y + 3 = 0, equation of the directrix is 2x + 5 = 0.
4. axis 2x + 3 = 0, directrix 20y  33 = 0
5. (x  1)2 = 20(y + 2)
6. x2  2xy + y2  12x  20y + 68 = 0
7. (2y  3)2 = (4x + 13) or (2y  3)2 = (4x + 11)
8. (i) on the parabola (ii) outside the parabola (iii) inside the parabola.
9. (8, +8) 10. (8, 8) 12. 107 k.m.
II. 1. 9y2 = 4ax
2. y2 = 4(a'  a) (x  a)
3. x + 2y = 0, x  2y = 0, -Tan1(4/3)
4. 5y2 + 2x  21y + 20 = 0
5. x2  4x  2y + 10 = 0
III. 1. 9x2  12xy + 4y2 + 68x  54y + 153 = 0, length of the latus rectum = 2 . Equation of the axis of
13
the parabola is 3x  2y + 12 = 0.
   
3. (i) Vertex 74 ,  2 , Focus 34 ,  2 , Directrix 4x  11 = 0, axis y + 2 = 0
(ii) Vertex (1, 1), Focus (1, 0), Directrix y = 2, axis x = 1
Exercise 3(b)
I. 1. Tangent 2x  2y + 3 = 0, Normal 2x + 2y  9 = 0
2. Tangent x  2y  1 = 0, Normal 4x + 2y  19 = 0
6
3. k =
5
4. 2x  y  12 = 0
5. (1, 4)
4 8 
6. 3x  3 y + 4 = 0  , .
3 3
II. 1. 2x  y + 2 = 0, point of contact (1, 4)
x + 2y + 16 = 0, point of contact (16, 16)
5. am2 + c = 0
6. k = 6
Ellipse 131
trinaabhi cakramajara manarvam yeenee maa visva

bhuvanaani tasthuh
The elliptical path through which all the celestial bodies
move, is imperishable and unslackened
_
-Rigve da
Introduction
We study the ellipse in this chapter. We also discuss, about
the standard form of equation of ellipse, conditions for a line to be
a tangent to the ellipse, chord of contact, parameteric equations of
an ellipse, in the chapter. Girard Desargues
(ca. 1593 - 1662)
4.1 Equation of ellipse in standard form, Desargues, a French mathematician
parametric equations who gave remarkably original writings
on the conic sections. He was besides
being a mathematician, an engineer,
In this section, we study the equation of an ellipse in the an architect and one time French army
standard form and also its parameteric equations. officer. In geometry his contributions
have been phenomenal; fundamental
theorems on involution, harmonic
ranges, homology, poles and polars
and principles of per-spectivity in
projective geometry are some of his
works. The fundamental two triangle
theorem bears his name.
4.1.1 Definition (Ellipse)

A conic with eccentricity less than unity is called an ellipse. Hence an ellipse is the locus of a
point whose distances from a fixed point and a fixed straight line are in constant ratio e which is
less than unity. The fixed point and the fixed straight line are called the focus and the directrix of
the ellipse respectively.
4.1.2 Equation of ellipse in standard form

Let S be a focus, the line l be the corresponding directrix and e be the eccentricity. Let Z be the foot of
the perpendicular from S on the directrix. Let A and A be the points which divide SZ in the ratio e : 1, internally
and externally, respectively, (Fig. 4.1).
Y
B
M P M
X   X
Z A S C S N A Z
B
Y
Fig. 4.1
Consider C, mid point of AA as origin, consider the line CZ extended as X-axis and a line perpendicular to it at
C as Y-axis.
Let CA = a = CA  so that A = (a, 0) and A  = (a, 0).
SA SA 
But e  SA  e(AZ) and SA  e(A Z)
AZ A Z
 CA  CS = e(CZ  CA)  a  CS = e(CZ  a) ... (1)
CS  C A  = e(CA   CZ)  CS + a = e(a + CZ) ... (2)
a
Adding (1) and (2) above, we get 2a = 2e(CZ) or (CZ) = .
e
a
 Equation of the directrix is x = . ... (3)
e
Subtracting (1) from (2), we get 2(CS) = 2ea  CS = ae.
 Coordinates of focus S are (ae, 0).
Ellipse 133
Now let P(x, y) be a point on the ellipse and PM be the perpendicular distance from P to the directrix.
Then by the definition SP = e(PM).
 (SP)2 = e2 (PM)2
2 2 a 2 2ax   a
i.e., (x  ae)2 + y2 e
=   x   
e  ' PM  x  e 
 e2
i.e., x2 (1  e2) + y2 = a2(1  e2)
x2 y2
  1.
a 2 a 2 (1  e 2 )
Since 0 < e < 1  1  e2 > 0  a2(1  e2) > 0.
 We can choose a real number b > 0 such that a2(1  e2) = b2.
x2 y 2
   1, (a  0, b  0) ...(4)
a 2 b2
we have shown that coordinates of P must satisfy (4) if P satisfies the geometric condition SP = e(PM)
conversely, if x, y satisfy the algebraic equation (4) with b2 = a2 (1  e2) and 0 < e < 1, then
2 x2  2 a  x 
2 2
a 2 (1  e 2 ) (a 2  x 2 )
2
  
y  b 1  2   b  2

  2
 (1  e 2 ) (a 2  x 2 ) .
 a   a  a
 SP  ( x  ae) 2  y 2  x 2  a 2e 2  2aex  (1  e 2 ) ( a 2  x 2 )
a
 SP  ( xe) 2  2( xe)a  a 2  | xe  a |  e | x  |  e(PM ).
e
If P satisfies the algebraic condition then P satisfies the geometric condition and vice versa.
x2 y2
Thus the locus of P is 2  2  1, the equation of ellipse in the standard form.
a b
Now let S be the image of S and ZM  be the image of ZM with respect to Y-axis, taking S as focus and
x2 y2
ZM  as corresponding directrix, it can be seen that the corresponding equation of ellipse is also 2    1.
a b
Hence for every ellipse, there are two foci and two corresponding directrices.
we have b2 = a2(1  e2) and 0 < e < 1  b2 < a2  b < a.
4.1.3 Nature of the curve
x2 y2
Equation of the ellipse in standard form is 2    1 , (a > b > 0) ... (1)
a b
(i) Point of intersection with coordinate axes :
If y = 0, then x = + a i.e., the curve intersect X-axis at A(a, 0) and A (a, 0).
hence A A = 2a.
If x = 0, then y = + b i.e., the curve intersect Y-axis at B(0, b) and B (0, b).
hence B B = 2b.
b a 2
(ii) From (1) we have y   a 2  x 2 and x   b  y2 . ... (2)
a b
From (2), y is real  a2  x2 > 0  a < x < a  | x | < a.
From (2), x is real  b2  y2 > 0  b < y < b  | y | < b.
 Corresponding to every real value of x, with | x | < a, there are two real values of y, equal in magnitude
but opposite in sign. Similarly corresponding to every real value of y with | y | < b, there are two real values
of x, equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. Hence ellipse is symmetric about both the axes.
(iii) The curve lies inside the rectangle bounded by
the lines Y
x = a, x = a, y = b, y = b (see Fig. 4.2)

B y=b
X    A
X
A S C S
y = b
B
x = a x=a
Y
Fig. 4.2
x2 y2
(iv) The trace of the curve 2  2  1 Y
a b
in first quadrant is shown in B (0, b)
Fig. 4.2(a). A (a, 0)

X X
Y
Fig. 4.2(a)
Since the curve is symmetric about both axes,

Y
the complete trace of the curve is shown in
Fig. 4.3. B
X C A
X
A
B
Y
Fig. 4.3
Ellipse 135
(v) Any chord through C(0, 0) of the ellipse is bisected at the point C, for the points (x, y), (x, y)
simultaneously lie on the curve. The centre of an ellipse is defined as the point of intersection of its axes of
symmetry. Therefore the centre of the ellipse is the point C.
4.1.4 Definition (Major and Minor axes)
The line segment AA  and B B of lengths 2a and 2b respectively are called axes of ellipse.
If a > b, AA  is called major axis and B B is called minor axis and vice versa if a < b. The
extremities of the major axis of the ellipse are called the vertices of that ellipse.
4.1.5 Various forms of the ellipse

x2 y2
If a = b, then the ellipse 2  2  1 is a circle (x2 + y2 = a2) with centre at origin and having radius a
a b
and we are familiar with circles. We assumed a  b and in the following discussion, we describe different forms
of the ellipse.
x2 y2
(i)   1 (a  b  0) (Fig. 4.4)
a2 b2
Major axis along X-axis Directrix
Y
Directrix
Length of major 2a
axis (A A )
Minor axis along Y-axis B
Length of minor
axis (B B ) 2b X Z A A Z
X
S C S
Centre C = (0, 0) B
Foci S = (ae, 0), Y

S = (ae, 0)
Equation of x = a/e
the directrices x = a/e Fig. 4.4
a2  b2
Eccentricity e=
a2
x2 y2
(ii)   1 (0 < a < b) (Fig. 4.5)
a2 b2
Major axis along Y-axis
Y
Length of major 2b
axis (B B ) Z
Directrix
Minor axis along X-axis B
Length of minor S
axis ( A A ) 2a
X C A X
Centre C = (0, 0) A
Foci S = (0, be) S
S = (0, be) B
Directrix
Equation of the y = b/e Z
directrices y = b/e Y
b2  a2
Eccentricity e= Fig. 4.5
b2
4.1.6 Centre not at the origin
If the centre is at (h, k) and the axes of the ellipse are parallel to the X-and Y - axis, then by shifting the
origin to (h, k) by translation of axes and using the results (i) and (ii) above, the following results (iii) and (iv) can
be obtained.
( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2
(iii)   1, (a  b  0) (Fig. 4.6)
a2 b2
Major axis along y = k
Length of major Directrix Minor axis Directrix
2a
axis (AA )
Minor axis along x = h
Length of minor
axis (B B ) 2b B
Centre C = (h, k)
S S
Foci S = (h+ae, k) Z A C (h, k) A axis(y=k)
S = (hae, k) (major)
Equation of x = h+a/e B
the directrices x = ha/e
x=h
2 2
a b
Eccentricity e= Fig. 4.6
a2
Ellipse 137
( x  h)2 ( y  k )2
(iv)   1, (0  a  b) , (Fig. 4.7)
a2 b2
Major axis
Major axis along x = h
Length of the major 2b Directrix
B
axis (B B )
Minor axis along y = k S
Minor axis
Length of the minor A C(h, k) A
axis (AA ) 2a S
Centre C = (h, k)
B
Foci S = (h, k + be) Z Directrix
S = (h, kbe)
Equation of y = k+b/e Fig. 4.7
the directrices y = kb/e
b2  a2
Eccentricity e=
b2
4.1.7 Definitions (Chord, Focal chord, Latus rectum)

Chord : A line segment joining two points on the ellipse is called a chord of the ellipse.
Focal chord : A chord passing through one of the foci is called a Focal chord.
Latus rectum : A focal chord perpendicular to the major axis of the ellipse is called a
Latus rectum. An ellipse has two Latera Recta.
4.1.8 Length of the latus rectum

Y
Let L, L be the ends of the latus rectum passing
through the one of the foci S(ae, 0) of the ellipse
L1 B L
(Fig. 4.8)
x2 y 2 X X
  1, (a  b) A C S A
... (1)
a 2 b2
L1 B L
Y
Fig. 4.8
Since L L is perpendicular to x-axis, the x coordinate of L and L are equal to ae. This L = (ae, y1) is
on (1), we have
(ae) 2 y12 y12 2 b 

2
  1   (1  e 2
)  y1
2
 b 2
(1  e 2
)  b 
 a 2  , [' b2 = a2(1  e2)]
a2 b2 b2  
b2
 y1   .
a
 b2   b2 
Hence L   ae,  and L   ae,   .
 a  a
2b 2
 Length of the latus rectum LL  .
a
4.1.9 Note
x2 y2
1. The coordinates of the four ends of the latera recta of the ellipse.   1, (a > b) are
a 2 b2
 b2   b2 
L   ae, , L   ae,   and L1    ae, b  , L   ae,  b  , (Fig.4.8).
2 2
  
 a  a  a  1  a 

x2 y 2 2a 2
2. Length of the latus rectum of the ellipse   1, (b  a ) is and the coordinates of the four ends
a 2 b2 b
 a2   a2   a2   a2 
of the latera recta are L  , be , L   , be  and L1  ,  be  L1   ,  be  .
 
 b 
 b   b     b 
2 2
x y
3. (i) The equation of the latus rectum of the ellipse 2  2  1, (a  b) through S is x = ae and through S
a b
is x =  ae.
x2 y2
(ii) The equation of the latus rectum of the ellipse   1, (b  a) through S is y = be and through
a2 b2
S is y =  be.
x2 y 2
4.1.10 Theorem : If P(x, y) is any point on the ellipse 2  2  1, (a  b) . whose foci are S and S then
a b
SP + S P is a constant.
x2 y2
Proof : The equation of the ellipse is given as   1, (a  b) . ... (1)
a 2 b2
Let S, S be the foci and ZM, ZM  be the corresponding directrices. Join SP and S P. Draw PL
perpendicular to x-axis and M  MP perpendicular to the two directrices (Fig. 4.9).
Ellipse 139
By the definition of the ellipse SP = ePM = e(LZ).

a 
 SP = e(CZ  CL) = e  x  Y
e 
 SP = a  xe
SP  ePM   e(LZ) M
P(x, y)
M
= e(CL + C Z )
X X
 a Z A S C S L A Z
= e x  
 e
= a + xe L L
 SP + S P = a  xe + a + xe.
 SP + S P = 2a (constant) = Length of Y
the major axis. Fig. 4.9
4.1.11 Note (Constructing an ellipse)

123
123
123
There are several methods of constructing an 123
123
123
123
ellipse. One of these uses the fact that SP + S P = 2a 123
P
(Constant) directly. The two ends of string of length
2a are held fixed at the foci S and S and a pencil
draws the curve as it is held tight against the string S  S
(Fig. 4.10).
Fig. 4.10
Hence, an ellipse is the locus of a point the sum of whose distances from two fixed points is a constant k,
provided the distance between the fixed points is less than k.
4.1.12 Definition (Auxiliary circles)

Y
The circle described on the major axis of an ellipse as
B
diameter is called auxiliary circle of the ellipse.
The equation of the auxiliary circle of the ellipse X X
A C A
x2 y2
  1(a  b) is x2 + y2 = a2.
a 2 b2 B
(see Fig. 4.10(a)). Fig. 4.10(a)
Y
4.1.13 Eccentric angle and parametric equation

Let P be any point on the ellipse. Draw PN perpendicular to the major axis and produce it to meet the
auxiliary circle at Q. Then angle ACQ is called the eccentric angle of the point P. Let us denote the angle as .
If P starts from A and moves along the ellipse in the anti-clock wise direction and comes once again at A, then
 will vary from 0 to 2.
Let the coordinates of P be(x, y). Then x = a cos . Y

x
[' from CNQ, cos = where CQ is the radius of the auxiliary
a Q
circle (Fig. 4.11)] B
x2 y 2 P
Since P lies on the ellipse 2  2  1, 
a b X X
2 2
a cos  y 2 A C N A
we have  2 1
a2 b B
2 2 2
 y  b (1  cos  )  b sin  2 2
 y   b sin . Y
Fig. 4.11
 The coordinates of P are of the form (a cos , b sin ) or (a cos , b sin ) where = 2. The point
(a cos , b sin ) is for the sake of brevity, called the point  and is denoted by P().
If we put x = a cos , y = b sin  in the equation of the ellipse, the equation is satisfied for all values of .
x2 y2
Hence the pair of equations x = a cos , y = b sin  together yield the single equation   1. These two
a2 b2
equations are known as the parametric equations of the ellipse and  is called the parameter.
4.1.14 Notation
x2 y 2
We denote   1 by S throughout this chapter. Thus the equation of the ellipse in standard form is
a 2 b2
S = 0. Further, we use the following notation similar to the notation given in the chapter on circle.
xx yy xx yy x2 y 2
S1  21  1  1, S12  1 22  1  2  1, S11  12  1  1.
a b a b a b
4.1.15 Ellipse and a point in the plane of the ellipse
An ellipse divides the XY-plane into two disjoint regions, one containing the foci, called the interior region
of the ellipse and the other is called the exterior region of the ellipse.
x2 y 2
Let P(x1, y1) be a point in the plane of the ellipse 2  2  1, | x1| < a. ... (1)
a b Y
Draw PN, perpendicular to the major axis of the ellipse (1), which
meets the ellipse in Q. Then N(x1, 0) P(x1, y1)
B
Q
 b 
Q   x1 , a 2  x12  (or) X X
 a  A C N A
 b 
 x1 ,  a 2  x12  and PN = | y | B
 a  1
Y
Fig. 4.12
Ellipse 141
b2 2
2 2 y12  (a  x12 )
consider (PN)  (QN)  x12 y12
2
a
 2  2  1  S11 . ... (2)
b2 b 2
a b
Now
(i) P lies outside the ellipse  PN > QN  (PN)2  (QN)2 > 0
(PN) 2  (QN) 2
 S11  0
b2
(ii) P lies on the ellipse  PN = QN  (PN)2  (QN)2 = 0
(PN) 2  (QN) 2
 S11  0
b2
(iii) P lies inside the ellipse  PN < QN  (PN)2  (QN)2
(PN ) 2  (QN) 2
 S11   0.
b2
x12 y12
If | x1| > a, then the point P(x1, y1) clearly lies outside the ellipse and 2  2  1  0 in this case also.
a b
Thus the point P lies outside, on or inside the ellipse S = 0 according as S11 is positive, zero or negative
i.e., S11   0.

1. Problem : Find the eccentricity, coordinates of foci, Length of latus rectum and equations of directrices
of the following ellipses.
(i) 9x2 + 16y2  36x + 32y  92 = 0
(ii) 3x2 + y2  6x  2y  5 = 0
Solutions
(i) given ellipse 9x2 + 16y2  36x + 32y  92 = 0
9(x2  4x + 4) + 16(y2 + 2y + 1) = 92 + 36 + 16
9(x  2)2 + 16(y + 1)2 = 144
( x  2) 2 ( y  (1)) 2
  1,
16 9
( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2
comparing with   1 , we get
a2 b2
a2 = 16, b2 = 9, (h, k) = (2, 1)  a = 4, b = 3  a > b.
a 2  b2 16  9 7
 e  2
  .
a 16 4
4 7
 Foci = (h + ae, k) = (2  ,  1) .
4
 Foci are ( 2  7 ,  1) .
2b 2 2(9) 9
Length of latus rectum =   .
a 4 2
a 4 4
Equations of directrices x = h   2  .
e 7
i.e., Equations of directrices are 7 x  ( 2 7  16) .
(ii) Given ellipse 3x2 + y2  6x  2y  5 = 0
3(x2  2x + 1) + (y2  2y + 1) = 5 + 3 + 1
3(x  1)2 + (y  1)2 = 9
( x  1) 2 ( y  1) 2
  1,
3 9
( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2
comparing with   1 , we get
a2 b2
a2 = 3, b2 = 9, (h, k) = (1, 1)  a = 3 ; b = 3  b > a
b2  a 2 93 6 2 2
 e 2
    .
b 9 9 3 3
 2
Foci = (h, k + be) = 1, 1  3.   (1, 1  6 ) .

 3 
2
2a 2(3)
Length of the latus rectum =   2.
b 3
b 3 3
Equations of directrices y  k   1 
e 2
i.e., 2 y  ( 2  3 3) .
2. Problem : Find the equation of the ellipse referred to its major and minor axes as the coordinate axes
X, Y-respectively with latus rectum of length 4 and distance between foci 4 2 .
2 2
Solution : Let the equation of the ellipse x 2  y 2  1 (a > b).
a b
2b 2
Length of the latus rectum   4  b 2  2a .
a
Distance between foci S = (ae, 0) S = (ae, 0) is 2ae = 4 2  ae = 2 2 .
Ellipse 143
Now b2 = a2(1  e2)  2a = a2  (ae)2 = a2  8  a2  2a  8 = 0.

(or) (a  4) (a + 2) = 0  a = 4, (' a > 0).
b2 = 2a = 8
x2 y2
 Equation of the ellipse   1 (or) x2 + 2y2 = 16.
16 8
3. Problem : If the length of the latus rectum is equal to half of its minor axis of an ellipse in the standard
form, then find the eccentricity of the ellipse.
x2 y2
Solution : Let   1 (a > b) be the ellipse in its standard form.
a 2 b2
1
Given that the length of the latus rectum = (minor axis)
2
2b 2 1
 (2 b)  2b  a
a 2
 4b2 = a2  4a2 (1  e2) = a2
1 3 3
 1  e2   e2   e  .
4 4 2
4. Problem : If 1, 2 are the eccentric angles of the extremeties of a focal chord (other than the vertices)
2 2
of the ellipse x  y  1 , (a > b) and e its eccentricity. Then show that
a 2 b2
(1   2 ) (   )
(i) e cos  cos 1 2 .
2 2
e 1    
(ii)  cot  1  cot  2  . Y
e 1 2  2 
Solution : (i) Let P(1), Q(2) be two extremeties of a focal chord of the ellipse
P
x2 y 2
  1 , (a > b). X X
a2 b2 S
 P = (a cos 1, b sin 1), (1  0) Q
Q = (a cos 2, b sin 2), (2  ) Y
and focus S = (ae, 0). But PQ is focal chord Fig. 4.13
hence P, S, Q are collinear, (Fig. 4.13)

 Slope of PS = Slope of SQ
b sin 1 b sin  2

a (cos 1  e) a (cos  2  e)
 sin1 cos2  e sin 1 = cos 1 sin 2  e sin 2

sin1 cos2  cos 1 sin 2  e (sin 1 sin 2)
 sin(1 2) = e(sin 1  sin 2)

           
 2sin  1 2  cos  1 2   2 e cos  1 2  sin  1 2 
 2   2   2   2 
       1  2  
 e cos  1 2   cos 1 2 . ' sin  2   0 
 2  2    
   
cos  1 2 
e  2 
(ii) From (i) we have 
1   
cos  1 2 
 2 
       
cos  1  2   cos  1  2  2cos 1 cos 2
e 1 2 2 2 2  2 2
  
e 1        
cos  1  2   cos  1  2  2sin 1 sin 2
2 2 2 2  2 2
e 1  
  cot 1 cot 2 .
e 1 2 2
x2 y2
5. Problem : C is the centre, A A and B B are major and minor axes of the ellipse 2  2  1 . If (PN)
a b
(PN ) 2 (BC) 2
is the ordinate of a point P on the ellipse then show that  .
(AN) (AN) (CA) 2
Solution : Let P() = (a cos , b sin ) be a point on the ellipse

Y
2 2
x y
S 2
 2  1 (Fig. 4.14)
a b B
P
PN = b sin , CN = a cos , CA = C A  = a, CB = C B = b.
(PN ) 2 (PN ) 2 X X
L.H.S. =  A C N A
(AN) (AN) (CA  CN) (CA  CN)
B
(b sin ) 2 b 2 sin 2 
 
(a  a cos ) (a  a cos ) a 2 (1  cos ) (1  cos ) Y
b 2 sin 2  b 2 sin 2  b 2 (BC) 2

     R.H.S. Fig. 4.14
a 2 (1  cos 2 ) a 2 sin 2  a 2 (CA) 2
Ellipse 145
6. Problem : S and T are the foci of an ellipse and B is one end of the minor axis. If STB is an equilateral
triangle, then find the eccentricity of the ellipse.
x2 y2
Solution : Let   1 (a > b) be an ellipse whose foci are S and T, B is an end of the minor axis such that
a 2 b2
STB is equilateral triangle, then SB = ST = TB. We have S(ae, 0), T = (ae, 0)
and B(0, b). Consider SB = ST  (SB)2 = (ST)2  (ae)2 + b2 = 4a2e2 B(0, b)
 a 2 e 2  a 2 (1  e 2 )  4a 2 e 2 [' b2 = a2(1  e2)]

(ae, 0) (ae, 0)
2 1
e  T S
4
1
 Eccentricity of the ellipse is .
2
Fig. 4.15
x2 y 2
7. Problem : Show that among the points on the ellipse 2  2  1 (a > b), (a, 0) is the farthest point
a b
and (a, 0) is the nearest point from the focus (ae, 0).
Solution : Let P = (x, y) be any point on the ellipse so that a < x < a and S = (ae, 0) be the focus.
Since (x, y) is on the ellipse,
b2 2
y2  2
(a  x 2 )
a
= (1  e2) (a2  x2) [' b2 = a2(1  e2)] ....(1)
Then we know that
SP2 = (x  ae)2 + y2
= (x  ae)2 + (1  e2) (a2  x2) [from (1)]
= 2xae + a2 + e2x2
= [a  ex]2
 SP = | a  ex|
we have  a < x < a
  ae < xe < ae
  ae  a < xe  a < ae  a ....(2)
 ex  a < 0
 SP = a  ex ....(3)
From (2) and (3)

ae + a > SP > a  ae
 a  ae < SP < ae + a
 Max SP = ae + a when P = ( a, 0)
and Min SP = a  ae when P = ( a, 0)
Hence the nearest point is ( a, 0),
and the farthest one is ( a, 0).
1
8. Problem : The orbit of the Earth is an ellipse with eccentricity with the Sun at one of its foci, the
60
major axis being approximately 186  106 miles in length. Find the shortest and longest distance of the
Earth from the Sun.
x2 y 2
Solution : We take the orbit of the Earth to be 2  2  1 (a > b).
a b
Since the major axis is 186  106 miles,
2a = 186  106 miles
 a= 93  106 miles.
1
If e be the eccentricity of the orbit, e  .
60
We know, the longest and shortest distances of the Earth from the Sun are respectively a + ae and
a  ae(problem 7)
6  1 
 Here, the longest distance = 93  10  1   miles
 60 
= 9455  104 miles.
6  1 
and the shortest distance = 93  10  1   miles
 60 
= 9145  104 miles.
Exercise 4(a)
I. 1. Find the equation of the ellipse with focus at (1, 1), e = 2/3 and directrix as x + y + 2 = 0.
2. Find the equation of the ellipse in the standard form whose distance between foci is 2 and the length
of latus rectum is 15/2.
3. Find the equation of the ellipse in the standard form such that distance between foci is 8 and
distance between directrices is 32.
Ellipse 147
4. Find the eccentricity of the ellipse (in standard form), if its length of the latus rectum is equal to half
of its major axis.
5. The distance of a point on the ellipse x2 + 3y2 = 6 from its centre is equal to 2. Find the eccentric
angles.
6. Find the equation of ellipse in the standard form, if it passes through the points (2, 2) and (3, 1).
7. If the ends of major axis of an ellipse are (5, 0) and (5, 0). Find the equation of the ellipse in the
standard form if its focus lies on the line 3x  5y  9 = 0.
8. If the length of the major axis of an ellipse is three times the length of its minor axis then find the
eccentricity of the ellipse.
II. 1. Find the length of major axis, minor axis, latus rectum, eccentricity, coordinates of centre, foci and
the equations of directrices of the following ellipse.
(i) 9x2 + 16y2 = 144 (ii) 4x2 + y2  8x + 2y + 1 = 0
(iii) x2 + 2y2  4x + 12y + 14 = 0
( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2
2. Find the equation of the ellipse in the form   1, given the following data.
a2 b2
1
(i) centre (2,1), one end of the major axis ( 2,5) , e 
3
(ii) centre (4,1), one end of the major axis (1, 1) and passes through (8, 0)
(iii) centre (0, 3), e = 2/3, semi minor axis 5
(iv) centre (2, 1), e = 1/2, length of latus rectum 4
3. Find the radius of the circle passing through the foci of an ellipse 9x2 + 16y2 = 144 and having least
radius.
4. A man running on a race course notices that the sum of the distances of the two flag posts from him
is always 10 m. and the distance between the flag posts is 8 m. Find the equation of the race course
traced by the man.
III. 1. A line of fixed length (a + b) moves so that its ends are always on two fixed perpendicular straight
lines. Prove that a marked point on the line, which divides this line into portions of length a and b
describes an ellipse and also find the eccentricity of the ellipse when a = 8, b = 12.
x2 y2
2. Prove that the equation of the chord joining the points  and  on the ellipse   1 is
a2 b2
x    y       
cos    sin    cos  .
a  2  b  2   2 
4.2 Equation of tangent and normal at a point on the ellipse

In this section, the relation between an ellipse and a straight line in its plane is discussed. The condition for
a straight line to be a tangent to a given ellipse is obtained. The cartesian and parametric equations of the tangent
and the normal at a given point on the ellipse are also derived.
4.2.1 Points of intersection of the ellipse and a straight line
x2 y2
Let   1 be the ellipse and the line y = mx + c be given. The x coordinates of the
a 2 b2
point of intersection of given ellipse and line are given by the quadratic equation in x obtained by eliminating y.
x 2 (mx  c) 2
i.e.,  1
a2 b2
i.e., x2(a2m2 + b2) + 2a2 mcx + a2(c2  b2) = 0 ...(1)
This quadratic equation in x, has two roots (say x1 and x2) distinct real (Fig.4.16(i)), coinciding
(Fig.4.16(ii)) or imaginary (Fig. 4.16(iii)) according as the discriminant of equation (1) is positive, zero (or)
negative respectively. The ordinates of the points of intersection, y1, y2 can be obtained by substituting x1, x2 for
x in y = mx + c.
A
A
C C C
B
(i) (ii) (iii)
Fig. 4.16
Note that any straight line that intersects the ellipse at only one point (touches) is tangent to
the ellipse.
4.2.2 Theorem : The condition for a straight line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the ellipse
x2 y2
  1 is c2 = a2m2 + b2.
a2 b2
Proof : The x coordinates of the points of intersection of the line y = mx + c and the ellipse are given
by (eq(1) of 4.2.1)
(a2m2 + b2) x2 + 2a2cmx + a2 (c2  b2) = 0 ...(1)
The line will touch the ellipse iff the two points are coincident.
 discriminent of (1) is zero.
Ellipse 149
 4a4 c2m2  4(a2m2 + b2) a2 (c2  b2) = 0
 c2 = a2m2  b2  c   a m  b .
2 2 2
Y
4.2.3 Note
(i) In view of the Theorem 4.2.2, the equation of any tangent
to the ellipse S = 0 can be taken as y  mx  a 2 m 2  b 2 . X
C X
(ii) For every real value of m, there are two parallel tangents to
the ellipse as shown in Fig. 4.17.
(iii) The points of contact of these tangents are
Y
 a m 2
b 2   a m b 
2 2
 ,   ,  and Fig. 4.17

 a 2 m2  b2 a 2m2  b2   c c
 a 2m  b2   a 2m  b2 
 ,  ,  2 2 2 2
 2 2
 a m  b 2  
a 2m2  b2   c c  where c = a m + b .
4.2.4 Theorem : The equation of the chord joining two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on the ellipse S = 0 is
S1 + S2 = S12.
x2 y2
Proof : Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be two points on the ellipse S =  1 0 then S11 = 0 and S22 = 0.
a2 b2
Consider the first degree equation S1 + S2 = S12 which represents a straight line.
Substituting (x1, y1) it becomes S11 + S12 = S12  0 + S12 = S12.
Y
 (x1, y1) satisfies the equation S1 + S2 = S12.
Similarly (x2, y2) also satisfies the equation S1 + S2 = S12.
P(x1, y1)
 Equation of the chord PQ will be S1 + S2 = S12.
X X
4.2.5 Theorem : The equation of the tangent at P(x1, y1) to C
the ellipse S = 0 is S1 = 0.
Proof : Let P(x1 y1) and Q(x2 y2) be two points on S = 0 then
S11 = 0 and S22 = 0. Y
Fig. 4.18
By Theorem 4.2.4 the equation of the chord PQ is
S1 + S2 = S12. ... (1)
Chord PQ becomes the tangent at P when Q approaches to P that is (Q(x2, y2) approaches to P(x1, y1))
(Fig. 4.18)
Therefore the equation of the tangent at P obtained by taking limits as (x2, y2) tends to (x1 y1) on either
side of (1) (Fig. 4.18)
So the equation of tangent at P given by Lt (S1  S2 )  Lt S12 .

Q P Q P
i.e., S1 + S1 = S11 [' S2  S1 and S12  S11 as (x2 y2)  (x1 y1)]
i.e., 2S1 = 0
i.e., S1 = 0.
x2 y2
4.2.6 Theorem : The equation of the normal at P(x1, y1) to the ellipse S   1 0 is
a2 b2
a 2 x b2 y
  a 2  b 2 ( x1  0, y1  0).
x1 y1
xx1 yy1
Proof : By the Theorem 4.2.5, the equation of the tangent to the ellipse S = 0 at P(x1, y1) is S1   1  0 .
a2 b2
 x1 / a 2  b 2 x1
 Slope of the tangent at P =  2 .
y1 / b 2 a y1
a 2 y1
 Slope of the normal at P = 2 .
b x1
a 2 y1
Hence the equation of the normal at P(x1 y1) is (y  y1) = 2 ( x  x1 ) .
b x1
a2 x b2 y
Simplifying this, we get   a 2  b2.
x1 y1
4.2.7 Note
(i) If x1 = 0 and y1  0 then the normal at P(x1 y1) = (0, y1) = (0, +b) is the Y - axis.
(ii) If y1 = 0 and x1  0 then the normal at P(x1, y1) = (x1, 0) = (+a, 0) is the X-axis.
x2 y2 x cos  y sin 
(iii) Equation of the tangent at P() on the ellipse 2  2  1 is   1.
a b a b
We know that the equation of the tangent at P(x1, y1) to the ellipse S = 0 is
xx1 yy1
S1    1  0. Replacing (x1, y1) by P() = (a cos , b sin ), we get
a2 b2
x cos  y sin 
  1.
a b
ax by
(iv) Equation of the normal at P() to the ellipse S = 0 is   a 2  b 2 when   0,   , , 3 .
cos  sin  2 2
Ellipse 151
The equation of the normal at P(x1, y1) to the ellipse S = 0.

a 2 x b2 y
  a 2  b2 ( x1  0, y1  0) . Replacing (x1, y1) by P() = (a cos , b sin )
x1 y1
ax by  3
we get   a 2  b 2 (  0, , , ).
cos  sin  2 2
(v) When  = 0 or , the equation of the normal is y = 0.
 3
When  =  or , the equation of the normal is x = 0.
2 2
4.2.8 Theorem : At most four normals can be drawn from a given point to an ellipse.
ax by
Proof : Equation of the normal at the point P() on the ellipse S = 0 is   a 2  b 2 . If this passes
cos  sin 
ax1 by
through the point (x1, y1) then  1  a 2  b2 ... (1)
cos  sin 
The equation will give different values of  for which the normal passes through (x1, y1).
 2   2 
 1  tan 2   1  tan 2 
Equation (1) can be written as ax1    by1   a 2  b 2 . After simplification we
2   
 1  tan   2 tan 
 2  2 
  
get by1 tan 4  2( ax1  a 2 e 2 ) tan 3  2( ax1  a 2 e 2 ) tan  by1  0.
2 2 2
 
This equation in tan is satisfied by atmost four values of tan . If we consider one of these values as
2 2

1 , tan  1 ,   2 Tan 1 (1 ) and the general value of   2n  2 Tan 1 (1 ), (n is an integer) which
2
gives the same point on the ellipse as .

 Corresponding to one value of tan , we get one point on the ellipse.
2
Hence there will be at most four normals to the ellipse passing through a point.
1. Problem : Find the equation of tangent and normal to the ellipse 9x2 + 16y2 = 144 at the end of the
latus rectum in the first quadrant.
Solution : Given ellipse 9x2 + 16y2 = 144,
x2 y2
i.e.,   1  0 (comparing with S = 0; a2 = 16, b2 = 9)
16 9
a 2  b2 16  9 7
 e 2
  .
a 16 4
 b2   9
and end of the latus rectum in the first quadrant is P ae,    7 , 
 a  4
xx1 yy1
 Equation of the tangent at P is  1
a2 b2
x( 7) y  9 
i.e.,    1
16 9 4
i.e., 7 x  4 y  16
a 2 x b2 y
Equation of normal at P is   a 2  b2
x1 y1
16 x 9 y
i.e.,   16  9
7 9
4
16 x
i.e.,  4y  7
7
i.e., 16 x  4 7 y  7 7.
x2 y2
2. Problem : If a tangent to the ellipse   1 (a > b) meets its major axis and minor axis at M and
a 2 b2
a2 b2
N respectively then prove that   1 where C is the centre of the ellipse.
(CM ) 2 (CN ) 2
x2 y2
Solution : Let P() = (a cos , b sin ) be a point on the ellipse  1.
a 2 b2
x cos  y sin 
Then the equation of the tangent at P() is  1
a b Y
x y N
i.e.,
a  b 1
cos  sin  P
a meets major axis (X-axis) and minor axis (Y-axis) at M and N X X
C M
respectively (Fig. 4.19).
a b
 CM  , CN 
cos  sin 
Y
Fig. 4.19
Ellipse 153
a b
  cos ,  sin 
CM CN
a2 b2
   cos 2   sin 2   1 .
(CM) 2 (CN) 2
3. Problem : Find the condition for the line

x2 y2
(i) lx + my + n = 0 to be a tangent to the ellipse  1.
a 2 b2
x2 y2
(ii) lx + my + n = 0 to be a normal to the ellipse  1.
a2 b2
Solution
x2 y2
(i) Let lx + my + n = 0 be a tangent at P() = (a cos , b sin ) on the ellipse  1.
a 2 b2
x cos  y sin 
Equation of the tangent at P() is   1 is same as the line lx + my = n,
a b
then comparing the coefficients
cos  sin  1 al bm

   cos    , sin   , squaring and adding
al bm n n n
a 2l 2 b 2 m 2
we get 1 2
 2  1  a 2l 2  b 2 m 2  n 2 .
n n
x2 y2
(ii) Let lx + my + n = 0 be a normal at P() = (a cos , b sin ) on the ellipse  1.
a2 b2
ax by
 Equation of the normal at P() is   a 2  b 2 is same as the line
cos  sin 
lx + my = n then comparing the coefficients.
l cos   m sin  n  an bn
  2 2
 cos   2 2
, sin   .
a b a b l (a  b ) m( a 2  b 2 )
a 2n2 b2n2
Squaring and adding we get 1  
l 2 (a 2  b 2 ) 2 m 2 (a 2  b 2 ) 2
i.e., a 2 b 2 (a 2  b 2 ) 2 .
 
l 2 m2 n2
x2 y2
4. Problem : If the normal at one end of a latus rectum of the ellipse   1 passes through one end
a2 b2
of the minor axis, then show that e4 + e2 = 1 [e is the eccentricity of the ellipse]
x2 y2  b2 
Solution : Let L be the one end of the latus rectum of  1 . Then the coordinates of L  
 ae, .
a 2 b2  a 
Hence equation of the normal at L is
Y
a2 x b2 y
  a2  b2 Normal
ae b 2 / a
ax L
 ay  a 2  b 2
e
X X
is a line passes through the one end B  (0,  b) C S
Tangent
x2 y2 L
or minor axis of 2  2  1 as shown in Fig. 4.20. B (0,-b)
a b
a ( 0) Y
 a ( b )  a 2  b 2
e Fig. 4.20
ab  a 2  a 2 (1  e 2 )
b b 2 a 2 (1  e 2 )
ab  a 2 e 2  e 2   e4  2   1  e 2  e 4  e 2  1.
a a a2
x2 y2
5. Problem : If PN is the ordinate of a point P on the ellipse 2  2  1 and the tangent at P meets the
a b
X-axis at T then show that (CN)(CT) = a2 where C is the centre of the ellipse.
Solution : Let P() = (a cos , b sin ) be a point on the ellipse
x2 y 2
  1. Then the equation of the tangent at P() is
a 2 b2
x cos  y sin  x y
  1 or a   1 meets the
a b b
cos  sin  P()
X-axis at T T
A C N A
a
x-intercept (CT) = and the ordinate of P
cos 
is PN = bsin  then its absicca CN = a cos .
(see Fig. 4.21) Fig. 4.21
 a 
(CN) . (CT) = (a cos )   a 2 .
 cos  
Ellipse 155
6. Problem : Show that the points of intersection of the perpendicular tangents to an ellipse lie on a
circle.
x2 y2
Solution : Let the equation of the ellipse   1 (a > b). Any tangent to it in the slope intercept form is
a2 b2
y = mx + a 2 m 2  b 2 ... (1)
Let the perpendicular tangents intersect at P(x1, y1).
 P lies on (1) for some real m, i.e., y1 = mx1 + a 2 m 2  b 2 .

 (y1 mx1)2 = a2m2 + b2.
or
(x12  a2)m2  2x1y1m + (y12  b2) = 0 being a quadratic equation in m, has two roots say
m1 and m2 then m1, m2 are the slopes of tangents from P to the ellipse
 y2  b2 
 m1m2 =  12 
2 
 x1  a 
 2 2 
  1   y1  b  [' The tangents are perpendicular to each other
 x 2  a2 
 1  so that m1m2 = 1]
i.e., x12 + y12 = a2 + b2.

If, however, one of the perpendicular tangents is vertical, then such pair of perpendicular tangents
intersect at one of the points (+a, +b) and any of these points satisfies x2 + y2 = a2 + b2.
 The point of intersection of perpendicular tangents to the ellipse S = 0 lies on the circle x2 + y2 = a2 + b2.
4.2.10 Note
The circle x2 + y2 = a2 + b2 is called the Director circle of the ellipse S = 0. i.e., the centre of the director
circle is the centre of the ellipse and its radius is equal to a 2  b 2 .
7. Problem : If a circle is concentric with the ellipse, find the inclination of their common tangent to the
major axis of the ellipse.
x2 y2
Solution : Let the circle be x2 + y2 = r2 and the ellipse be   1 with a > b.
a 2 b2
The major axis of the ellipse is, therefore, the X-axis.
If r < b < a , then the circle lies wholly inside the ellipse making no common tangent possible.
Also, if b < a < r, the two curves cannot have a common tangent (the ellipse lies wholly inside the circle)
Therefore, b < r < a.
Case (i) : b < r < a (see the Fig. 4.22)
Let one of the common tangents to the curves make angle  with the positive direction of the X-axis.
Let the equation of the tangent to the circle be x cos  + y sin  = r, where is the angle made by the
radius through the point of contact with the positive direction of the X-axis.
 
    or    .
2 2
Since x cos  + y sin  = r touches the ellipse also, we have
a2cos2 + b2 sin2  = r2.
   
 a 2 cos 2      b 2 sin 2      r 2 or
 2  2
Y
   
a 2 cos 2      b 2 sin 2      r 2
2  2  
 r  X
X O
 a2sin2 + b2 cos2  = r2
 1  cos 2  2  1  cos 2  2
 a2  b  r
 2   2  Y
Fig. 4.22
 (a2 + b2) + (b2  a2) cos 2 = 2r2
a 2  b 2  2r 2
 cos 2 
a 2  b2
1  a 2  b 2  2r 2 
   cos 1  2 2 .
2  a b 
Case(ii) : When r = a.
The circle touches the ellipse at the ends of the major axis of the ellipse so that the common tangents would

be x = + a, so that   .
2
Ellipse 157
Case(iii) : When r = b
The circle touches the ellipse at the ends of the minor axis of the ellipse, so that the common tangents
would be y = +b, making  = 0.
Exercise 4(b)
I. 1. Find the equation of tangent and normal to the ellipse x2 + 8y2 = 33 at (1, 2).
2. Find the equation of tangent and normal to the ellipse x2 + 2y2  4x + 12y + 14 = 0 at (2, 1).
3. Find the equation of the tangents to 9x2 + 16y2 = 144, which makes equal intercepts on the
coordinate axis.
4. Find the coordinates of the points on the ellipse x2 + 3y2 = 37 at which the normal is parallel to the
line 6x  5y = 2.
5. Find the value of k if 4x + y + k = 0 is a tangent to the ellipse x2 + 3y2 = 3.
x2 y2
6. Find the condition for the line x cos + y sin = p to be a tangent to the ellipse 2   1.
a b2
II. 1. Find the equations of tangent and normal to the ellipse 2x2 + 3y2 = 11 at the point whose ordinate
is 1.
2. Find the equations to the tangents to the ellipse x2 + 2y2 = 3 drawn from the point (1, 2) and also
find the angle between these tangents.
3. Find the equation of the tangents to the ellipse 2x2 + y2 = 8 which are
(i) parallel to x  2y  4 = 0 (ii) perpendicular to x + y + 2 = 0

(iii) which makes an angle with x-axis.
4
4. A circle of radius 4, is concentric with the ellipse 3x2 + 13y2 = 78. Prove that a common tangent is

inclined to the major axis at an angle .
4
III. 1. Show that the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the centre on any tangent to the ellipse lies on
the curve (x2 + y2)2 = a2x2 + b2y2.
2. Show that the locus of the feet of the perpendiculars drawn from foci to any tangent of the ellipse is
the auxiliary circle.
3. The tangent and normal to the ellipse x2 + 4y2 = 4 at a point P() on it meets the major axis in
  2
Q and R respectively. If 0 < < and QR = 2 then show that = Cos1   .
2 3
Key Concepts
x 2 y2
v Equation of ellipse in standard from is   1 (a > b). Centre (0, 0) and having foci (+ae, 0)
a2 b2
directrix x   a and eccentricity e = a 2 b .
2 2
e a
2 2
x y
v If P is any point on the ellipse 2  2  1 (a > b) and foci are S and S then SP + S P = 2a.
a b
x 2 y2
v The equation of the auxiliary circle of the ellipse 2  2  1 (a > b) is x2 + y2 = a2.
a b
v x = a cos  y = b sin are called the parametric equations of the ellipse S = 0 and is called the
parameter.
v If P(x1, y1) is a point on the plane of the ellipse, then P lies outside, on or inside the ellipse S = 0
according as S11 is positive, zero or negative.
x 2 y2
v The condition for a straight line y = mx + c be a tangent to the ellipse 2  2  1 is c2 = a2m2 + b2.
a b
2
x y2  a2m , b2 
v y = mx + a 2 m 2  b 2 is always a tangent to the ellipse 2  2  1 at  
a b  c c  and
 a2m ,  b2  respectively (c 0, c2 = a2m2 + b2).
 c c  
v The equation of the tangent at P(x1, y1) to the ellipse S = 0 is S1 = 0.
b y 2
v The equation of the normal at P(x1, y1) to the ellipse S = 0 is ax x  y  a 2  b 2
2
1 1
(x1  0, y1  0).
v Equation of the tangent at P() on the ellipse S = 0 is x cos   y sin   1 .

a b
by
v Equation of the normal at P() on the ellipse S = 0 is ax   a 2  b 2 when
cos  sin 
  0,  , , 3 .
2 2
v Equation of the director circle of the ellipse S = 0 is x2 + y2 = a2 + b2.
Ellipse 159
Historical Note
_
The name of the curve, ellipse finds a place in Rigveda. The ellipse was first studied by Menaechmus.
Euclid wrote about the curve and it was given its present name by Apollonius (262-190 B.C.). The focus
and directrix of an ellipse were first considered by Pappus (290-350). In 1602 A.D., Kepler discovered
that the orbit of Mars was elliptical with Sun at one focus. Infact, the word focus was introduced first by
Kepler in 1609. There is no exact formula for the length of an ellipse in elementary functions. Srinivasa
Ramanujan gave the formula : [3(a  b)  (3a  b)(a  3b)] which is a close approximation of the
actual length.
Desargues wrote in 1639 a treatise on conic sections which later was recognised an a classic in the early
development of synthetic projective geometry.
Answers
Exercise 4(a)
I. 1. 7x2 + 7y2  4xy  26x +10y + 10 = 0

2 2 2 2 1
2. x  y  1 3. x  y  1 4. e
16 15 64 48 2
 3 5 7 
5.   , , , 6. 3x2 + 5y2 = 32 7. 16x2 + 25y2 = 400
4 4 4 4
2 2
8.
3
II. 1. Lengths of Latus e centre Foci Equation of
Major Minor Rectum directrices
axis axis
(i) 8 6 9/2 7 (0, 0) (+ 7 , 0) 7 x = +16

4
3
(ii) 4 2 1 (1, 1) (1,  1 + 3 ) 3y + 3 +4=0
2
1
(iii) 4 2 4 2 2 (2, 3) (4, 3), (0, 3) x = 6, x = 2
2
2. (i) 9(x  2)2 + 8(y + 1)2 = 128 (ii) (x  4)2 + 9(y + 1)2 = 25
x 2 ( y  3) 2 x 2 ( y  3) 2
(iii)   1 or  1
45 25 25 45
(iv) 9(x  2)2 + 12(y + 1)2 = 64 or 12(x  2)2 + 9(y + 1)2 = 64,
3. 7
x2 y 2
4.  1
25 9
III. 1. 5
3
Exercise 4(b)
I. 1. x  16y + 33 = 0, 16x + y + 14 = 0
2. y + 1 = 0, x  2 = 0
3. x + y + 5 = 0
4. (5, 2) (5, 2)
5. k = +7
6. p2 = a2 cos2  + b2 sin2 .
II. 1. Tangents 4x + 3y  11 = 0 and 4x  3y + 11 = 0
Normals 3x  4y  2 = 0 and 3x + 4y + 2 = 0
2. x  2y + 3 = 0, 5x + 2y  9 = 0, Tan1 (12)
3. (i) x  2y + 6 = 0, (ii) x  y + 2 3 = 0, (iii) y = x + 2 3
Hyperbola 161
The knowledge of which geometry aims is the knowledge

of the eternal
- Plato
Introduction
We defined that a hyperbola is a conic in which the
eccentricity is greater than unity. Thus a hyperbola is the locus
of a point that moves so that the ratio of the distance from a
fixed point to its distance from a fixed straight line is greater
than 1. The fixed point is called focus, the fixed straight line
is called directrix.
5.1 Equation of hyperbola in standard Plato

(427 - 347 B.C.)
form - Parametric equations
Plato was a disciple of Socrates.
In this section we study the equation of a hyperbola in Arithmetic was one among various
the standard form and also study its parametric equations. subjects of his study. He was parti-
5.1.1 Equation of a Hyperbola in the standard form cularly interested in the mysticism of
numbers.
Let S be the focus, ZM be the corresponding directrix
He appreciated so highly the value
and SZ be the perpendicular from S on the directrix. We can
of geometry. He ran an Academy and
divide SZ both internally and externally in the ratio e : 1,
at its entrance he displayed a sentence
(e > 1); let the points of division be A and A as shown in
Let no one ignorant of geometry enter
the Figure 5.1. Let C the midpoint of A A. Now take CZ as my doors.
the axis of X and the perpendicular at C as Y-axis.
B M P
M
X X
S A Z C Z A N S
B
Y
Fig. 5.1
Let A A  be 2a
SA = eAZ, S A  = e A Z adding
SA + SA  = e(AZ + A Z)
CS  CA + CS + C A  = e(A A )
2(CS)  a + a = e(2a)  2(CS) = 2(ae)  CS = ae.
Hence focus S = (ae, 0)
SA   SA = e(A Z  AZ) = e(CZ + A C  CA + CZ)
 A A  = e(2(CZ) + a  a) = 2e(CZ)
2a = 2eCZ
a
CZ = .
e
a
 Equation of the directrix is x = .
e
Let P(x, y) be any point on the hyperbola, PM, PN be the perpendiculars from P upon the directrix
and X-axis respectively.
Thus SP = e(PM)  (SP)2 = e2(PM)2
2
(x  ae)2 + y2 = e2 ( x  ae )
 x2(e2  1)  y2 = a2(e2  1)
x2  y2
 = 1, Put b2 = a2(e2  1) > 0 ['e > 1]
a 2 a 2 (e2  1)
x2 y2
then we obtain the equation   1. ... (1)
a2 b2
We have shown that the coordinates of P must satisfy the algebraic condition (1) when P
satisfies the geometric condition SP = e(PM).
Conversely, if x, y satisfy the algebraic equation (1) with b2 = a2(e2  1) and
2 x 
2
b2 2
e > 1 then y2 = b  2  1   2 ( x  a ) = (e2  1) (x2  a2)
2
... (2)
a  a
Hyperbola 163
 SP = ( x  ae)2  y 2  x2  a 2e2  2aex  (e2  1) ( x2  a 2 ) [' from (2)]

a
= ( xe) 2  2( xe)(a)  a 2  ( xe  a) 2  | xe  a |  e x 
 e( PM ) .
e
 P satisfies the geometric condition, when P satisfies the algebraic condition (1).
x2 y2
Thus the locus of P is 2  2  1 , the equation of the hyperbola in the standard form.
a b
Now let S be image of S and ZM be the image of ZM w.r.t. Y-axis. Taking S as focus and
x2 y2
ZM as directrix, it can be seen that the corresponding equation of hyperbola is also   1.
a2 b2
Hence for every hyperbola, there are two foci and two corresponding directrices.
a2  b2
We have b2 = a2(e2  1) and e > 1  e = .
a2
5.1.2 Trace of the curve
The equation of hyperbola in standard form is
x2 y2
S   1 0 ... (1)
a2 b2
where a > 0, b > 0 and b2 = a2(e2  1).
(i) Put y = 0 in the equation (1) then we get x = +a.
 The hyperbola cuts the X-axis at A(a, 0) and A (a, 0).
(ii) Put x = 0 in equation (1). Then we get y =  b 2 does not exist in the cartesian plane. Hence, the
curve does not intersect the y-axis.
b
(iii) Equation of the curve may be written as y =  x 2  a 2 then y is real
a
x 2  a2 > 0 x < a or x > a.
 
a
i.e., the curve does not exist between the vertical lines x = a and x = a further from x =  y 2  b2
b
then x is real for all values of y and hence each horizontal line y = k intersects the hyperbola at
exactly two points. Also x  +  when y  +  i.e., the curve is unbounded.
b
(iv) For any value of x belonging R (a, a), we have two values of y =  x 2  a 2 equal but
a
opposite in sign.
 The curve is symmetric about the X-axis (Fig. 5.1).
a
(v) For each real y, we have two values x   y 2  b 2 equal but opposite in sign
b
 The curve is symmetric about Y-axis.
 The curve consists of two symmetrical branches each extending to infinity in two directions as
shown in Fig. 5.1.
(vi) The AA along the x-axis is called transverse axis of the hyperbola. B and B are taken on y-axis
such that BC = B C = b = a e 2  1 . The BB is called the conjugate axis. Notice that the curve
does not meet its conjugate axis.
(vii) As in the ellipse, the symmetry of the curve about its axis shown that it has two foci
[S(ae, 0), S(ae, 0)] and two directrices x =  ae .
(viii) C is called the centre of the hyperbola. It is the point of intersection of the transverse and conjugate
axis. It can be shown that C bisects every chord of the hyperbola that passes through it.
5.1.3 Theorem : The difference of the focal distances of any point on the hyperbola is constant.
Proof : Let P(x, y) be any point on the hyperbola whose centre is the origin C foci are S, S directrices are ZM
and ZM as shown in Fig. 5.2.
Y
M M P
X X
S Z C Z N S
Y
Fig. 5.2
Let PN, PM, P M  be the perpendiculars drawn from P upon x-axis and the two directrices
respectively.
Now SP = e(PM) = e(NZ) = e(CN  CZ).
 a
 SP = e  x   = ex  a.
 e
 a
and SP = e(P M  ) = e(N Z  ) = e(CN + C Z  ) = e  x   = ex + a.
 e
 SP  SP = 2a.
By the above theorem, the hyperbola is sometimes defined as the locus of a point, the difference of
whose distances from two fixed points is constant.
5.1.4 Notation
x2 y2
We denote the expression   1 by S throughout this chapter. Thus the equation
a2 b2
of a hyperbola in standard form is S = 0. As usual, we use the following notation.
Hyperbola 165
xx1 yy1
S1   2  1.
a2 b
x1x2 y1 y2
S12  2  2  1.
a b
2 2
x y
S11  12  12  1.
a b
5.1.5 Definition (Rectangular Hyperbola)
If in a hyperbola the length of the transverse axis (2a) is equal to the length of the conjugate
axis (2b), the hyperbola is called a rectangular hyperbola.
Its equation is x2  y2 = a2 [' a = b]
a 2  b 2 2a 2
In this case e2=  2  2  e  2.
a2 a
The eccentricity of a rectangular hyperbola is 2 .
5.1.6 Definition (Auxiliary Circle)

The circle described on the transverse axis of a hyperbola as diameter is called the auxiliary
circle of the hyperbola.
The equation of the auxiliary circle of S = 0 is x2 + y2 = a2.
5.1.7 Parametric equations
Let the equation of the hyperbola be S = 0, then the equation of the auxiliary circle is x2 + y2 = a2.
Let P(x, y) be any point on the hyperbola and C be the centre. Let M be the projection of P on
the transverse axis. Draw the tangent QM to the auxiliary circle from M (Fig. 5.3). If  MCQ =  then
Y P(x, y)
Q
a 
X X
A C A M
Y
Fig. 5.3
x2 y2
the x coordinate of the point P = CM = x = a sec . Substituting this value of x in 2  2  1 , we
a b
a 2 sec 2  y 2 y2 2
have  2  1  2 = tan   y = +b tan .
a2 b b
Therefore, any point on the hyperbola can be expressed as (a sec , b tan ) or

(a sec (2), b tan (2)) for some  in [0, 2).
  3  x 2 y2
Conversely, for any in [0, 2)  ,  , the point (a sec , b tan ) clearly satisfies 2  2  1
2 2  a b

and so, it lies on the hyperbola. For this reason, the equations x = a sec , y = b tan  (0 < < 2,  
2
3
and   ) are taken as the parametric equations of the hyperbola and is called the parameter. The
2
point P(a sec , b tan ) is for the sake of brevity, called the point and is denoted by P() some times.
5.1.8 Definition (Conjugate hyperbola)

The hyperbola whose transverse and conjugate axis are respectively the conjugate and transverse
axis of a given hyperbola, is called the conjugate hyperbola of the given hyperbola.
x 2 y2 x 2 y2
The equation of the hyperbola conjugate to S    1  0 is S    1  0.
a2 b2 a2 b2
x 2 y2
For   1, (i) The transverse axis lies along X-axis and its length is 2a.
a2 b2
(ii) The conjugate axis lies along Y-axis and its length is 2b.
x 2 y2
For 2  2   1, (i) The transverse axis lies along Y-axis and its length is 2b.
a b
(ii) The conjugate axis lies along X-axis and its length is 2a.
The hyperbola S = 0 is called the conjugate hyperbola of S = 0. Also S = 0 is called the
conjugate hyperbola of S = 0. Thus each is called the conjugate of the other.
5.1.9 Various forms of the hyperbola
x 2 y2 x 2 y2

Let S  2  2  1  0 be a hyperbola and S  2  2  1  0 be its conjugate hyperbola (see
a b a b
Fig. 5.4). Y
X X
S A A S
B
Y
Fig. 5.4
Hyperbola 167
Hyperbola Conjugate hyperbola

x 2 y2 x 2 y2
S  1  0 S   1  0
a2 b2 a2 b2
1. Transverse axis is along X-axis (y = 0) Transverse axis is along Y-axis (x = 0)
length of the transverse axis is 2a. length of the transverse axis is 2b.
2. Conjugate axis is along Y-axis (x = 0) Conjugate axis is along X-axis (y = 0)
length of the conjugate axis is 2b. length of the conjugate axis is 2a.
3. Coordinates of the centre (0, 0). Coordinates of the centre (0, 0).
4. Coordinates of the foci (+ae, 0). Coordinates of the foci (0, +be).
a b
5. Equation of the directrices x =  . Equation of the directrices y =  .
e e
a2  b2 a2  b2 .
6. Eccentricity e = . Eccentricity e 
a2 b2
5.1.10 Centre not at origin
If the centre is at (h, k) and the axes of the hyperbola are parallel to the coordinate axis, then by
shifting the origin (h, k) by translation of axis and using above properties of S = 0 and S = 0 the
following results can be obtained.
Hyperbola Conjugate hyperbola
2 2
( x  h) ( y  k ) ( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2
S  1 S    1
a2 b2 a2 b2
1. Transverse axis is along y = k, Transverse axis is along x = h,
length of the transverse axis is 2a. length of the transverse axis is 2b.
2. Conjugate axis is along x = h Conjugate axis is along y = k,
length of conjugate axis is 2b. length of conjugate axis is 2a.
3. Coordinates of the centre (h, k). Coordinates of the centre (h, k).
4. Coordinates of the foci (h + ae, k). Coordinates of the foci (h, k +be).
a b
5. Equations of the directrices x = h  . Equations of the directrices y = k  .
e e
a2  b2 a2  b2 .
6. Eccentricity e = . Eccentricity e 
a2 b2
5.1.11 Note
To find the foci, centre, equations of the directrices, etc. for a rectangular hyperbola x2  y2 = a2
(or) y2  x2 = a2 replace b with a and e = 2 in 5.1.9 and 5.1.10 as the length of the transverse
axis is equal to the length of the conjugate axis.
5.2 Equation of Tangent and Normal at a point on the hyperbola

The concepts of focal chord, latus rectum, tangent, normal at a point on a hyperbola are defined analogously
as in the case of an ellipse. In the following, we list out certain important properties of a hyperbola. The reader
can easily supplement the proofs of these, which are similar to those of an ellipse.
1. A point P(x1, y1) in the plane of the hyperbola S = 0 lies inside the hyperbola (i.e., in the region not
containing the centre) if S11 > 0, lies out side (i.e., in the region containing the centre) if S11 < 0 and
on the curve if S11 = 0.
 
2. The end of the latera recta are  ae,  ba and the length of the latus rectum is 2b2 .
2
a
3. The equation of the tangent at P(x1, y1) is S1 = 0.
y
4. The equation of the tangent at  is ax sec  tan  = 1     , 3  .
b  2 2 
2
2 b y
5. The equation of the normal at P(x1, y1) is a x  = a2 + b2 (y1  0) which is always the case
x1 y1
except at vertices. At vertices x-axis is the normal.
by
6. The equation of the normal at  is ax  = a2 + b2 (  0, ).
sec  tan 
7. The condition for a straight line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the hyperbola S = 0 is
c2 = a2m2  b2.
Hence the equation of a tangent to the hyperbola in slope form may be taken as y = mx  a 2 m 2  b 2 .
For any real value of m with m2 > b 2 there are two parallel tangents to the hyperbola. Note that any
2
a
horizontal line cannot be a tangent to the hyperbola. Two vertical tangents are x = +a.
5.2.1 Asymptotes of a curve

Definition 1 : A non vertical line with equation y = mx + c is called an asymptote of the
graph of y = f(x) if the difference of f(x) and mx + c is non-zero and tends to 0 as x   or
x   .
Definition 2 : A vertical line x = a, is called a vertical asymptote of the graph y = f(x) if
|f(x)|   as x  a from the left or from the right.
1. Example : y = x is an asymptote of the curve y = x  1x .

[' f(x)  x  1x  0 as x   or x    ]
2. Example : y axis (x = 0) is a vertical asymptote of the curve y = x  1x .
[' | f(x)| = x  1x = x  1x if x > 0, | f(x)|   as x  0+ also
 
| f(x)| =  x  1x if x < 0 and therefore | f(x)|   as x  0]
Hyperbola 169
2 y2
Asymptotes of the hyperbola x  1
a 2 b2
Because of the symmetry of the hyperbola about both the axes, we consider the portion of the curve in the
first quadrant whose equation is y   ba x  a , (x > a).
2 2
Y
)
,y 2
(x 1
Q
P(x1, y1)
X X
O
Y
Fig. 5.5
If P(x1, y1) is a point on this branch of the hyperbola and (x1, y2) is a point where ordinate through
P meets the line y = ba x , then 0 < (y2  y1) = ba ( x1  x12  a2 ) = ab  ab ab
x1  x12  a 2 x1 and x1  0 as
x1   therefore y2  y1  0 as x1   .
Therefore the line y = ba x is an asymptote of the hyperbola. By considering the portion of the
curve y =  ba x1  a , ( x   a ) it can be similarly seen that y =  ba x is another as asymptote for this

2 2
hyperbola.
5.2.2 Note
(i) From the above equation of asymptotes, it is clear that they pass through the centre of the hyperbola
and the axes of the hyperbola are the angle bisectors of the angle between the asymptotes.
x 2 y2 x 2 y2
(ii) Let S    1  0 be hyperbola. Then S     1  0 is its conjugate hyperbola and
a2 b2 a2 b2
x 2 y2
A  2  2  0 is the combined equation of its asymptotes.
a b
S + S = 2A.
(iii) Even if the equation of a hyperbola is not in the standard form, by suitable rotation and translation
of the coordinate axes, it is possible to transform the equation of the curve into the standard form
and accordingly, the combined equation of its pair of asymptotes. Therefore, we observe that the
equation to a hyperbola and the combined equation to its asymptotes differs only by a constant. (Notice
that the equation A = 0 differs from the equation S = 0 by a constant and the equation S = 0 differs from
A = 0 by exactly the same number that A = 0 differs from S = 0).

1. Problem : Find the centre, eccentricity, foci, directrices and the length of the latus rectum of the
following hyperbolas. (i) 4x2  9y2  8x  32 = 0 (ii) 4( y + 3)2  9(x  2)2 = 1.
Solution
(i) 4(x2  2x)  9y2 = 32
4(x2  2x + 1)  9y2 = 32 + 4
4(x  1)2  9y2 = 36
( x 1)2 y2
 1
9 4
 Centre of the hyperbola is the point (1, 0).
The semi-transverse axis a = 3, the semi-conjugate axis b = 2.
e  a2 b2  9  4  13
a2 9 3 .
 
Coordinates of the foci are = 1  3 13 , 0   (1  13 , 0) .
 3 
The equations of directrices x  1  3  3  x  1 9 .
13 13
2 ( 4 )
Length of latus rectum =  8.
3 3
(ii) The given equation of the hyperbola 4(y + 3)2  9(x  2)2 = 1. It can be written as
[ y ( 3)]2 ( x  2)2
  1
1/ 4 1/ 9
Centre of the hyperbola is the point (2, 3).
1
The semi-transverse axis b = 1 , the semi-conjugate axis a = .
2 3
11
e  a 2
 b 2
 9 4  13  13 .
b 2 1 9 3
4
 13   13 
Coordinates of the foci are (h, k + be) =  2,  3  12 3    2,  3  6  .
   
The equations of directrices y  k  b   3  1 3  y  3 3 .
e 2 13 2 13
2(1/ 9) 4
Length of latus rectum =  .
1/ 2 9
2. Problem : If e, e1 are the eccentricities of a hyperbola and its conjugate hyperbola prove that
1  1  1.
e2 e12
x 2 y2
Solution : Let e, e1 be the eccentricities of the hyperbola S  2  2  1  0 and its conjugate hyperbola
a b
x 2 y2
is S  2  2  1  0 respectively, then
a b
Hyperbola 171
a2 b2 , e  a2 b2 (5.1.10)

e  1
a2 b2
1  1  a2  b2  a2 b2  1
e2 e12 a2  b2 a2  b2 a2 b2
y2
3. Problem : (i) If the line lx + my +n = 0 is a tangent to the hyperbola x 2  2  1 then,
2
a b
show that a2l2  b2m2 = n2.
y2
(ii) If the lx + my + n = 0 is a normal to the hyperbola x 2  2  1 then show that
2
a b
a2  b2  (a  b )
2 2 2
2 2 2 .
l m n
Solution
x 2 y2
(i) Let the line L = lx + my + n = 0 be a tangent to the hyperbola S    1  0 at P().
a2 b2
x y
Then the equation of the tangent to S = 0 at P() is S1  sec   tan   1= 0. Since L = 0 and S1 = 0
a b
sec  tan  1
represents same line, comparing coefficients,     .
al bm n
 sec    al and tan   bm
n n
2 2 2 2
 1  sec2   tan 2   a 2l  b m ( or) a2l2  b2m2 = n2.
n n2
x 2 y2
(ii) Let the line L = lx + my + n = 0 be a normal to the hyperbola S  2  2  1  0 at P().
a b
ax by
Then the equation of the normal to S = 0 at P() is   (a 2  b 2 )  0 ,
sec  tan 
represents same as L = 0 then, comparing coefficients.
l m n l sec  m tan  n
     .
a / sec  b / tan  (a 2 b2 ) a b a 2  b2
na nb
 sec   2 2
, tan  
l (a  b ) m( a 2  b 2 )
n2 a2 n2b2
But 1 = sec2   tan 2   
l 2 (a 2  b 2 ) 2 m 2 (a 2  b 2 ) 2
a 2  b 2 = (a  b ) .
2 2 2
i.e.,
l2 m2 n2
4. Problem : Find the equations of the tangents to the hyperbola 3x2  4y2 = 12 which are (i)
parallel and (ii) perpendicular to the line y = x  7.
2 y2
Solution : Equation of the given hyperbola can be written as x   1 so that a2 = 4, b2 = 3.
4 3
Equation of the given line y = x  7 and its slope is 1.
(i) Slope of the tangents which are parallel to the given line is 1 (i.e., m = 1). Equations of the tangents
are y = mx + a2 m 2  b2 = x + 4  3 i.e., y = x + 1.
(ii) Slope of the tangents which are perpendicular to the given line is (1) (i.e., m = 1)
Equations of tangents which are perpendicular to the given line are
2
y = (1)x + 4(1)  3 i.e., x + y = +1.
5. Problem : Prove that the point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents to the hyperbola
x2 y2
  1 lies on the circle x2 + y2 = a2  b2.
a 2 b2
Solution : Let P(x1, y1) be the point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents to the hyperbola
x 2 y2
S  2  2  1  0 . The equation of any tangents to S = 0 in the slope intercept form is
a b
y = mx + a2 m 2  b 2 . If it passes through P(x1, y1) then y1  mx1 =  a2 m 2  b2 , squaring both sides
y12 + m2x12  2mx1y1 = a2m2  b2
(or) (x12  a2)m2  2x1y1m + (y12 + b2) = 0 ... (1)
(1) is a quadratic equation in m and therefore, gives two values of m say m1, m2 which are slopes of
tangents from (x1, y1).
y12  b2
 m1m2 = product of roots of (1) = 2 2 .
x1  a
2 2
y1  b
 2 2 = 1 [' tangents are perpendicular  m1m2 = 1]
x1  a
i.e., x12 + y12 = a2  b2.
Hence point P(x1, y1) lies on the circle x2 + y2 = a2  b2.
Note that the circle x2 + y2 = a2  b2 is called the director circle of the hyperbola S = 0.
6. Problem : A circle cuts the rectangular hyperbola xy = 1 in the points (xr,yr), r = 1, 2, 3, 4. Prove that
x1 x2 x3 x4 = y1y2y3y4 = 1.
Solution : Let the circle be x2 + y2 = a2.
 1
Since  t ,  (t  0) lies on xy = 1, the points of intersection of the circle and the hyperbola are given by
 t
1
t 2  2  a2
t
 t  a2t2 + 1 = 0
4
 t4 + 0.t3  a2t2 + 0.t + 1 = 0.

If t1, t2, t3 and t4 are the roots of the above biquadratic, then t1t2t3t4 = 1.
 1
If (xr, yr) =  tr ,  , r = 1, 2, 3, 4, then x1x2 x3x4 = t1t2t3t4 = 1,
 tr 
1
and y1 y2 y3 y4 = = 1.
t1t2t3t4
Hyperbola 173
7. Problem : If four points be taken on a rectangular hyperbola such that the chords joining any two
points is perpendicular to the chord joining the other two, and if , ,  and  be the inclinations
to either asymptote of the straight lines joining these points to the centre, prove that
tan  tan  tan tan = 1.
Solution : Let the equation of the rectangular hyperbola be x2 y2 = a2. By rotating the X-axis and the

Y-axis about the origin through an angle in the clockwise sense, the equation x2 y2 = a2 can be
4
transformed to the form xy = c2.
 c
Let  ctr ,  , r = 1, 2, 3, 4 (tr  0) be four points on the curve. Let the chord joining
 tr 
 c  c  c  c
A =  ct1 ,  , B =  ct2 ,  be perpendicular to the chord joining C =  ct3 ,  and D =  ct4 , t  .
 t1   t2   t3   4
c c
HJJG 
The slope of AB is t t2 1 [No chord of the hyperbola can be vertical]
1

ct1  ct2 t1t2
HJJG 1
Similarly slope of CD is  ,
t3t4
HJJG HJJG  1   1 
Since AB  CD,       1
 t1t2   t3t4 
 t1t2t3t4 = 1 ... (1)
HJJG HJJG HJJG HJJG
We know the coordinate axes are the asymptotes of the curve, If OA , OB , OC and OD make
angles , ,  and  with the positive direction of the X-axis, then tan , tan , tan  and tan  are their
HJJG HJJG HJJG HJJG
respective slopes. [O, the origin is the centre, None of OA , OB , OC and OD is vertical]
c
0
t1 1 1 1 1
 tan    2 . Similarly, tan   2 , tan   2 and tan   2 .
ct1  0 t1 t2 t3 t4
1
 tan  tan  tan  tan   1 [From (1)]
t12t22t32t42
HJJG HJJG HJJG HJJG
If OA , OB , OC and OD make angles , ,  and with the other asymptote the Y-axis then
cot , cot , cot and cot  are their respective inclinations so that cot cot  cot cot 
= tan  tan  tan tan 
= 1.
Exercise 5(a)
I. 1. One focus of a hyperbola is located at the point (1, 3) and the corresponding directrix is the line y =
3
2. Find the equation of the hyperbola if its eccentricity is .
2
2. Find the equations of the hyperbola whose foci are (+5, 0), the transverse axis is of length 8.
3. Find the equation of the hyperbola, whose asymptotes are the straight lines
(x + 2y + 3) = 0, (3x + 4y + 5) = 0 and which passes through the point (1, 1).
4. If 3x  4y + k = 0 is a tangent to x2  4y2 = 5 find the value of k.
2 y2
5. Find the product of lengths of the perpendiculars from any point on the hyperbola x   1 to its
16 9
asymptotes.
5
6. If the eccentricity of a hyperbola is , then find the eccentricity of its conjugate hyperbola.
4
7. Find the equation of the hyperbola whose asymptotes are 3x = +5y and the vertices are (+5, 0).
8. Find the equation of the normal at = /3 to the hyperbola 3x2  4y2 = 12.
9. If the angle between the asymptotes is 30o then find its eccentricity.
II. 1. Find the centre, foci, eccentricity, equation of the directrices, length of the latus rectum of the following
hyperbolas
(i) 16y2  9x2 = 144 (ii) x2  4y2 = 4
(iii) 5x2  4y2 + 20x + 8y = 4 (iv) 9x2  16y2 + 72x  32y  16 = 0
2. Find the equation to the hyperbola whose foci are (4, 2) and (8, 2) and eccentricity is 2.
3. Find the equation of the hyperbola of given length of transverse axis 6 whose vertex bisects the
distance between the centre and the focus.
4. Find the equations of the tangents to the hyperbola x2  4y2 = 4 which are (i) parallel
(ii) perpendicular to the line x + 2y = 0.
5. Find the equations of tangents drawn to the hyperbola 2x2  3y2 = 6 through (2, 1).
6. Prove that the product of the perpendicular distances from any point on a hyperbola to its
asymptotes is constant.
y2
III. 1. Tangents to the hyperbola x 2  2  1 make angles 1, 2 with transverse axis of a hyperbola.
2
a b
Show that the point of intersection of these tangents lies on the curve 2xy = k(x2  a2) when
tan 1 + tan 2 = k.
2. Show that the locus of feet of the perpendiculars drawn from foci to any tangent of the hyperbola
x 2  y2  1 is the auxiliary circle of the hyperbola.
a 2 b2
Hyperbola 175
2 y2
3. Show that the equation 9x c  5  c  1 represents
(i) an ellipse if c is a real constant less than 5.
(ii) a hyperbola if c is any real constant between 5 and 9.
(iii) show that each ellipse in (i) and each hyperbola (ii) has foci at the two points (+2, 0),
independent of the value c.
y2 b
4. Show that angle between the two asymptotes of a hyperbola x 2  2  1 is 2 Tan1  a  or
2
a b  
1
2 Sec (e).
Key Concepts
y2
v Equation of hyperbola in standard form is x 2  2  1 , centered C(0, 0) and foci (+ae, 0),
2
a b
directrices x   a and eccentricity e = a2  b2 .
e a2
y2
v If P is any point on the hyperbola x 2  2  1 and foci are S and S then SPSP = 2a.
2
a b
v x2  y2 = a2 is the equation of the rectangular hyperbola whose eccentricity is 2.
v The equation of the auxiliary circle of the hyperbola S = 0 is x2 + y2 = a2.
v x = a sec , y = b tan  are called the parametric equations of the hyperbola and  is called the
parameter.
v The condition for straight line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the hyperbola S = 0 is c2 = a2m2  b2.
y2
v y = mx + a2 m 2  b 2 is always a tangent to the hyperbola x 2  2  1 at
2
a b
  ,   and 
a2 m b2 a2 m
,  respectively (c  0, c2 = a2m2  b2).
b2
 c c   c c 
v The equation of the tangent at P(x1, y1) is S1 = 0.
by 2
v The equation of the normal at P(x1, y1) is ax x  y  a2  b2 .
2
1 1
y
v Equation of the tangent at P() is x sec   tan   1 .
a b
by
v Equation of the normal at P() is ax   a2  b2 .
sec  tan 
v The equation of the asymptotes of a hyperbola S = 0 are y   b x and the combined equation
a
y2
of the asymptotes is x 2  2  0 .
2
a b
Historical Note
A special case of Hyperbola was first studied by Menaechmus (B.C. 350). The special case was xy
= ab, the Rectangular Hyperbola. Euclid and Aristaeus wrote about the general hyperbola, but studied
only one branch of it, while the hyperbola was given its present name by Apollonius, who was the first to
study the two branches of the curve. The focus - directrix property was considered by Pappus.
Answers
Exercise 5(a)
I. 1. 4x2  5y2  8x + 60y + 4 = 0 2. 9x2  16y2 = 144
144
3. 3x2 + 10xy + 8y2 + 14x + 22y + 7 = 0 4. k = +5 5.
25
5
6. 7. 9x2  25y2 = 225 8. x + y = 7 9. 6 2
3
II. 1. Q. Centre Foci Eccentricity Directrices Length of the

No latus rectums.
(i) (0, 0) (0, +5) 5/3 5y + 9 = 0 32/3
(ii) (0, 0) (+ 5 , 0) 5 /2 5x+4=0 1

(iii) (2, 1) (1, 1), (5, 1) 3/2 3x +2 = 0, 3x + 10 = 0 5
(iv) (4, 1) (1, 1), (9, 1) 5/4 5x + 4 = 0, 5x +36 = 0 9/2
2. 3x2  y2  36x + 4y + 101 = 0 3. 3x2  y2 = 27
4. (i) No parallel tangents to x + 2y = 0.

(ii) Perpendicular tangents are 2x  y + 15 = 0.
5. x + y + 1 = 0, 3x + y + 5 = 0
Cal cu l u s
Integration 177
The art of doing mathematics consists in finding that

special case which contains all the gems of generality
- David Hilbert
Introduction
We have learnt the concept of differentiation in the

first year of the Intermediate course.
If a function f is differentiable in an interval I, i.e.,
the derivative of f, namely f  exists at each point of I, then
the following question arises naturally : given f  on I, can John Wallis
we determine f ?. In this chapter, we answer this question (1616-1703)
by introducing the concept of integration as the inverse John Wallis was born in 1616. He
was one of the ablest and most
process of differentiation. Also, we discuss standard forms original mathematicians of his days.
and properties of integrals. He wrote extensively on number of
areas. In 1649 he was appointed
Throughout this chapter, R denotes the set of all real Savilian professor of geometry at
numbers and I, an interval in R. Unless otherwise stated, all Oxford, a position he held for 54 years
until his death in 1703. His work in
the functions considered here are real valued functions analysis did much to prepare the way
defined over subsets of R. for his great contemporary, Isaac
Newton. Wallis was one of the first to
discuss conics as curves of second
degree equation rather than sections
of a cone.
6.1 Integration as the inverse process of differentiation,

standard forms and properties of integrals
We begin with the definition of an indefinite integral of a function and then state the standard
forms of integrals for certain functions.
6.1.1 Definition
Let E be a subset of R such that E contains a right or a left neighbourhood of each of its
points and let f : E  R be a function. If there is a function F on E such that F( x )  f ( x ) for
all x  E, then we call F an antiderivative of f or a primitive of f.
For example, we know that

d
(sin x)  cos x, x  R.
dx
Hence, if f is the function given by f (x) = cos x, x  R, then the function F given by F(x) = sin x, x  R
is an antiderivative or a primitive of f.
If F is an antiderivative of f on E, then for any real number k, we have
(F + k ) (x) = f(x) for all x  E.
Hence F + k is also an antiderivative of f.
Thus, in the above example, if c is any real constant then the function G given by
G(x) = sin x + c, x  R is also an antiderivative of cos x.
6.1.2 Remark : If F and G are antiderivatives of a function f then F  G need not be a constant, in
general. Consider the following :
6.1.3 Example : Let E = (, 0)  (0, ) and f : E  R be defined as
 1 if x  0
f ( x)   .
1 if x  0
Let us consider the following two functions :
 x if x  0  x  5 if x  0
F( x)   and G ( x)   .
 x if x  0  x  10 if x  0
Then F( x) = f (x) = G ( x ) for all x  E.
Therefore, both F and G are antiderivatives of f. But F  G is not a constant on E, since
(F  G) (2) = 5 and (F  G) (2) = 10.
In this example, note that the domain E of f is not an interval. However, if a function is defined
on an interval, then we prove that the difference of any two antiderivatives is a constant. First, we
prove the following :
Integration 179
6.1.4 Theorem : Let  be a function defined on an interval I. Then  is a constant function if and
only if  is an antiderivative of the zero function on I.
Proof : Assume that  (x) = c for all x in I for some constant c. Then  (x) = 0 for all x in I.
Therefore,  is an antiderivative of the zero function on I.
Conversely, assume that  is an antiderivative of the zero function on I. Then
 (x) = 0 ...(1)
for all x in I.
Let a, b  I be such that a < b. Then [a, b]  I,  is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable
in (a, b). Hence by Lagranges mean value theorem (10.7.5 of Mathematics -IB Text Book)
there exists a point d in (a, b) such that
(b)  (a)
  (d ). ...(2)
ba
Since [a, b]  I we have d  I; Now from (1),  (d) = 0. Hence, from (2),  (b) =  (a).
Since a, b  I are arbitrary,  must be a constant function.
6.1.5 Corollary : Let f be a function defined on an interval I and F be an antiderivative of f.
Then a function G on I is an antiderivative of f if and only if G = F + c for some constant function
c on I.
Proof : Let G = F + c. Then G   F  f. Hence G is an antiderivative of f.
Conversely, suppose that G is an antiderivative of f. Then G   f  F. Hence
(G  F)  G   F  f  f  0 on I. Hence G  F is an antiderivative of the zero function on I.
Now, by Theorem 6.1.4, G  F is a constant function on I, and hence G = F + c for some constant c.
6.1.6 Note
(i) The above corollary is not true if the domain of f is not an interval. (see Example 6.1.3)
(ii) In the subsequent discussion, we restrict our attention to functions defined on intervals.
(iii) If F is an antiderivative of f then {F + c : c  R} is the set of all antiderivatives of f. Hence the
general form of an antiderivative of f is F + c, c is a constant.
6.1.7 Definition (Indefinite integral)
Let f : I  R. Suppose that f has an antiderivative F on I. Then we say that f has an integral
on I and for any real constant c, we call F + c an indefinite integral of f over I, denote it by
 f ( x) dx and read it as integral f(x) dx. We also denote  f ( x) dx as f. Thus we have
f   f ( x)dx  F( x)  c.
Here c is called a constant of integration.
In the indefinite integral  f ( x)dx , f is called the integrand and x is called the variable of
integration.
6.1.8 Remarks
(i) In the Definition 6.1.7, we can regard any member of {F + c : c  R} as  f ( x)dx .
(ii) From the definition of indefinite integral,

d
 f ( x)dx   f ( x ).
dx
(iii) If f : I  R is differentiable on I, then  f ( x) dx  f ( x)  c, where c is a constant of integration.

6.1.9 Standard forms : In the I year Intermediate course, we have studied the derivatives of some
functions. With this background, let us obtain indefinite integrals of some functions.
d  x n 1 
1. We know that    x n for n  1.
dx  n  1 
x n1
 x dx 
n
Hence, if n  1, we have  c, where c is a constant.
n 1
In particular, when n = 0, we have
 dx  1 . dx  x  c.
d 1
2. We know that
dx
loge x  
x
if x > 0
d 1
and  loge (  x )  if x < 0.
dx x
1 log e x on any interval I  (0, )
Hence  x dx  loge ( x) on any interval I  (, 0),
1
so that  x dx  loge | x |  c on any interval I  R {0},
where c is a constant.
Note : Throughout this chapter where ever log x appears, it is to be understood as loge x.
In a similar way, the following indefinite integrals can be easily obtained wherein c is a constant. The
intervals on which the integrals are valid are often specified by stipulating conditions on x.
3. If a > 0 and a  1, then
ax

x
a dx   c, x  R .
log e a
 e dx  e
x x
4.  c, x R.
5.  sin x dx   cos x  c, x R .
6.  cos x dx  sin x  c, x R .
Integration 181
 n 
 sec  : n is an odd integer  .
2
7. x dx  tan x  c, x I  R
2 
8.  cosec
2
x dx   cot x  c, x I  R n : n  Z.
 n 
9.  sec x tan x dx  sec x  c, x I  R 
 2
: n is an odd integer  .

10.  cosec x cot x dx   cosec x  c, x I  R n : n  Z.

1
11.  1 x 2
dx  Sin 1 x  c for | x | < 1

  Cos1 x  c ( since Cos 1 x   Sin 1 x ) .
2
1
 1  x2 dx  Tan
1
12. x  c for x  R.

 Cot 1 x  c (since Cot 1 x   Tan 1x).
2
1
13. x x2  1
dx  Sec1x  c on I  R [1, 1]
  Cosec 1 x  c on I  R [1, 1].


(since Cosec1 x =  Sec1x on any interval I  ( ,  1)  (1,  ).).
2
14.  sinh x dx  cosh x  c, xR.
15.  cosh x dx  sinh x  c, xR .
16.  sech x dx  tanh x  c, x R .

2
 cosech x dx   coth x  c, x  I  R
2
17. {0}.
18.  sech x tanh x dx   sech x  c, x R .
19.  cosech x coth x dx   cosech x  c , x  I  R {0}.
1
20.  1 x 2
dx  sinh 1 x  c, x  R .
 log e ( x  x 2  1), x R.

1 cosh 1 x  c on (1, )
21.  x2  1
dx   1
cosh ( x)  c on ( ,  1).
 log ( x  x 2  1)  c on (1, )
 e

2
 log e (  x  x  1)  c on (  ,  1).
= log e | x  x 2  1 |  c on I  R [1, 1].
6.1.10 Properties of integrals : We shall now prove the following algebraic properties of indefinite
integrals.
6.1.10 (a) Theorem : If the functions f and g have integrals on I, then f + g has an integral on I and
( f  g ) ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   g ( x) dx  c,
Proof : Since f and g have integrals on I, there exist functions F and G on I such that F  f and
G   g on I. Therefore
 f ( x)dx  F( x)  c1 and  g ( x)dx  G( x)  c2 ,
where c1, c2 are constants. Now
( F  G )  F  G   f  g on I.
Hence F + G is an antiderivative of f + g. Therefore, f + g has integral on I, and
( f  g ) ( x) dx  F( x)  G ( x)  c3
  f ( x)dx  c1   g ( x)dx c2  c3
where c3 is a constant.
Let c = c3  c1  c2. Then
( f  g ) ( x) dx   f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx  c.
6.1.10(b) Theorem : If f has an integral on I and a is a real number, then af also has an
integral on I and
 (af ) ( x ) dx  a  f ( x ) dx  c,
Proof : Since f has an integral, there is a differentiable function F on I such that F  f on I . We
have ( aF)  aF  af .
Hence af has an integral on I and by definition,
 (af )( x) dx  (a F)( x)  c  a F( x)  c  a f ( x) dx  c,
Integration 183
6.1.11 Remarks
From Theorems 6.1.10(a) and 6.1.10(b), we can easily prove the following statements in which
c is a constant.
(i) If f and g have integrals on I then so does f  g and
 ( f  g )( x) dx   f ( x) dx   g ( x) dx  c.
(ii) If f1, f2, ..., fn have integrals on I then so does f1 + f2 + ... + fn and
 ( f1  f 2 "  f n ) ( x) dx   f1 ( x)dx   f 2 ( x)dx "   f n ( x)dx + c.

n
(iii) If f1, f2, ..., fn have integrals on I and k1, k2, ..., kn are constants, then so does  ki fi and
i 1
n n
 ( ki fi ( x)) dx   ki  fi ( x) dx  c.
i 1 i 1
Note that the finite sums in (iii) above can not be replaced by infinite sums.
(iv) When we consider logarithms to the base e, we do not make specific mention of the base. Thus,
for example, we write log t for loget.
1. Problem : Find  2 x dx on R.
7
Solution :  2 x 7 dx  2  x 7 dx  c (by Theorem 6.1.10(b))

x 7 1
 2.  c (by 6.1.9(1))
7 1
x8
 c.
4
2. Problem : Evaluate 2
 cot x dx on I  R {n : n  Z }.
2 2
Solution :  cot x dx   (cosec x  1)dx
=  cosec2 x dx   dx  c (by Remark 6.1.11(i))
=  cot x  x + c. (by 6.1.9(8))
 x 6  1
3. Problem : Evaluate   dx for x  R.
 1  x 2 
 x 6  1 2
  1  x 2  dx   [( x
4
Solution :  x 2  1)  ] dx
1  x2
2
 x dx   x dx   dx   1  x 2 dx  c
4 2

x5 x3
   x  2Tan 1 x  c.
5 3
4. Problem : Find  (1  x) (4  3x)(3  2 x)dx, x R .

Solution: (1  x) (4  3x) (3 + 2x) = 6x3  5x2  13x + 12.
Hence
3
 (1  x) (4  3x)(3  2 x)dx =  (6 x  5 x 2  13 x  12)dx
 6 x 3dx  5 x 2 dx  13 x dx  12 dx  c
3 4 5 3 13 2
 x  x  x  12 x  c .
2 3 2
3
 1
5. Problem : Evaluate   x  x  dx, x  0.
3
 1 3 1
Solution :  x    x3  3 x   3 .
 x x x
3
 1  3 3 1
Hence   x   dx    x  3 x   3  dx
 x   x x 
dx dx
  x 3 dx  3  x dx  3    3 c
x x
4
x 3 1
  x 2  3log x  2  c.
4 2 2x
6. Problem : Find  1  sin 2 x dx on R.
Solution: We know that 1 + sin 2x = (sin x + cos x)2.
Therefore
  3
 sin x  cos x, if 2n   x  2n  for some n  Z
1  sin 2 x   4 4
  (sin x  cos x), otherwise.
 3
Hence, if 2n   x  2n  , then
4 4
 1  sin 2 x dx   (sin x  cos x)dx

  sin x dx   cos x dx  c
  cos x  sin x  c.
3 7
If 2n   x  2n  ,
2 4
then  1  sin 2 x dx    (sin x  cos x) dx
Integration 185
   sin x dx   cos x dx  c
   cos x  sin x  c
= cos x  sin x + c.
2 x3  3x  5 dx for x > 0 and verify the result by differentiation.

7. Problem : Evaluate
 2x2
2 x3  3 x  5 3 dx 5 1
Solution :  2 x 2 dx   x dx  2  x  2  x 2 dx  c
x2 3 5
  log x   c.
2 2 2x
d  x2 3 5  3 5 2 x 3  3x  5
 
Verification : dx  2 2 log x   c   x    .
2x  2x 2x2
  2x2
This is the given expression and hence the result is correct.
Exercise 6(a)
I. Evaluate the following integrals.
3
1.  (x  2 x 2  3)dx on R. 2.  2x x dx on (0, )
x 2  3x  1
3. 
3
2x 2 dx on (0, ) . 4.  2x
dx, x  I  R {0}.
1 x  2 3
5.
 x dx on (0, ). 6.  1  x  x 2  dx on I  R {0}.
 4 
7.   x  1  x 2  dx on R.
 1 2 
  e
x
8.    dx on I  R [1, 1].
x x 1
2
 1 1   1 2 
9.   1  x 2  1  x 2  dx on ( 1, 1). 10.   1  x2
  dx on ( 1, 1).
1  x2 
2  (2n  1) 
: n Z  .
e
log(1 tan x )
11. dx on I  R 
 2 
sin 2 x
12.  1  cos 2 x dx on I  R (2n  1) : n  Z .
II. Evaluate the following integrals.

 3 2 1 
1.  (1  x
2 3
) dx on (1, 1). 2.     2  dx on (0, ).
x x 3x 
2
 x  1 (3 x  1) 2
3.    dx on (0,  ). 4.  2 x dx, x  I  R {0}.
 x 
2
 2x 1   1 2 3 
5.   3 x  dx on (0, ). 6.  
x
  2  dx on (1, ).
x2  1 2x 
 n 
 (sec : n is an odd integer  .
2
7. x  cos x  x 2 ) dx, x  I  R 
 2 
 3    n  
8.   sec x tan x  x  4 dx, x  I  R   2 : n is an odd integer   0 .
 
 2 
9.   x  dx on (0, 1).
1  x2 
 3 4 
10.   x  cos x   dx, x  R.
x2  1 
 1 
11.   cosh x  
x2  1 
dx, x  R.
 
1
12. 
 sinh x  1
 dx, x  I  ( , 1)  (1, ).
 ( x  1) 
2 2
(a x  b x )2
13.  a x b x dx, (a > 0, a  1 and b > 0, b  1) on R.
   
14.  sec x cosec x dx on I  R  n : n  Z   (2n  1) : n  Z   .
2 2
  2 
1  cos 2 x
15.  1  cos 2 x dx on I  R {n : n  Z}.
16.  1  cos 2x dx on I  [2n , (2n + 1)], n  Z.
1
17.  cosh x  sinh x dx on R.
1
18.  1  cos x dx on I  R {(2n+1) : n  Z}.
Integration 187
6.2 Method of substitution - Integration of algebraic, exponential, logarithmic,

trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions - Integration by parts
This section is divided into the following two subsections, namely
6.2(A) Integration by the method of substitution - Integration of algebraic and

trigonometric functions
and
6.2(B) Integration by parts - Integration of exponential, logarithmic and inverse
In section 6.2(A), we discuss the integration by the method of substitution. In section 6.2(B), we
describe one more useful method of integration called integration by parts for integrating a product of
functions. In the sequel, we evaluate the integrals of the form
1 dx
 ax2  bx  c dx,  2
ax  bx  c
,  ax 2  bx  c dx,
px  q
 ax 2  bx  c dx,  ( px  q) ax 2  bx  c dx,
px  q dx 1
 ax2  bx  c
dx,  (ax  b)
px  q
,  a  b cos x dx,
1 a cos x  b sin x  c
 a  b sin x dx,  d cos x  e sin x  f dx.
6.2(A) Integration by the method of substitution - Integration of algebraic and
In this section, we reduce certain integrals to some standard forms by using a suitable substitution.
Here we discuss mainly the integration of algebraic, trigonometric functions and simple forms of
exponential functions and some functions which are combinations of these forms.
6.2.1 Theorem : Let f : I  R have an integral on I and F be a primitive of f on I. Let J be an
interval in R and g : J  I be a differentiable function. Then (fog) g  has an integral on J, and
 f ( g ( x)) g ( x) dx  F( g ( x))  c.
i.e.,  f (g( x)) g( x) dx   f (t ) dt  t  g( x ) .
Notation : If  f (t ) dt  F(t )  c, then  f (t ) dt  t  g ( x) denotes the value of F(t) + c evaluated at
g(x).
 f (t ) dt   F(t )  c  t  g( x )  F( g( x ))  c.
i.e.,   t  g( x )
Proof of the theorem : Since F is a primitive of f on I, we have F(t )  f (t ) for all t in I. We have
(Fog )  (Fog ) g   ( fog ) g .
Hence (fog) g  has an integral on J and
 f ( g ( x)) g ( x) dx   ( fog ) g  ( x) dx  (Fog ) ( x)  c

= F(g(x)) + c.
6.2.2 Remark
Sometimes when we are given a function h and asked to find  h( x) dx , it might be possible to
find easily a differentiable function g and a function f such that  f (t ) dt can be easily found and
f (g(x)) g  (x) = h(x) for all x. In such a case, we evaluate  f (t ) dt. The substitution t = g(x) so obtained
yields  h( x) dx. Evaluation of integrals in this way is known as the method of substitution.
6.2.3 Example : Let us now evaluate  2 x cos (1  x 2 )dx. Let I = [1,  ). We define f : I  R by
f(x) = cos x. Let J = R. Define g on J by g(x) = 1 + x2. Then, g is differentiable on J, g(J)  I and
f (g(x)) g  (x) = 2x cos (1 + x2) for all x in J. Clearly f has an integral on I and
 f (t ) dt   cos t dt  sin t  c.
Hence by Theorem 6.2.1, we have
 2 x cos (1  x
2
) dx    f (t ) dt 
  t  g( x )
 (sin t  c)t 1 x 2
= sin (1 + x2) + c.
6.2.4 Note
In Example 6.2.3 we specifically mentioned the intervals I, J and the functions f, g to illustrate
Theorem 6.2.1. Generally, the intervals I and J are not explicitly specified and can be taken suitably.
The general practice is to guess an appropriate function g to make the substitution t = g(x) and
dt = g (x) dx in the given integral so that it reduces to   f (t ) dt  t  g( x ) . It is customary to write
 f ( g ( x)) g ( x) dx   f (t ) dt with the understanding that in the later integral t is to be replaced by

g(x) after evaluation.
6.2.5 Example
ex 1
Let us now evaluate  e x  1 dx . Here we suppose that f (t )  t , t  (1, ); we define
g : R  R by g(x) = ex + 1. Then
Integration 189
ex
f ( g( x )) g ( x )  .
ex  1
Put t = g(x) = ex + 1. Then dt = ex dx.
ex  1 
Therefore  e x  1 dx    dt 
 t  t e x 1
 [log t  c] t e x 1
= log(ex + 1) + c.
6.2.6 Corollary : Let f : I  R have an integral on I and F be a primitive of f.
Let a, bR with a  0. Then
1
 f (ax  b) dx  a F(ax  b)  c
for all x  J, where J = {x  R : ax + b  I} and c is an integration constant.
Proof : Follows from Theorem 6.2.1 by substituting g(x) = ax + b.
6.2.7 Example
1  b
Let us evaluate  ax  b dx on an interval J  R    with a, b  R, a  0.
 a
1
Let I = {ax + b : x  J} so that 0  I and I is an interval. We define f : I  R by f (t ) 
t
so that F(t) = log | t | + c on I. Hence by Corollary 6.2.6, we have
1 1
 ax  b dx 
a
log | ax  b |  c on J.
6.2.8 Some Important Formulae

The following formulae can be obtained by using some of the standard integrals given in 6.1.9
and Corollary 6.2.6.
1 ax
e
ax
1. dx  e  c, a  0, on R.
a
1
2.  sin (ax  b) dx   cos (ax  b)  c, a  0, on R.
a
1
3.  cos (ax  b) dx 
a
sin ( ax  b)  c, a  0, on R.
1
 sec
2
4. ( ax  b) dx  tan ( ax  b)  c, a  0,
a
  (2 n  1)  1 
on I  R    b  : n  Z .
 2  a 
2 1
5.  cosec (ax  b) dx   a cot (ax  b)  c, a  0 ,
1 
 ( n   b) : n  Z  .
on I  R
a 
1
6.  cosec (ax  b) cot (ax  b) dx   cosec (ax  b)  c, a  0
a
1 
on I  R  (n  b) : n  Z  .
a 
1
7.  sec (ax  b) tan (ax  b) dx  a sec (ax  b)  c, a  0
 1  (2n  1)  
on I  R
   b  : n  Z .
a  2  
Let us now write integrals of functions of particular form by using the method of substitution.
6.2.9 Theorem : Let f : I  R be a differentiable function. Then the following statements are true.
f f ( x )
(i) If f is never zero on I then
f
has an integral on I and  dx  log | f ( x ) |  c on I.
f ( x)
(ii) If  is a positive integer or if   R {1} and f (x) > 0  x  I, then f  f  has an integral on I
( f ( x )) 1
 ( f ( x)) f ( x)dx 

and  c,   1.
(  1)
1 f  ( x)
In particular, when    , we have
2  f ( x)
dx  2 f ( x)  c on I.
1
(iii)  f (ax  b) dx  a f (ax  b)  c, a  0 on J = {x  R : ax + b  I} .
Proof
1
(i) Since the function given by (t )  has log| t | as primitive on any interval not containing the
t

origin, by Theorem 6.2.1 it follows that f has an integral on I and that
f
f ( x)  1 
 f ( x)
dx    dt 
 t  t  f ( x)
Integration 191
 log | t |  c t  f ( x )
 log| f ( x )|  c .
Thus (i) follows.
(ii) Proof of (ii) follows like that of (i).
(iii) Since f is a primitive of f  , by Corollary 6.2.6, clearly (iii) follows.
Note : While working out the problems we do not mention the intervals I and J but make the substitution with
the tacit assumption that the substitutions are carried on relevant intervals.
6.2.10 Examples
6x  2 2 
1. Example : Let us find  3x2  2 dx on any interval I  R 
 3
, .
3 
We define f : I  R by f (x) = 3x2  2. Then f ( x )  6 x.
6x f  ( x)
Hence  3x2  2 dx   f ( x)
dx  log | f ( x) |  c (by Theorem 6.2.9(i))
= log | 3x2  2 | + c.
(Sin 1 x ) 2
2. Example : Let us evaluate  1  x2
dx on I = (1, 1).
1
We define f : I  R by f (x) = Sin1x. Then f ( x )  .
1 x2
(Sin 1 x) 2
Hence   ( f ( x)) f ( x) dx
2
dx 
2
1 x
( f ( x ))3
  c (by Theorem 6.2.9(ii))
3
(Sin 1 x )3
  c.
3
1
3. Example : Let us evaluate  dx on R.
1  (2 x  1)2
1
We define f : R  R by f (x) = Tan1 x. Then f ( x )  .
1 x2
1 1
Now  1  (2x  1)2 dx   f (2x  1) dx  2 f (2x  1)  c (by Theorem 6.2.9(iii))
1
 Tan 1 (2 x  1)  c .
2
6.2.11 Evaluation of integrals of trigonometric functions;

tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x
 (2 n  1) 
1. Let us show that  tan x dx  log | sec x |  c, x  I  R  : n  Z .
 2 
sin x
 tan x dx   cos x dx.
f ( x )
Let f(x) = cos x. Then f (x ) =  sin x, and therefore  tan x  .
f ( x)
sin x  f ( x)  f ( x)
Hence  cos x dx     
f ( x) 
dx   
f ( x)
dx  c (by Theorem 6.1.10(b))
=  log | f (x) | + c (by Theorem 6.2.9(ii))

=  log | cos x | + c =  log | sec x | + c.
 tan x dx can also be evaluated in the following way.

sec x tan x
 tan x dx   sec x
dx
= log |sec x| + c (by Theorem 6.2.9(i)).

2. Let us show that  cot x dx  log | sin x |  c, x  I  R {n : n  Z}.
cos x
 cot x dx   sin x dx  log |sin x |  c . (by Theorem 6.2.9(i))
3. Let us show that

 (2 n  1)  
 sec x dx  log | sec x  tan x |  c, x  I  R  : n  Z .
 2 
 x
 log | tan    |  c.
4 2
sec x (sec x  tan x)
 sec x dx   (sec x  tan x) dx .
Let f (x) = sec x + tan x. Then f ( x )  sec x (sec x  tan x ).
f  ( x)
Hence  sec x dx   f ( x)
dx  log| f ( x) |  c (by Theorem 6.2.9(i))
= log | sec x + tan x | + c

 x
= log | tan    |  c .
4 2
Integration 193
4. Let us show that

 cosec x dx  log | cosec x  cot x | c
x
 log | tan |  c for x  I  R {n : n  Z}.
2
cosec x(cosec x  cot x)
 cosec x dx   (cosec x  cot x)
dx
= log |cosec x  cot x| + c.

x
= log | tan |  c.
2
Observation : By substituting   x for x in (1) and (3) and using Corollary 6.2.6, we get the
2
integrals (2) and (4) respectively.

x5
1. Problem : Evaluate  1  x12 dx on R.
1
Solution : We define f : R  R by f (t )  and g : R  R by g(x) = x6. Then g ( x )  6 x 5 .
1 t2
Define F : R  R by F(t) = Tan1 t. Now F is a primitive of f .
x5 1
Hence  1  x12 dx  6  f ( g ( x)) g ( x) dx
1
 (F(t )  c)t  g( x )
6
1
 (Tan 1t  c)t  x 6
6
1
 Tan 1 x 6  c .
6
2. Problem : Evaluate  cos3 x sin x dx on R.
Solution : We define f : R  R by f (x) = cos x. Then f ( x )   sin x .
 cos  ( f ( x)) ( f ( x )) dx
3 3
Hence x sin x dx 
   ( f ( x ))3 f ( x ) dx
( f ( x)) 4
   c (by Theorem 6.2.9(ii))
4
cos 4 x
   c.
4
 1
 1   x  
3. Problem : Find  1  2  e x dx on I where I = (0,  ).
 x 
1
Solution : Let J = I = (0,  ). Define f : I  R by f (t) = et ; and g : J  R by g( x )  x  . Then
x
1
g(J)  I, g( x )  1  2 . Now by Theorem 6.2.1, it follows that
x
1
 1  ( x x )     t 
  x2  e
1  dx   f ( g ( x)) g ( x) dx  f (t ) dt  t  g ( x )    e dt  t  g ( x )
  et  c  1
  t  x 1  e x x  c .
x
1
4. Problem : Evaluate  Sin x 1
1 x 2
dx on I = (0, 1).
1
Solution : We define f : I  R by f (x) = Sin1 x. Then f ( x )  .
2
1 x
1 f ( x)
Now  Sin 1 x 1  x 2
dx   f ( x)
dx
 2 f ( x)  c (by Theorem 6.2.9(ii))
 2 Sin 1 x  c .
sin 4 x  (2 n  1)  
 cos6 x dx, x  I  R 
 2
: n  Z .

Solution : sin 4 x
 cos6 x dx   tan x sec x dx.
4 2
We define f : I  R by f (x) = tan x. Then f ( x )  sec 2 x .

5
sin 4 x 4  f ( x)
Therefore
 cos6 x dx    f ( x) f ( x) dx 
5
 c (by Theorem 6.2.9(ii))
1
 tan 5 x  c.
5
6. Problem: Evaluate  sin 2 x dx on R.
 1  cos 2 x 
Solution :  sin
2
x dx =   2
 dx
Integration 195
1 1
  dx   cos 2 x dx  c
2 2
1 1
 x  sin 2 x  c
2 4
1
(since  cos 2 x dx  sin 2 x  c by Theorem 6.2.9 (iii)).
2
1
7. Problem : Evaluate  a sin x  b cos x dx where a, b  R and a2 + b2  0 on R.
Solution : We can find real numbers r and  such that r > 0, a = r cos  and b = r sin . Then
a b
r = a 2  b 2 ; cos   and sin   .
r r
We have a sin x + b cos x = r cos  sin x + r sin  cos x = r sin (x + ).
dx 1 1
Hence  a sin x  b cos x  
r sin ( x  )
dx
1
r 

cosec ( x  ) dx
1 1 
 log | tan  ( x  )  |  c (by 6.2.11(4))
r 2 
1 1
 log | tan ( x  ) |  c,
a 2  b2 2
for all x  I, where I is an interval disjoint with {n  : n  Z}.
x2
8. Problem : Find  dx on ( 5, ) .
x5
Solution : Put t = x + 5 so that t > 0 on (5, ) . Then dt = dx and x = t  5.
x2 (t  5) 2 t 2  10t  25
Now  x5
dx   t dt   t
dt
3 1
  t 2 dt  10  t dt  25  t 2 dt  c
2 52 20 32
 t  t  50 t  c
5 3
2 5 20 3
 ( x  5) 2  ( x  5) 2  50 x  5  c.
5 3
6.2.13 Theorem (Integration by the method of substitution - continued) : Let J be an interval
and  : J  I (  R) be a bijective differentiable function such that   1 is differentiable on I. Let
f : I  R be such that (f o  )  has a primitive F on I. Then f has an integral on I and
 f ( x)dx  F( 1 ( x))  c    f ( (t ))  (t ) dt  t  .

 1
( x)
Proof : We have ( o  1 ) ( x)  x for all x in I.

Since  and 1 are differentiable in their domains, from the above equation, we have
( 1 ( x)) ( 1 ) ( x)  1 for all x in I.

Hence 1 is never zero on J and
1
( 1 )( x)  ...(1)
( 1 ( x))
for all x in I. We have (Fo 1 )  (Fo 1) ( 1).
Hence (Fo 1 )( x )  F( 1 ( x)) ( 1 )( x )
F( 1 ( x))

 . (by (1)) ...(2)
( 1 ( x))
Since F is a primitive of (fo )  , we have F  ( f o  )   .
Hence F(t )  f ( (t ))  (t ) for t  J.
Therefore F(1 (x ))  f ((1 ( x))) (1 ( x ))
 f ( x)  ( 1 ( x)).
F (1 ( x))
Hence  f ( x).
 (1 ( x))
Therefore, by (2), (Fo 1) ( x) = f(x).
Hence  f ( x) dx  F(1 ( x ))  c .
6.2.14 Remark
If J is a closed bounded interval,   : J  I (  R) is a bijective differentiable function and 
is never zero on J then it can be shown that   is differentiable on I.
6.2.15 Example
x2 x2
Let us evaluate  1  x2
dx on (1, 1). Let I = (1, 1) and f ( x) 
1 x2
for all x in I. Let
  
J    ,  . Define   : J  I by  () = sin . Then  is a bijective function from J to I. Further,
 2 2
 and  are differentiable on their respective domains. We have
sin 2  sin 2 
f (()) ()   cos    cos   sin 2 .
1  sin 2  cos 
Integration 197
1  sin 2 
We have  sin 2  d     2   c
2
1
   VLQ FRV   c where c is a constant.
2
1
We have  ( x) = Sin1 x for all x in (1, 1). When  = Sin1 x, we have cos   1  x for all x
2
 (1, 1).
1
Hence  f ( x) dx    sin  cos Sin 1x  c
2
1
  Sin 1x  x 1  x 2   c .
2  
6.2.16 Remark
Sometimes when we are given a function f and asked to find  f ( x) dx, it might be possible to
find a one-to-one differentiable function  on an interval J such that the range of  is the domain of
f, 1 is differentiable and  f ((t ))  (t ) dt can be easily evaluated. In such a case, the later integral
1
is evaluated and in the value so obtained, on replacing t with  ( x ) , we obtain  f ( x) dx.
To evaluate  f ( x) dx using Theorem 6.2.13, it is customary to make the substitution x =  (t)
and dx =  (t) dt and write
 f ( x) dx =  f ((t ))  (t ) dt
1
with the understanding that t is to be replaced by  ( x) after evaluating the later integral.
In order to be able to use Theorem 6.2.13, one should be in a position to guess an appropriate
substitution  (t) for x and have a clear idea about the domain of the given integrand and also the
domain of the function  , so that all the conditions of Theorem 6.2.13 are fulfilled.
For example, when 1  x 2 occurs in the denominator of the integrand, the substitution x = sin 
must be useful. Since 1  x2 is greater than zero for | x | < 1 and x2 < 0 for | x | > 1, the domain of the
  
integrand must be a subset of (1, 1). If it is (1, 1), we have to restrict  to the interval   ,  so
 2 2
that the sine function is a bijective map to (1, 1).
x
1. Problem : Find  dx, x  I  (0, 1) .
1 x
x 
Solution: We define f : I  R by f ( x)  . Let J   0,  . Define  : J  I by
1 x  2
 () = sin . Then  is a bijective mapping from J to I. Further,  and  1 are differentiable on
2
their respective domains. Put x =  () = sin2 . Then dx = 2 sin  cos d.
x sin 2 
Therefore  1 x
dx   1  sin  2
 2 sin  cos  d 
sin 2 
   2 sin  cos  d  
 2 sin
3
 d
cos 
1
 2  (3 sin  sin 3 ) d  (' sin 3  3sin   4sin 3 )
4
1 
 2  (cos3  9 cos )   c (' cos3  4cos3   3cos )
12 
1
  4 cos3   3 cos   9 cos    c
6
1  4 cos3   12 cos    c
  
6
2 2 3
 cos3   2 cos   c  (1  x) 2  2 1  x  c.
3 3
dx
2. Problem : Evaluate  ( x  5) x4
on ( 4, ) .
dx
Solution: Let I = (4, ) . Define f on I as f ( x)  .
( x  5) x  4
Let J = (0,  ). We define  : J  I by  (t) = t2  4. Then  is differentiable and is a bijection. Now
put x =  (t) = t2  4. Then t = x  4 . Hence dx = 2t dt.
dx 2t 2
Thus  ( x  5) x4
  (t 2  1) t dt   t 2  1 dt  2 Tan 1t  c.
 2 Tan 1 ( x  4)  c.
6.2.18 Evaluation of integrals of algebraic functions of special forms
In the following integrals, a is a positive real number.
1 1 x
1. Let us show that  x2  a2 dx a
Tan 1  c on R.

a
1 1 1
 x2  a2 dx  a 2  1  ( x )2 dx  c
a
1 x
2
. a Tan 1    c (by Corollary 6.2.6)

a a
1 x
 Tan 1    c.
a a
We can also evaluate the same integral by putting x = a tan .
Integration 199
1 1 xa
2. Let us show that  x 2  a 2 dx 2a
log 
xa
 c on any interval containing neither a nor a.
1 1  1 1 
   .
x  a2
2
2a  x  a x  a 
1 1  1 1 
Hence  x2  a2 dx 
2a   x  a
dx   x  a dx   c
1 1 xa
 log | x  a |  log | x  a |   c  2a log x  a  c.
2a
1  x
3. Let us show that  2
a x
dx  sinh 1    c on R.
2  a
1 1 1
 dx   dx
a2  x2 a
 
2
1  ax
1 x 1  x 
  a sinh 1  a   c  sinh    c .
a   a
1  x  x2  a2 
Also  a2  x2
dx  log 
a
  c.
 
(since a > 0 and x  x 2  a 2 is positive for all x in R, we need not write modulus for the expression
x  x2  a2
).
a
We can also evaluate the same integral by using the method of substitution.
dx
For example, to evaluate  a2  x2
on R, we substitute x =  () = a sinh ,  R.
Observe that in this example I = R and J = R, dx = a cosh d and

dx a cosh 
 x2  a2
  a cosh  d   d    c
 x  x2  a2 
 x
 sinh 1    c  log    c.
 a  a 
 
(OR)
   
We substitute x = () = a tan for     ,  . In this case, J    ,  and : J  R is a
 2 2  2 2
1
bijection.  and  are differentiable on their respective domains.
x2  a2  a 2 tan 2   a 2  a sec ;
dx = a sec2  d.
dx a sec 
Therefore  x2  a2
  a sec  d    sec  d 
 log | sec   tan  |  c
x2 x
 log | 1  2
 | c
a a
 a 2  x2  x 
 log    c.
 a 
 
dx x
4. Let us show that  2
a x 2
 Sin 1
a
 c for x  (a, a).
dx 1 dx
   c x
 Sin 1    c.
a 1 a 
x
2 2 2
a x a
dx   
Here we note that  a2  x2
can also be evaluated by substituting x = a sin ,     ,  .
 2 2
dx
5. Let us evaluate  x2  a2
on I, where I = (a,  ) or (  , a).
dx 1 dx
   c
x2  a2 a
 ax   1
2
 1  x 
 cosh  a   c on (a, )
  
 
cosh 1   x   c on (,  a)
  
 a
  x  x2  a2 
 log    c on (a, )
  a 
 
 
   x  x2  a2 
 log    c on (,  a ) .

(from 6.1.9 (21))
 a
 
Integration 201
Alternative method : The function 1 is defined on ( ,  a )  ( a,  ), a  0. We can evaluate

x  a2
2
the integral on an interval I only when I  ( ,  a )  ( a, ).

Let I  ( a,  ) , put x =  () = a cosh ,   (0,  ) .
Then  : (0,  )  (a,  ) is a bijective function,  and  1 are differentiable,
dx = a sinh  d and
x2  a2  a 2 cosh 2   a 2  a cosh 2   1  a sinh .
dx a sinh   x
Hence 
x2  a2
  a sinh  d    d    c  cosh 1    c on (a,  ).
 a
Now let I  (,  a ).
On substituting x = y, y  (a,  ), we observe that
dx dy  x
 2
x a 2
 
2
y a
  cos h 1     c on (  , a).
2  a
We know from hyperbolic functions (Intermediate Mathematics - I(A) Text Book) that

cosh 1 x  log x  x 2  1  if x > 1.
Hence for x > a we have
1 
x x x2   x  x2  a2 
cosh    log   2  1   log  .
a a a   a 
   
x
If x < a then   1 .
a
Hence
 x  x x2 
cosh 1     log    2  1 
 a  a a 
 
  x  x2  a2    x  x2  a2 
 log     log  .
 a   a 
   
Thus it follows that
  x x2  a2 
log    c if I  (a, )
dx   a 

 
x2  a2    x  x2  a2 
log    c if I  (,  a ) .
a 
  
dx | x  x2  a2 |
Hence ,  x2  a2
 ln
a
 c on I  R [a, a].
a2 x x 2
 Sin 1 
2 2
6. Let us show that a  x dx  a  x 2  c on (a, a).
2 a 2
  
Put x = a sin  for     ,  then dx = a cos  d.
 2 2
Hence  a  x dx   a  a 2 sin 2  . a cos  d
2 2 2
1  cos 2
 a 2  cos 2  d   a 
2
d
2
a2  a2  sin 2 
c 
2  
 d   cos 2  d     c
 2  2 
a2
   sin  cos   c
2
a 2  1 x x x2 
 Sin  1 2   c
2  a a a 

a2 x x
 Sin 1  a 2  x 2  c.
2 a 2
Note : This integral  a 2  x 2 dx can also be evaluated by using the formula for integration by parts (see
6.2.26(1)).
7. Let us show that
x x 2  a2 a2 x
 x 2  a2 dx   cosh 1  c on [a,  ).
2 2 a
put x = a cosh  for   [0,  ). Then dx = a sinh  d
and x2  a2  a 2 cosh 2   a 2  a sinh  .
 x 2  a 2 dx   a sinh  . a sinh  d   a 2  sinh 2  . d 
 cosh 2  1  a 2  sinh 2 
 a2    d      c
 2  2  2 
a2
 [sinh  cosh   ]  c
2
a2 
  cosh 2   1 . cosh     c
2  
Integration 203
a2  x2 x x 
  2  1 .  cos h 1 c
2  a a a 

x x2  a2 a2 x
  cosh 1  c.
2 2 a
(Also see 6.2.26(2)).
Similarly, it can be shown that
x x2  a2 a2  x
 x 2  a 2 dx 
2
 cosh 1     c on (  , a) by substituting
2  a
x = a cosh ,  [0,  ).
8. Let us show that
x a2  x2 a2 x
 a  x dx  sinh 1  c on R.
2 2

2 2 a
The given integral can be evaluated by substituting x = a sinh ,  R or by substituting
  
x = a tan ,     ,  . (Also, see 6.2.26(3)).
 2 2
dx  2 2
1. Problem : Evaluate  4  9 x2
on I    ,
 3 .
3
dx dx
Solution :  4  9x 2
  2
2  (3 x) 2
.
2    2
Put x = () = sin  for     ,  . Then dx  cos  d .
3  2 2 3
dx 2
cos  d  2
cos 
Hence  4  9x2
  3
4  9. 94 sin 2 
  2 cos  d 
3
1 1 1  3x 

3  d     c  Sin 1    c .
3 3  2 
1
2. Problem : Evaluate  a2  x2 dx for x  I = (a, a).
1 1 1  1 1 
Solution : We have 22
    .
a x ( a  x) ( a  x) 2a  a  x a  x 
1 1  1 1 
Hence
 a 2  x2 dx   
2a  a  x
dx   dx   c
a x 
1
  log | a  x |  log | a  x |   c
2a
1 ax
 log  c.
2a ax
1
3. Problem : Evaluate  1  4 x 2 dx on R
1 dx
1 dx
Solution :  1  4 x 2 dx    
4  1  x 2   4 1 2  x2

2
2 2
1  
   2 Tan 2 x   c (by 6.2.18(1))
1
4
1
 Tan 1 (2 x)  c .
2
1
4. Problem : Find  4 x 2
dx on (2, 2).
1 1  x
Solution :  4  x2
dx   22  x 2
dx  Sin 1    c .
 2
5. Problem : Evaluate  4 x 2  9 dx on R.
2
3
4 x  9 dx = 2 
2
Solution : 
2
x    dx
2
 x ( 3 )2  x 2 ( 3 )2 
1  x 
 2  2
 2
sinh  3    c (by 6.2.18(8))
 2 2  ( 2) 
 
1 9  2x 
 x 4 x 2  9  sinh 1    c.
2 4  3
5 
6. Problem : Evaluate  9 x 2  25 dx on  ,   .
3 

2
Solution:  9 x 2  25 dx  3  x 2  5 dx
3
Integration 205
x x 2  ( 35 )2  x 
( 35 )2
3   cosh 1 
 5    c (by 6.2.18(7))
 2 2  ( 3) 
 
1 25  3x 
 x 9 x 2  25  cosh 1    c.
2 6  5
 4 4
7. Problem : Evaluate  16  25 x 2 dx on   , .
 5 5
2
 4
Solution :  16  25x 2 dx = 5  2
   x dx
5
x 2
( 54 ) 2 
4 1 x
 5    x 2
 Sin  c
2 5 2 ( 54 ) 
 
x 16  5x 
 16  25 x 2  Sin 1    c
2 10  4 
x 8  5x 
 16  25 x 2  Sin 1    c .
2 5  4 
Exercise 6(b)
e
2x
1. dx, x  R . 2.  sin 7 x dx, xR.
x
 1 x2 dx, x  R.  2 x sin ( x
2
3. 4.  1) dx, x  R .
1
(log x) 2 eTan x
6. 
5.
 x dx on (0,  ). 1  x2
dx on (0,  )
sin (Tan 1 x) 1
7.
 1  x2 dx, x R. 8.  8  2x2 dx on R.
3x 2 2
9.  1  x6 dx on R. 10.  25  9 x 2
dx on R.
11. 
3 1 
dx on  ,  .
9 x2  1 3 
12.  sin m x cos nx dx on R , m  n , m and n are positive integers.
13.  sin m x sin nx dx on R , m  n, m and n are positive integers.

14.  cos m x cos nx dx on R , m  n, m and n are positive integers.
15.  sin x sin 2 x sin 3 x dx on R.
sin x
16.  sin(a  x) dx on I  R { n  a : n Z }.
2 on  ,   .
1 2 1  3
1.  (3 x  2) 
3


2.  7 x  3 dx on I  R   .
 7
log(1  x)
  (3x
2
3. dx on (1,  ) 4.  4)x dx on R.
1 x
dx  1 
  (1  2 x ) x
3 2
5. dx on   ,  6. dx on R .
1  5x  5 
sec 2 x   
7.  (1  tan x)3 dx on I  R  n  : n  Z  .
 4 
x
3
8. sin x 4 dx on R .
cos x  3 
9.  (1  sin x)2 dx on I  R  2 n 
 2
: n  Z .

10.  3 sin x cos x dx on R.
elog x
11.  2x e
x2
dx on R . 12.  dx on (0, ) .
x
x2 2 x3
13.  1  x6
dx on (  1, 1). 14.
 1 x8 dx on R .
x8
15.  1  x18 dx on R .
e x (1  x)
16.  cos2 ( x e x ) dx on I  R { x  R : cos ( x e x )  0}.
cosec 2 x
17.  (a  b cot x)5 dx on I  R { x  R : a  b cot x  0}, where a, b  R, b  0.
Integration 207
x
sin e x dx on R . sin (log x)
18. e 19.
 x
dx on (0, ).
1 (1  log x) n 1
20.  x log x dx on (1, ). 21.  x dx on (e , ), n  1.
22.
cos (log x) 23. cos x
 x dx on (0, ).  x
dx on (0, ).
2x  1
24.
 x2  x 1 dx on R.
ax n 1
25.
 bxn  c dx , where n  N, a, b, c are real numbers, b  0 and
x  I  {x  R : xn   c }.
b
1
26.  x log x [log (log x )] dx on I  (1, )  {e}. 27.  coth x dx on R .
1  1 1 dx
28.  dx on   ,  . 29.  on R .
1  4x2  2 2 25  x 2
1
30.  ( x  3) dx on ( 2, ).
x2
1 n 
31.  1  sin 2 x dx on I  R {  ( 1) n : n  Z }.
2 4
x2  1
32.  x4 1 dx on R.
dx     1  1  
33.  cos2 x  sin 2 x on I  R 
 (2 n  1) : n  Z    n  Tan   : n  Z .
2    2 
 3 
34.  1  sin 2 x dx on I   2n  , 2n   , n Z
 4 4
  
35.  1  cos 2 x dx on I   2n  , 2n   , n  Z
 2 2
cos x  sin x   3 
36.  1  sin 2 x
dx on I   2n  , 2n   , n  Z.
4 4
sin 2 x R, if | a |  | b |
37.  (a  b cos x) 2 dx on 
.
I  {x  R : a  b cos x  0}, if | a |  | b |
sec x   
38.  (sec x  tan x)2 dx on I  R (2 n  1) : n  Z  .
 2 
dx
39.  a 2 sin 2 x  b 2 cos 2 x on R, a  0, b  0.
dx
40.  sin( x  a) sin( x  b) on I  R ({a  n : n  Z}  {b  n : n  Z}) .
1 (2n  1) (2n  1) 

41.  cos( x  a) cos( x  b) dx on I  R ({a 
2
: n  Z}  {b 
2
: n  Z}.
III. Evaluate the following integrals.

sin 2 x
1. a cos x  b sin 2 x
2
dx on I  R { x  R | a cos 2 x  b sin 2 x  0 }.
1  tan x 
2.  1  tan x dx for x  I  R { n 
4
: n  Z }.
cot (log x )
3.  dx, x  I  (0,  ) { en : n  Z }.
x
 e cot e dx, x  I  R
x x
4. {log n : n N }.
(2k  1)
 sec (tan x) sec x dx, on
2
5. I  { x E:tan x  for any k  Z },
2
 (2n  1) 
where E = R  : n  Z .
 2 
6.  sin x cos x dx on [2 n, (2 n  1)], (n  Z) .
(2n  1)
 tan
4
7. x sec2 x dx, x  I  R { : n  Z }.
2
2x  3
8.  2
x  3x  4
dx, x  I  R [ 4, 1].
9.  
 cosec
2
x cot x dx on  0, 
 2
Integration 209
 
10.  sec x log(sec x  tan x) dx on  0,  .
2
 sin  cos
3 3
11. x dx on R . 12. x dx on R.
13.  cos x cos 2 x dx on R. 14.  cos x cos 3x dx on R.
 3 
15.  cos x dx on R.
4
16. x 4x  3 dx on   ,  .
 4 
dx
17.  a 2  (b  cx) 2
on {x  R : | b  cx |  a} , where a, b, c are real numbers c  0 and a > 0.
dx
18.  a2  (b  cx)2 on R , where a, b, c are real numbers, c  0 and a > 0.
dx
19.  1  ex , x R.
x2  a
20.  (a  bx)2 dx, x  I  R    , where a, b are real numbers, b  0.
 b
x2
21.  1 x
dx, x  (  , 1).
6.2(B) Integration by parts - Integration of exponential, logarithmic and inverse

In section 6.2(A), we discussed mainly the integration of algebraic and trigonometric functions
by the method of substitution. In this section, while continuing the discussion of the integration of
algebraic and trigonometric functions, we discuss integration of exponential, logarithmic and inverse
trigonometric functions and some functions obtained as combinations of these.
6.2.20 Theorem : Let u, v be real valued differentiable functions on I. Suppose that u v has an
integral on I. Then u v has an integral on I and
 (uv) ( x) dx  (uv ) ( x )   (uv)( x) dx  c ... (1)
Proof : From the product rule for differentiation of two functions, we know that uv is differentiable in
I and that (uv )  u v  uv.
Then uv  (uv )  u v. ... (2)
Since (uv ) has an integral, namely, uv on I and by hypothesis, uv has an integral on I, from equation
(2) it follows that uv has an integral on I, and
 (uv) ( x) dx   (uv) ( x) dx   (uv)( x) dx  c

= (uv) (x)   (uv)( x) dx  c
for some constant c.
6.2.21 Note
1. Formula (1) is known as the formula for integration by parts. It is customary to write it in the
form
 u d v  uv   v du
by absorbing the constant c in the integral on the R.H.S. Here  u d v stands for
 dv   du 
 u ( x )  dx  ( x) dx,  v du for  v ( x )   ( x ) dx and uv for u(x) v(x).
 dx 
2. Sometimes for a given function f , it might be possible to find differentiable functions u and v such
that f = u v and uv has an integral and  uv can easily be evaluated. In such a case, integration
by parts might be convenient. Sometimes it may be necessary to use the formula more than once
for evaluating a given integral.
6.2.22 Integration of exponential functions
We know that  e dx  e  c, c a constant (see 6.1.9(4)).

x x
1. Let us evaluate  xe x dx on R.
We take u(x) = x and v(x) = ex. We have u (x) = 1.

Now, by the formula for integration by parts, we have
 xe  u ( x) v( x) dx  u ( x) v( x)   u( x) v( x) dx
x
dx 
 xe x   e x dx = xex  ex + c = (x  1) ex + c.
x2
Observation: In the evaluation of  xe dx, suppose we choose u(x) =
x
ex and v( x) 
so that
2
v (x) = x and u(x) v (x) = x ex . Now, with this choice of u and v, the formula for integration by
parts leads us to
x 2e x x2 x
 xe dx  2   2 e dx.
x
Integration 211
x2 x
The evaluation of  2 e dx is lengthy. Thus the present selection of u and v has led us to a more
complicated integral. Hence a judicious choice of u and v is essential to use the formula for integration
by parts, for the evaluation of a given integral.
2. Let us show that, for a given differentiable function f on I,
e
x
[ f ( x )  f ( x) ] dx  e x f ( x )  c. ... (A)
For this purpose, since
[e x f ( x)]  e x f  ( x)  e x f ( x).
 e x [ f ( x)  f  ( x) ],
we have by the definition of the indefinite integral, it follows that
x
e [ f ( x )  f ( x ) ] dx  e x f ( x )  c.
Formula(A) is useful in evaluating integrals of the form  e x g( x ) dx when g is of the form f + f  for
some differentiable function f .
(1  x)
Example : Let us find  e x dx on I  R {2}.
(2  x)2
1 x (2  x )  1 1 1 .
We have   
(2  x )2 (2  x )2 2  x (2  x )2
1 1
Define f ( x)  so that f ( x)   .
2 x (2  x) 2
1 x 1 1
Hence    f ( x)  f ( x) so that by formula (A), we have
(2  x) 2
2  x (2  x) 2
1 x
 e (2  x) 2 dx   e ( f ( x)  f ( x)) dx
x x
ex
 e x f ( x)  c   c.
2 x
6.2.23 Integration of logarithmic functions
Here we evaluate  log x dx by using the formula for integration by parts.
We take u(x) = log x and v(x) = x. Then v (x) = 1.
Hence  log x dx   u ( x) v( x) dx  u ( x) v( x)   u( x) v( x) dx

d
 x log x   x  (log x) dx
dx
1
 x log x   x  dx
x
= x log x  x + c.
Example : Let us evaluate  x log x dx on (0, ).
x2
We take u(x) = log x and v( x)  . Then v (x) = x.
2
Now on using the formula for integration by parts,
x2 1 x2
 x log x dx  2
log x   
x 2
dx
x2 1 x2
 log x    c.
2 2 2
x2 1
 log x  x 2  c.
2 4
6.2.24 Integration of inverse trigonometric functions
1. Let us show that
1
 Sin x dx  x Sin 1 x  1  x 2  c on (1, 1).
We take u(x) = Sin1 x and v(x) = x. Then v (x) = 1. Hence by the formula for integration by
parts, we have
 Sin  u ( x) v( x) dx  u (x) v ( x )   u( x ) v ( x ) dx

1
x dx 
d
 x Sin1 x   x (Sin1 x ) dx
dx
x
 x Sin 1 x   dx
1  x2
 x Sin 1 x  1  x 2  c. ...(1)
2. We now evaluate  Cos 1 x dx on (1, 1) by using (1).

Since Cos 1x   Sin 1 x, we have
2
 
 Cos   2  Sin
1 1
x dx  x dx

Integration 213

 x   Sin 1 x dx
2

 x  xSin 1 x  1  x 2  c (by(1))
2
 x Cos 1 x  1  x 2  c. ...(2)
3. We show that
 Tan
1
x dx  x Tan 1 x  log 1  x 2  c on R.
We take u(x) = Tan1x and v(x) = x. Then v (x) = 1.

Hence by the formula for integration by parts, we have
x
 Tan x dx  x Tan1 x  
1
dx .
1  x2
1
 x Tan 1 x  log (1  x 2 )  c
2
 x Tan 1 x  log 1  x 2  c . ...(3)
4. We now evaluate  Cot 1 x dx on R.

On using Cot 1 x   Tan 1x, and integrating both sides and using (3), we get
2

 Cot x dx  x 2  x Tan x  log 1  x  c .
1 1 2
 x Cot 1x  log 1  x 2  c ...(4)
5. Let us evaluate  Sec 1 x dx on I  (  ,1)  (1,  ) .

Let x  I  (1,  ) . Then
1
 Sec x dx  x Sec1 x  
1
x2  1
 x Sec 1 x  cosh 1 x  c
or
 x Sec 1x  log ( x  x 2  1)  c . (by 6.2.18(5))
Let x  I  ( ,  1) . Then
1
 Sec x dx  x Sec1x  
1
dx
x2  1
 x Sec 1 x  cosh 1 (  x )  c
or
 x Sec 1x  log ( x  x 2  1)  c (by 6.2.18(5))
 Sec
1
Hence x dx  x Sec 1x  log (| x |  x 2  1)  c on I  R [1, 1].
6. Similar to (5), it can be easily verified that, for x  I  (1, ) ,
 Cosec
1
x dx  x Cosec 1 x  cosh 1 x  c
or
 x Cosec 1 x  log ( x  x 2  1)  c.
For x  I  ( ,  1),
1
 Cosec x dx  x Cosec 1 x  cosh 1 (  x )  c
or
 x Cosec 1 x  log (  x  x 2  1)  c.
 Cosec
1
Hence x dx  x Cosec 1x  log (| x |  x 2  1)  c on I  R [1, 1].
1
1. Problem : Evaluate  x Sin x dx on (1, 1).
x2
Solution : Let u(x) = Sin1 x and v( x)  so that v(x ) = x. Then u(x) v(x ) = x Sin1 x. Eventhough
2
the domain of u is [1, 1], the function u is differentiable only in (1, 1). Hence the formula for
integration by parts can be used here in (1, 1) only. From the same formula, we have
x2 x2 d
 x Sin x dx  Sin x . 
1 1
(Sin 1x) dx
2 2 dx
x2 1 x2

2
Sin 1 x 
2  1  x2
dx
x2 1
 Sin 1x  [Sin 1x  x 1  x 2 ]  c . (from 6.2.15)
2 4
2
2. Problem : Evaluate x cos x dx .
Solution : Let us take u(x) = x2, v(x) = sin x so that v(x ) = cos x and u(x) v(x ) = x2 cos x. By using
the formula for integration by parts, we have
x cos x dx  x 2 sin x   sin x ( x 2 ) dx

2
 x 2 sin x  2  x sin x dx  c1.

Integration 215
Again, by applying the formula for integration by parts to  x sin x dx , we get
 x sin x dx   x cos x   (  cos x ) dx
  x cos x  sin x  c2 .
Hence x
2
cos x dx  x 2 sin x  2(sin x  x cos x)  c
 ( x2  2)sin x  2x cos x  c.
In evaluating certain integrals by using the formula for integration by parts, more than once, we
come across the given integral with change of sign. This enables us to evaluate the given integral.
3. Problem : Evaluate  e x sin x dx on R.
 e sin x dx . Then
x
Solution : Let A =
 e ( cos x) dx
x
A =
= e x (  cos x)   (  cos x) (e x ) dx
=  e x cos x  e
x
cos x dx  c1 . ... (1)
e e
x
Now cos x dx  e x sin x  x
sin x dx + c2
= ex sin x  A + c2 ... (2)

From (1) and (2),
A =  ex cos x + ex sin x  A + c1 + c2.
Hence 2A = ex(sin x  cos x) + c1 + c2.

1 x c1  c2
Therefore A
e (sin x  cos x)  c, where c  .
2 2
1
i.e.,  e x sin x dx  e x (sin x  cos x )  c.
2
e
ax
4. Problem : Find cos (bx  c) dx on R, where a, b, c are real numbers, and b  0.
Solution : Let A =  eax cos (bx  c) dx . Then from the formula for integration by parts,
 sin (bx  c)   sin (bx  c) 

A  eax     a eax   dx
 b   b 
1 a
 eax sin (bx  c)   e ax sin (bx  c) dx
b b
1 ax a    cos (bx  c)   cos (bx  c)  

 e sin (bx  c)   e ax     a eax    dx   c1
b b   b   b 
1 ax a a2
 e sin (bx  c)  2 e ax cos (bx  c)  2 A  c2 .
b b b
 a2  a ax 1 ax
Hence 1  2  A  2 e cos (bx  c)  b e sin (bx  c)  c2 .
 b  b
Therefore (a 2  b 2 )A  a e ax cos (bx  c)  b e ax sin (bx  c)  c3 .
e ax c3
Hence A 2 2
[ a cos (bx  c )  b sin (bx  c ) ]  k where k  , a constant.
a b a  b2
2
Note : In the problem (4) above, by taking c = 0, we get

e ax
 e cos bx dx 
ax
a cos bx  b sin bx   k .
a2  b2
1 x
5. Problem : Evaluate  Tan 1 dx, on (1, 1).
1 x
Solution: Put x = cos  , ( (0, )). Then dx =  sin  d, and

2 sin 2
1  x 1  cos  2  tan 2   Hence
 
1  x 1  cos  2 cos2  2
2
1 1  x 1 2
 Tan 1  x dx   Tan tan 2 ( sin ) d
 
   Tan 1  tan  (sin  ) d
 2
1
    sin  d
2
1
  [ (  cos )   (  cos ) d ]  c
2
(on using the formula for integration by parts)
1
 [ cos   sin ]  c
2
1
 [ x Cos 1 x  1  x 2 ]  c.
2
Integration 217
 1  sin x 
e
x
6. Problem : Evaluate  1  cos x  dx on I  R {2n : n  Z}.
1  sin x 1  sin x 1 x x
Solution :   cosec2  cot .
1  cos x x 2 2 2
2 sin 2
2
x 1 x
Let f ( x )   cot . Then f ( x )  cosec2 . Hence
2 2 2
x  1  sin x  x 1 2 x x
 e  1  cos x  dx   e  2 cosec 2  cot 2  dx
  e x ( f ( x )  f ( x ) ) dx
 e x f ( x)  c (by 6.2.22, formula (A))

x
  e x cot  c.
2
To evaluate some integrals, we use the method of substitution as well as the formula for integration
by parts.
7. Problem : Evaluate  Tan 1 

2x 
2 
dx on I  R {1, 1}.
1 x 
Solution : Let Tan1x = . Then x = tan  and dx = sec2  d.
2x 2tan 
2
=  tan 2 .
1 x 1  tan 2 
2x
Hence Tan 1  2  n,
1  x2
 0 if | x | 1

where n   1 if x 1
 1 if x   1.

1
We have d  dx and 1 + x2 = 1 + tan2  = sec2 .
1 x2
 2x    2x   1
Therefore  Tan 1   dx    Tan 1    (1  x 2 ) dx
1 x 
2
 1 x 
2
1  x2
  (2  n) sec 2  d
 2   sec2  d   n  sec2  d   c
 2  tan    tan  d    n tan   c (on integrating by parts)
 2  tan   log | cos  |   n tan   c

 (2  n) tan   log cos 2   c

 2x 
 x Tan 1  2 
 log (sec 2 )  c
1 x 
 2x 
 x Tan 1  2 
 log (1  x 2 )  c.
1 x 
x 2 exp {m Sin 1 x}
8. Problem : Find  dx on (1, 1), where m is a real number.
1 x2
(Here, for y  R, exp {y} stands for ey ).
dx
Solution : Let t = Sin1 x. Then x = sin t and  dt for x (1, 1).
2
1 x
2 1
x exp {m Sin x}
Hence  dx   e mt sin 2 t dt
1  x2
 1  cos 2t  mt
   e dt
 2
1 1
e e
mt mt
 dt  cos 2t dt  c. ...(1)
2 2
Case (i) : m = 0
x 2 exp {m Sin 1 x } 1 1
From (1),  dx =
2
 dt 
2
 cos 2t dt  c
1  x2
t 1 sin 2t
  c
2 2 2
1 1
 Sin 1 x  sin 2(Sin 1 x)  c.
2 4
Case (ii) : m  0.
x 2 exp {m Sin 1 x } 1 emt 1 emt
 dx =
2 m

2 m2  4
[ m cos 2t  2sin 2t ]  c1
1  x2
(from (1) and Problem 6.2.25(4))
1 mt  1 1 
 e   2 ( m cos 2t  2sin 2t )   c1
2 m m 4 
1 m Sin 1 x  1 1
 e   2 ( m cos 2(Sin 1 x)
2 m m 4

 2 sin 2(Sin 1 x))  c1.

Integration 219
6.2.26 Evaluation of integrals of some special type of algebraic functions

(using the method of integration by parts)
1. Evaluation of  a 2  x 2 dx on (a, a), where a > 0.
Let A   a 2  x 2 . 1 dx .
Then by the formula for integration by parts, we have
2 x
A a2  x 2  x    x dx
2 2
2 a x
a2  x2 1
 
2 2
 x a x  dx  a 2 dx  c1
2 2
a x a  x2
2
 x
 x a2  x2   a 2  x 2 dx  a 2 Sin 1    c1
a
(by 6.2.18(4))
 x
x a 2  x 2  A  a 2 Sin 1    c1.
a
x
Hence 2 A  x a 2  x 2  a 2 Sin 1    c1.
a
x 2 1  x c
Thus A  a  x 2  a 2 Sin 1    c where c  1 .
2 2  a 2
2. Evaluation of  x 2  a 2 dx on (a, ) , where a > 0.
Let A   x 2  a 2 . 1 dx .
2x
Then A x2  a 2  x    x dx
2 x2  a2
x2  a2 1
 x x2  a2   dx  a 2  dx  c1
x2  a2 x2  a2
 x
 x x 2  a 2   x 2  a 2 dx  a 2 cosh 1    c1 .
 a
1 1 2 x c
Hence A  x x 2  a2  a cosh 1    c where c  1 .
2 2 a 2
This integral is evaluated earlier by using the substitution x = a cosh  (see 6.2.18(7)).
3. Evaluation of  a 2  x 2 dx on R, where a > 0.
Let A=  a 2  x 2 dx .
=  a2  x2 . 1 dx
2x
 a2  x2 . x   . x dx
2 a2  x2
x2  a2 1
 x a x 2 2
 dx  a 2  dx  c1
2 2
a x a  x2
2
x
 x a 2  x 2   a 2  x 2 dx  a 2 sinh 1    c1
a
x a2  x c1
Hence A a2  x2  sinh 1    c, where c  .
2 2  a 2
Exercise 6(c)
 (2n  1)  
1. x sec2 x dx on I  R

 2
: n is an integer  .

x  1  log x
2.  e  Tan x 
1
2
1 x 
dx, x R. 3.  x2
dx on (0, ).
 (log x)
2
4. dx on (0, ).
x   
5. e (sec x  sec x tan x) dx on I  R (2n  1)
2
: n Z  .
 
x x
6. e cos x dx on R. 7. e (sin x  cos x ) dx on R .
x 1 1
8.  (tan x  log sec x ) e dx on ((2n  2 )  , (2n  2 )  ) , n  Z .
x
n
1. log x dx on (0,  ), n is a real number and n  1.
 log (1  x 
2
2. ) dx on R 3. x log x dx on (0,  ).
e
x
x
2
4. dx on (0,  ). 5. cos x dx on R.
Integration 221
 x sin x
2
6. x dx on R . 7. cos 2 x dx on R.
8.  cos x dx on R.
  
 x sec
2
9. 2 x dx on I  R (2n  1) : n  Z  .
 4 
 x cot
2
10. x dx on I  R {n : n  Z}.

e
x
11. (tan x  sec2 x) dx on I  R {(2n  1) : n  Z}.
2
 1  x log x
e
x
12.   dx on (0, ).
x
x ex
 ( x  1)2 dx on I  R
ax
13.  e sin bx dx on R, a, b  R. 14. {1}
dx
 ( x 2  a 2 ) 2 , (a  0) on R.
x
15. 16. e log (e 2 x  5e x  6) dx on R.
( x  2)
e
x
17. dx on I  R {3}. 18.  cos (log x) dx on (0, ).
( x  3)2
1.  x Tan 1 x dx, x  R . 2.  x 2 Tan 1 x dx, x  R .
Tan 1 x
3.  x2
dx, x  I  R {0}. 4.  x Cos 1 x dx, x  (  1, 1).
5. x
2
Sin 1 x dx, x  (  1, 1). 6.  x log (1  x) dx, x  (  1, ).
7.  sin x dx, on (0, ).
8. ax
e sin (bx  c) dx, (a, b, c  R , b  0) on R .
9. a
x
cos 2 x dx on R (a  0 and a  1).
1
 3x  x3   1 1 
10.  Tan   dx on I  R
 1  3x 2 

 3
, .
3
1 1
11.  sinh x dx on R . 12.  cosh x dx on [1, ).
1
13.  tanh x dx on ( 1, 1).
Note : Hereafter we do not mention the intervals I and J.
1
6.2.27 Evaluation of integrals of the form  ax 2 + bx + c dx where a, b, c are
real numbers, a  0.
Working rule : Reduce ax2 + bx + c to the form a[(x + )2 + ] and then integrate using the
substitution t = x + .
1. Problem : Evaluate dx
 4x2  4x  7 .
7
Solution : 4 x 2  4 x  7  4 ( x 2  x  )
4
 1 
 4 ( x  ) 2  2 .
 2 
dx 1 1
Thus  4x2  4x  7   2
dx  c
4  1 2
 x    ( 2)
 2
1 1 1
  2 dt  c (on substituting t  x  )
4 t  ( 2)2 2
1 1 t 2
 log c (by 6.2.18(2))
42 2 t 2
1 t 2
 log c
8 2 t 2
1 2x 1 2 2
 log  c.
8 2 2x 1 2 2
dx
2. Problem : Find  .
5  2x2  4x
 5  2 5 
Solution : 5  2 x 2  4 x   2  x 2  2 x     2  ( x  1)  2  1 
 2
  7 
2
  2  ( x  1)  
2
 
  2   .
 
dx 1 1
Thus
 5  2 x2  4 x   2   7
2
dx  c
( x  1) 2  
 2 
Integration 223
1 1

2   7
2
dx  c (on substituting t = x  1)
2
t 
 2 
7
t
1 1 2 c
 log (by 6.2.18(2))
2 7 7
2 t
2 2
1 t 7
2
 log c
2 14 t 7
2
1 t 7
2 1 x 1 7
2
 log c  log  c.
2 14 t 7
2
2 14 x 1  7
2
dx
3. Problem : Evaluate  x 2  x  1.
2 2
2  1 1  1 3
Solution : x  x 1   x    1   x    .
 2 4  2 4
dx dx
Hence  x2  x 1   2 2
 1  3
 x     
 2   2 
dt 1
  2 (on substituting t  x  )
 3 2
t 2   

 2 
2  t  2  2x 1
 Tan 1  3   c  Tan 1    c. (by 6.2.18(1))
3  
( 2 ) 3  3 
6.2.29 Evaluation of integrals of the form

dx
(i) 
ax + bx + c2
and (ii)  ax 2 + bx + c dx
where a, b, c are real numbers and a  0

Working rule
Case (i) : If a > 0 and b2  4ac < 0, then reduce ax2 + bx + c to the form a[(x + )2 + ] and
then integrate.
Case (ii) : If a < 0 and b2  4ac > 0, then write ax2 + bx + c as (a) [  (x + )2] and then
integrate.
dx
1. Problem : Evaluate  .
x 2  2 x  10
Solution : x 2  2 x  10  ( x  1) 2  9 .
dx dx
Thus  x 2  2 x  10
  ( x  1) 2  32
dt
  (on substituting t = x + 1)
t 2  32
3 
 sinh 1 t  c  sinh 
1  x  1
 3 
 c.
dx
2. Problem : Evaluate  1  x  x2
.
dx dx
Solution :  1 x  x 2
  2
( x  x  1)
dx
   
dx
 ( x  12 )2  54  ( 25 ) 2  ( x  12 ) 2
dt
  (on substituting t = x  12 )
5 2 2
( 2 ) t
 t   x  12 
 Sin 1  5   c  Sin 1  c
( )  ( 5) 
 2   2 
 2x 1 
 Sin 1    c.
 5 
3. Problem : Evaluate  3  8 x  3x 2 dx .
Solution : 3 + 8x  3x2 = (3) ( x 2  83 x  1)
 
 (3) ( x  34 ) 2  169  1  (3) ( x  43 ) 2  259  

 3 ( 53 ) 2  ( x  34 ) 2 . 
Integration 225
Therefore
2
 5  2  4 
2
 3  8 x  3 x dx  3      x    dx  c
 3   3  
  5 2  4
 3    t2  dt  c (on substituting t  x  )
 3   3
 

 
2
5 
 t 5
 1  t  
2
 3 t 2 3 Sin c

2 3 2  5 

 3  
( x  43 ) 5 2 25  (x  4 ) 
 3 ( 3 )  ( x  43 )2  Sin 1  5 3   c
2 18  (3) 
1 4 25  3x  4 
 2
 x   3  8 x  3x  Sin 1   c
2 3 6 3  5 
(3x  4) 3  8 x  3 x 2 25  3x  4 
  Sin 1    c.
6 6 3  5 
6.2.31 To evaluate integrals of the form
px + q px + q
(i)  ax 2 + bx + c dx (ii)  ( px + q) ax 2 + bx + c dx (iii)  ax 2 + bx + c
dx
where a, b, c, p, q are real numbers, a  0 and p  0.

d
Working rule : Write px + q in the form A (ax 2  bx  c)  B and then integrate.
dx
x 1
1. Problem : Evaluate  x 2  3 x  12 dx.
d 2
Solution : We write x  1  A ( x  3 x  12)  B
dx
= A(2x + 3) + B.
On comparing the coefficients of like powers of x on both sides of the above equation, we get
1 1 1 1
A= and B =  . Hence x + 1 = (2x + 3)  .
2 2 2 2
x 1 1 2x  3 1 dx
Now  2
dx   x 2  3 x  12 dx   2
c
x  3 x  12 2 2 x  3 x  12
1 1 dx
 log | x 2  3x  12 |   3 2
c
2 2 ( x  2 )  394
1 1 dx
 log | x 2  3 x  12 |   c
2 2 ( x  32 ) 2  ( 39 2
2 )
1 1 2  3 
1 x  2
 log | x 2  3 x  12 |  Tan  39   c
2 2 39 ( )
 2 
1 1  2 x  3
 log | x 2  3 x  12 |  Tan 1   c.
2 39  39 
2. Problem : Evaluate  (3x  2) 2 x 2  x  1 dx.

d
Solution : We write (3 x  2)  A (2 x 2  x  1)  B
dx
= A(4x 1) + B.
3 and B   5 . Hence 3 x  2  3 (4 x  1)  5 .
A
4 4 4 4
3 5
Therefore  (3 x  2) 2 x  x  1 dx    (4 x  1)  
2
2 x 2  x  1 dx
4 4
3 5

4
 (4 x  1) 2 x 2  x  1 dx 
4
 2 x 2  x  1 dx  c
3 5 2 2
3 2  1 7
 . (2 x 2  x  1) 2   x   dx  c
4 3 4  4  16
3 5 2 1 2
 1  
1  1  1 7 7 1 ( x  4 )
 (2 x 2  x  1) 2   x   x     sinh   c
2 4 2  4  4  16 32  7  
  4  
(from 6.2.26(3))
2
1 3 5  1  1 7 35  4 x  1
 (2 x 2  x  1) 2   x    x     sinh 1   c.
2 4 2 4 4 16 64 2  7 
2x  5
3. Problem : Evaluate  2
dx.
x  2 x  10
Solution : We write
d 2
2x  5  A ( x  2 x  10)  B = A(2x  2) + B.
dx
Integration 227
On comparing the coefficients of the like powers of x on both sides of the above equation, we get A =
1 and B = 7. Thus 2x + 5 = (2x  2) + 7.
2x  5 2x  2 dx
Hence  dx   dx  7  c
x 2  2 x  10 x 2  2 x  10 x 2  2 x  10
dx
 2 x 2  2 x  10  7 c
( x  1)2  32
 x  1
 2 x 2  2 x  10  7 sinh 1   c.
 3 
6.2.33 To evaluate integrals of the type
dx
 (ax + b) px + q
where a, b, p and q are real numbers, a  0 and p  0
Working rule : Put t = px  q and then integrate.

6.2.34 Solved Problem
dx
Evaluate  ( x  5) x  4 .
1
Solution : Put t = x  4 . Then dt  dx .
2 x4
We have t2 = x + 4. Hence x + 5 = t2 + 1.
dx 2
Therefore  ( x  5) x4
  t 2  1 dt = 2 Tan1 t + c
= 2 Tan 1 ( x  4 )  c .
6.2.35 To evaluate integrals of the type
1 1
(i)  a + b cosx dx (ii)  a + b sinx dx
where a and b real numbers, b  0
 x
1 1  1  tan 2 
Working rule :  dx   dx
' cos x 
2

a  b cos x  2 x 2 x
 1  tan 2
 1  tan 
a  b  2
x
 1  tan 2 
 2
 2 x x
1  tan  dx sec2 dx
2 2
=  =  x
 x  x
a 1  tan 2   b  1  tan 2  (a  b)  (a  b) tan 2
 2  2 2
x 1 x
Put tan  t. Then sec 2 dx  dt.
2 2 2
1 2
Therefore  a  b cos x dx   (a  b)  (a  b)t 2 dt
and we can now integrate it by known methods.
x
2 tan
The integral in (ii) can be evaluated in a similar way by replacing sinx by 2 .
x
1  tan 2
6.2.36 Solved Problems 2
dx
1. Problem : Evaluate  5  4 cos x .
 2 x x
1  tan  dx sec2 dx
dx dx  2 2
Solution : 
5  4 cos x
 
 2 x 
= 
 2 x  2 x
=  x
5 1  tan  4 1  tan 9  tan 2
 1  tan 2  

 
2 

2 2
5  4
x
 1  tan 2 
 2
x 1 x
Put tan  t. Then sec 2 dx  dt.
2 2 2
dx 2dt 2 1  t  2 1 
tan 2x 
Therefore  
5  4 cos x  9  t 2 3
= Tan    c  Tan    c.
3 3  3 
dx
2. Problem : Find  3 cos x  4 sin x  6 .
dx dx
Solution :  3cos x  4sin x  6   
2 x   x 
 1  tan  2 4  2 tan
2 6
3  
x x
 1  tan 2   1  tan 2 
 2  2
 2 x
1  tan  dx
 2
 
 x x  x
3 1  tan 2   8 tan  6  1  tan 2 
 2 2  2
Integration 229
x
Put tan  t. Then 1 sec 2 x dx  dt.
2 2 2
dx 2dt 2dt
Therefore  3 cos x  4 sin x  6   3 (1  t 2 )  8t  6(1  t 2 )   3t 2  8t  9
2 dt 2 3  (t  4 ) 
 
3 (t  3 ) 2  11
4  
3 11
Tan 1  113   c
 ( ) 
9  3 
2  3 tan 2x  4 
 Tan 1    c.
11  11 
6.2.37 Evaluation of integrals of the type
a cosx + bsinx + c
 d cosx + e sinx + f dx ...(A)
where a, b, c, d, e, f are real numbers, d  0, e  0
Working rule : We find real numbers  and  such that
(a cos x + b sin x + c) = [d cos x + e sin x + f ] +  [d cos x + e sin x + f ] + 
and then by substituting this expression in the integrand, we evaluate the given integral.
dx
1. Problem : Find  d  e tan x .
1 cos x
Solution : We have  .
d  e tan x d cos x  e sin x
Let us find  and  such that
cos x   ( d cos x  e sin x )  ( d cos x  e sin x )  
  (  d sin x  e cos x)  ( d cos x  e sin x )  .
On comparing the coefficients of like terms on both sides of the above equation, we have
 e   d  1,   d   e  0,   0 .
e d
On solving these equations, we obtain   2 2
,   2 2 ,   0.
d e d e
Therefore
dx (d cos x  e sin x ) d cos x  e sin x
 d  e tan x    (d cos x  e sin x ) dx    d cos x  e sin x dx  c1
  log | d cos x  e sin x |  x  c1.
1
 [ dx  e log | d cos x  e sin x | ]  c1 .
d  e2
2
sin x cos x
2. Problem : Evaluate  d cos x  e sin x dx and  d cos x  e sin x dx.
sin x cos x
Solution : Let A1   d cos x  e sin x dx and A 2   d cos x  e sin x dx .
e sin x  d cos x
Now eA1  dA 2   d cos x  e sin x dx   dx  x  c1 ...(i)
(d sin x  e cos x)

and dA1  eA2   d cos x  e sin x dx
 log | d cos x  e sin x |  c2 ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii)
1
A1  [ex  d log | d cos x  e sin x | ]  c3 where c3  ec1  dc2 ; and
d  c2
2
d 2  e2
1 dc  ec
A 2  2 2 [dx  e log | d cos x  e sin x |]  c4 where c4  12 22 .
d c d e
cos x  3 sin x  7
3. Problem : Evaluate  cos x  sin x  1 dx .
Solution : Let us find real numbers and  such that
cos x + 3 sin x + 7 = (cos x + sin x + 1 ) + (cos x + sin x + 1)
= (sin x + cos x) + (cos x + sin x + 1)
= (cos x + () sin x + ().
On comparing the coefficients of like terms on both sides of the above equation, we have
  = 3;  = 7.
On solving these equations, we have   and  Therefore
cos x  3 sin x  7
 cos x  sin x  1
dx
(cos x  sin x  1) cos x  sin x  1 1

  dx  2  dx  5  dx  c
cos x  sin x  1 cos x  sin x  1 cos x  sin x  1
1
  log| cos x  sin x  1|  2 x  5  dx  c. ... (A)
cos x  sin x  1
1
We now evaluate  cos x  sin x  1 dx.
Integration 231
1 1 1 sec2 2x
 cos x  sin x  1 dx   2 cos 2 x  2 cos x sin x dx  2  (1  tan x ) dx
2 2 2 2
dt x
  1  t (on substituting t  tan )
2
x
= log | 1 + t |  log | 1  tan | .
2
Hence from (A),
cos x  3sin x  7 x
 cos x  sin x  1
dx   log | cos x  sin x  1|  2 x  5log|1  tan |  c.
2
6.2.39 Remark
h( x )
If f ( x)  , g ( x)  0, where h and g are either polynomials in x or trigonometric expressions,
g ( x)
then to find  f ( x) dx, sometimes it is possible to find constants  and  such that
h( x )   g ( x )   g ( x )  .
  g ( x)   g ( x)   
In this case,  f ( x) dx    g ( x)
 dx


  log | g ( x) | x   dx  c.
g ( x)
1
If  g ( x) dx can be evaluated by known methods, then  f ( x) dx can be evaluated.
Exercise 6(d)
1 sin 
1.  dx 2.  d
2 x  3x 2  1 2  cos2 
cos x dx
3.  sin 2 x  4sin x  5 dx 4.  1  cos 2 x
dx 1
5.  2 sin 2 x  3 cos 2 x 6.  1  tan x dx
1
7.  1  cot x dx
II. Evaluate the following integrals on any interval contained in the domains of the integrands.
9 cos x  sin x
1.  1  3x  x 2 dx 2.  4 sin x  5 cos x dx
2 cos x  3 sin x 1
3.  4 cos x  5 sin x dx 4.  1  sin x  cos x dx
1 dx
5.  3 x 2  x  1 dx 6. 
5  2x2  4x
III. Evaluate the following integrals on any interval contained in the domains of the integrands.
x 1
1.  2
dx 2.  (6 x  5) 6  2 x 2  x dx
x  x 1
dx 1
3.  4  5 sin x 4.  2  3 cos 2 x dx
dx
5. x 1  x  x 2 dx 6. 
(1  x) 3  2 x  x 2
dx 1
7.  4 cos x  3 sin x 8.  sin x  3 cos x
dx
dx 2 sin x  3 cos x  4
9.  5  4 cos 2 x 10.  3 sin x  4 cos x  5 dx
5 x 1 x
11.  x2
dx 12.  1 x
dx
dx dx
13.  (1  x) 3  2 x  x2
14.  ( x  2) x 1
dx
15.  (2 x  3) x2
1
16.  (1  x) x  x2
dx
dx
17. 
( x  1) 2 x 2  3x  1
Integration 233
18.  e x  4 dx
19.  1  sec x dx
dx
20.  1 x 4
6.3 Integration - Partial fractions method
A rational function in x is the quotient of two polynomials in x. If the degree of the numerator is greater
than or equal to that of the denominator, the function can be reduced by actual division to the sum of a
polynomial and a rational function whose numerator is of degree less than that of denominator. Since the
integral of a polynomial can be easily found, the problem of integrating a rational function reduces to that of
integrating a rational function whose numerator is of lesser degree than that the denominator.
In this section we confine our attention to integrate rational functions whose numerators and denominators
are all polynomials with real coefficients.
Let R(x) be a rational function. We find  R ( x) dx in the following way.

f ( x)
Let R ( x )  , where f and g are polynomials and g  0 on I.
g ( x)
h( x)
If deg f (x) > deg g(x), then by dividing f (x) by g(x), we get R ( x)  Q( x)  ,
g ( x)
where Q(x) and h(x) are polynomials and either h(x)  0 or deg h(x) < deg g(x).
Here, deg f denotes the degree of the polynomial f.
h( x )
Now  R ( x) dx   Q( x) dx   g ( x) dx. We write R 1 ( x)  h( x) .
g ( x)
When h  0, using the theory of partial fractions, the fraction h( x) can be resolved into a sum of simpler
g ( x)
fractions, which can be easily integrated. In this resolution, we come across four different types of fractions as
shown below.
A
(i) , A, b, c are real constants and b  0
bx  c
A
(ii) , A, b, c are real constants, b  0 and k is a positive integer > 1.
(bx  c) k
Ax  B
(iii) , A, B, a, b, c are real numbers, a  0 and b2  4ac < 0 (ax2 + bx + c is an irreducible
ax 2  bx  c
factor).
Ax  B
(iv) , A, B, a, b, c are real numbers, a  0 and b2  4ac < 0 and k is a positive
(ax  bx  c) k
2
integer > 1.
h( x )
Let us now consider the problem of integrating R 1 ( x)  .
g ( x)
Case (i) : The roots of g(x) = 0 are real and distinct.
Let these roots be x0, x1, ..., xk. Then g(x) = a(x  x0) (x  x1) ... (x  xk).
Then, from algebra, we know that there exist unique real constants A0, A1, ..., Ak such that
h( x) A0 A1 Ak
R 1 ( x)     ...  .
g ( x ) x  x0 x  x1 x  xk
dx dx dx
Hence  R1 ( x) dx  A0  x  x  A1  x  x  ...  A k  x  x  log | c |
0 1 k
 A0 log | x  x0 |  A1 log| x  x1 | ...  A k log | x  xk |  log | c | .

 log | c ( x  x0 )A0 ( x  x1 )A1 ...( x  xk )Ak |, for some constant c.
x3  2 x  3
Find   dx.
x  x2
Solution : We note that the integrand is a rational function in which the degree of the numerator is greater than
that of the denominator. Using synthetic division, it can be shown that
x3  2 x  3 x 1

 ( x  1)  2 .
x  x2 x  x2
Hence, we have
x3  2 x  3 x 1
 x   x  2 dx   ( x  1) dx   x 2  x  2 dx  c
Integration 235
( x  1)2 x 1
  2 dx  c.
2 x  x2
In order to evaluate the integral on the R.H.S. we resolve the integrand into partial fractions. From the
theory of partial fractions, we know that
x 1 x 1 A B
   ,
x  x  2 ( x  2) ( x  1) x  2 x  1
2
for some unique constants A and B. We have

(x + 1) = A(x  1) + B(x + 2) = (A + B)x + (A + 2B).
A + B = 1 and A + 2B = 1.
1 2
On solving these equations, we get A  and B  . Therefore, we have
3 3
x 1 1 dx 2 dx
 x2  x  2 dx  3  x  2  3  x  1  log | c |
1 2
 log | x  2 |  log | x  1|  log | c |
3 3
1 2
 log | c( x  2) 3 ( x  1) 3 | .
x3  2 x  3 ( x  1) 2 1 2
Thus  x2  x  2 dx   log | c ( x  2) 3 ( x  1) 3 | .
2
dx
Find  x 2  81.
Solution : Using the methods of partial fractions, it can be shown that
1 1 1  1 1 
 2 =  .
2
x  81 x 9 2
18  x  9 x  9 

dx 1 1 1
Hence  x 2  81  18   x  9 dx   x  9 dx   c
 
1
 [ log | x  9 |  log | x  9 | ]  c
18
1 x 9
 log | |  c, on any interval I  R {9, 9}.
18 x9
Case (ii) : The roots of g(x) = 0 are real but some roots are repeated.
When x0 is a root of g(x) = 0 of multiplicity k, the contribution of x0 arising from resolving h( x) into
g ( x)
partial fractions gives a sum of the type
A1 A2 A3 Ak
   ... 
x  x0 ( x  x0 ) 2
( x  x0 ) 3
( x  x0 ) k
for some unique constants A1, A2, ..., Ak.
Each of the k terms can be easily integrated. We illustrate this case by the following solved problem.

2 x 2  5x  1
Find  2 2 dx.
x ( x  1)
Solution : We have x2(x2  1) = x2 (x  1) (x + 1).
From the methods of partial fractions, it follows that there exist unique constants A, B, C, D such
that
2 x 2  5x  1 A B C D
  2  . ...(1)
2 2
x ( x  1) x x x 1 x 1
Hence
2x2  5x  1  Ax (x2  1) + B (x2  1) + Cx2 (x + 1) + Dx2 (x  1) . In the above equation, if we
let x = 0, we have 1 = B or B = 1. If x = 1, we have 2 = 2C or C = 1, and if x = 1 we have
8 = 2D or D = 4. To find A, we equate the co-efficients of x3 on either side of the equation and obtain
0 = A + C + D. Since C = 1 and D = 4, we have A  1  4 = 0 so that A = 5. Hence, by substituting
A = 5, B = 1, C = 1 and D =  4 in (1) and then by integrating we get
2 x2  5x  1 5 dx dx 4
 x2 ( x2  1) dx  x dx   
x 2
 
x 1 x 1
dx  c
1
 5log | x |   log | x  1| 4log | x  1|  c
x
1 x5
  log  c.
x ( x2  1) ( x  1)3
Case (iii) : Some roots of g(x) = 0 are non-real (complex numbers), but no such root is repeated.
From algebra, we know that the complex roots of a polynomial equation with real coefficients occur in
conjugate pairs. Hence if a + ib, b  0 is a root of g(x) = 0 then a  ib is also a root, where i   1 .
Hence, g(x) contains a quadratic expression of the form x 2   x   as one of its factors, where , ,  are
real numbers and 2  4 < 0 iff g(x) has two complex conjugate roots.
Integration 237
The contribution to the resolution of h( x) into partial fractions for the real roots has been discussed
g ( x)
earlier. The contribution of an irreducible quadratic factor x 2   x   in the resolution of h( x) into partial
g ( x)
fractions is a term of the form A x  B , which can be integrated following the
2
x   x  
discussion in 6.2.31.
The following solved problem illustrates this case.
3x  5
Find  x( x 2  2 x  4) dx .
Solution : The discriminant of x2 + 2x + 4 is 4  16 = 12 < 0.
Hence x2 + 2x + 4 is irreducible.
From the theory of partial fractions, it follows that there exist unique constants A, B, C such that
3x  5 A Bx  C .
2
  2
x ( x  2 x  4) x x  2x  4
Hence 3 x  5  A( x 2  2 x  4)  x (Bx  C)
= (A + B) x2 + (2A + C) x + 4A.
On equating the coefficients of like powers of x on both sides of the above equation, we get
A + B = 0; 2A + C = 3 and 4A = 5.
5 5 11
On solving these equations, we get A   ; B  ; C  .
4 4 2
3x  5 5 dx 1 5 x  22
Thus  x( x 2  2 x  4) dx   4  x  4  ( x  1) 2  3 dx  c
5 1 5 x  22
 log | x |   dx  c.
4 4 ( x  1) 2  3
To evaluate the integral on the RHS, put u = x + 1. Then x = u  1; dx = du and

5x  22 5u  17
 ( x  1)2  3 dx   u 2  3 du.
u 1
 5 2
du  17  2 du.
u 3 u 3
5 17  u 
 log | u 2  3 |  Tan 1  
2 3  3
5 17  x 1
 log | x 2  2 x  4 |  Tan 1  .
2 3  3 
3x  5 5 5 17  x 1 
Thereore  x( x 2  2 x  4) dx   log | x |  log | x 2  2 x  4 |  Tan 1    c.
4 8 4 3  3 
Case (iv) : The equation g(x) = 0 has complex roots and some of them are repeated.
We know that if z0 is a complex root of g(x) = 0 of multiplicity k, then so is z0 . Hence corresponding
to two conjugate complex roots a + ib, a  ib, b  0 of g(x) = 0 of multiplicity k, there corresponds an
irreducible quadratic expression x2 +x +  (with a + ib, a  ib as zeros) which occurs exactly k times
in the factorization of g(x).
h( x )
When k > 1, the contribution to the partial fraction resolution R 1 ( x)  from the factor (x2 +
g ( x)
x + )k consists of the sum of the partial fractions of the type
A1x  B1 A 2 x  B2 A k x  Bk
2
, 2 2
,..., .
x  x   (x  x   ) ( x 2   x   ) k
The contribution to the partial fraction resolution from non-real roots of multiplicity one and real roots
has been discussed earlier.
We illustrate it in the following solved problem.
2x 1
Find  x( x 2  4) 2 dx.
Solution : From the theory of partial fractions, it follows that there exist unique constants A, B, C, D and E
such that
2x 1 A Bx  c Dx  E
2 2
  2  2 .
x( x  4) x x  4 ( x  4) 2
Hence 2x + 1  A(x2 + 4)2 + (Bx + C)x (x2 + 4) + (Dx + E)x.
On expanding the right hand side of the above equation, and rearranging, we have
2x + 1  (A + B)x4 + Cx3 + (8A + 4B + D) x2 + (4C + E)x.
On equating the coefficients of like powers of x on both sides of the above equation, we obtain
1
A + B = 0; C = 0; 8A + 4B + D = 0; 4C + E = 2, A = .
16
Integration 239
On solving these equations, we obtain

1 1 1
A= , B =  , C = 0, D =  and E = 2.
16 16 4
Hence
2x 1 1 dx 1 2x ( 14 x  2)
 x( x 2  4) 2 dx  16  
x 32
 x 2  4 dx   ( x 2  4) 2
dx  c1 .
1 1 1 dx
log | x |  log ( x 2  4) 
 2
 2 2  c1 ...(1)
16 32 8( x  4) ( x  4) 2
dx
We now evaluate  (x 2  4) 2 .
  
Put x = 2 tan  for    ,  . Then dx = 2 sec2 d.
 2 2
dx 2sec2  1 d 1
 ( x2  4)2   42 (1  tan 2 )2 d   8  sec2   8  cos  d 
2
Hence
1 1  sin 2 
  (1  cos 2) d    2   c2
16 16
1  tan   1   x 2x 
 
 2 
 c2   Tan 1    2   c2 . ...(2)
16  1  tan   16   2 4 x 
Thus from (1) and (2) we get
2x 1 1 1 1 1 1  x  1  x 
 x( x 2  4) 2 dx  16 log | x |  32 log( x  4)  8( x 2  4)  Tan     c
2
2
8  2 4  4 x 
where c = c1 + c2.
Exercise 6(e)
x 1 x2
1.  dx 2.  dx
( x  2)( x  3) ( x  1)( x  2) 2
x3 dx
3.  ( x  1)( x 2  1) dx 4.  ( x 2  a 2 )( x 2  b 2 )
dx dx
5.  e x  e2 x 6.  ( x  1)( x  2)
1 1
7.  e x  1 dx 8.  (1  x )(4  x 2 ) dx
2x  3
9.  x3  x 2  2 x dx

dx dx
1.  2 2.  x( x  1) ( x  2)
6 x  5x  1
3x  2 7x  4
3.  dx 4.  ( x  1) 2 ( x  2) dx
( x  1) ( x  2)( x  3)
1 2x  3
1.  ( x  a ) ( x  b)( x  c) dx 2.  ( x  3) ( x 2  4) dx
2x2  x 1 dx
3.  ( x  3) ( x  2) 2 dx 4.  x 3 1
sin x cos x
5.  2
dx
cos x  3cos x  2
6.4 Reduction formulae
There are many functions whose integrals cannot be reduced to one or the other of the well
known standard forms of integration. However, in some cases these integrals can be connected
algebraically with integrals of other expressions in the form of a recurrance relation which are directly
integrable or which may be easier to integrate than the original functions. Such connecting algebraic
relations are called reduction formulae. These formulae connect an integral with another one which
is of the same type, with a lower integer parameter which is relatively easier to integrate. In this
section, we illustrate the method of integration by successive reduction.
x
n
6.4.1 Reduction formula for e ax dx, n being a positive integer
x
n
Let In = eax dx.
On using formula for integration by parts, we get
x n eax n 1 e
ax
In   n x dx
a a
x n eax n
   x n 1 eax dx
a a
n ax
x e n
  I n 1 . ...(1)
a a
This is called a reduction formula for  x n eax dx. Now In1 in turn can be connected to In2. By
eax
successive reduction of n, the original integral In finally depends on I0, where I 0   eax dx  .
a
Integration 241
x e
3 5x
Evaluate dx.
Solution : We take a = 5 and use the reduction formula 6.4.1(1) for n = 3, 2, 1 in that order. Then we have
x 3e 5 x 3
 x e dx 
3 5x
I3   I2 .
5 5
x 2 e5 x 2
I2   I1
5 5
xe5 x 1
I1   I0
5 5
e5 x
and I0   c.
5
x 3e 5 x 3 2 5 x 6 5 x 6 5 x
Hence I3   2 x e  3 xe  4 e  c.
5 5 5 5
6.4.3 Reduction formula for  sin n x dx for an integer n > 2
Let I n   sin n x dx
d
  sin ( n 1) x sin x dx   sin n 1 x (  cos x) dx
dx
 sin ( n 1) x (  cos x )   (n  1)sin n 2 x cos x (  cos x ) dx
  sin n 1 x cos x   (n  1) sin n  2 x (1  sin 2 x) dx
  sin n1 x cos x  (n  1)  sin n 2 x dx  (n  1)  sin n x dx
  sin n 1 x cos x  (n  1) In  2  (n  1)In .
 sin n 1 x cos x (n  1)
Hence In   I n 2 . ... (2)
n n
This is called a reduction formula for  sin n x dx .
If n is even, after successive reduction, we get
I 0   (sin x) 0 dx  x  c1.
If n is odd, after successive reduction, we get
I1   (sin x) dx   cos x  c2 .

Evaluate  sin 4 x dx .
Solution: On using the reduction formula 6.4.3(2) for  sin n x dx with n = 4 and 2 in that order we
have
sin 3 x cos x 3
 sin x dx    I2
4
I4 
4 4
3
 sin x cos x 3  sin x cos x 1 
    I0 
4 4  2 2 
 sin 3 x cos x 3 3
  sin x cos x  x  c.
4 8 8
6.4.5 Reduction formula for  sin m x cos n x dx for a positive integer m and an
integer n > 2
 sin
m
Let I m ,n  x cos n x dx
 sin x cos n 1 x . cos x dx

m

d
 sin x cosn1 x
m
 (sin x)dx
dx
d  (sin x) m1 
 cos x
n 1
 dx
dx  m  1 
1 1 d

m 1
cosn1 x sin m1 x 
m 1  sin m1
dx
(cosn 1 x) dx
1 n 1
m 1 
 cosn1 x sin m1 x  sin m 2 x cosn2 x dx
m 1
1 n 1

m 1
cos n1 x sin m1 x 
m 1  sin m x cos n 2 x (1  cos2 x) dx
1 n 1 n 1

m 1
cos n 1 x sin m1 x 
m 1  sin m x cos n 2 x dx 
m 1  sin m x cosn x dx
1 n 1 n 1
 cosn1 x sin m1 x  I m, n  2  I m,n .
m 1 m 1 m 1
1 n 1
Hence I m ,n  cos n 1 x sin m 1 x  Im, n 2 , ... (3)
mn mn
which is the required reduction formula.
Integration 243
6.4.6 Reduction formula for  tan n x dx for an integer n > 2
 tan x dx
n
Let In 
n2
 tan x tan x dx
2

n2 n2
 tan x sec x dx   tan x dx
2
 (' tan2 x = sec2 x  1)
tan n 1 x
  In2 , ... (4)
n 1
which is the required reduction formula.
When n is even, In will finally depend on I0   dx  x  c1 .
When n is odd, In will finally depend on I1   tan x dx  log | sec x |  c2 .

6
Evaluate  tan x dx
Solution : On using 6.4.6(4) with n = 6, 4, 2 in that order, we get
tan 5 x
I6 =  tan x dx 
6
  tan 4 x dx
5
tan 5 x tan 3 x
    tan 2 x dx
5 3
tan x tan 3 x
5
   tan x  x  c.
5 3
6.4.8 Reduction formula for  secn x dx for an integer n > 2
Let In =  sec x dx   sec n  2 x sec 2 x dx
n
d
  sec n  2 x (tan x ) dx
dx
 sec n  2 x tan x   tan x (n  2) sec n  2 x tan x dx
 sec n  2 x tan x  ( n  2)   sec n

x dx   sec
n2
x dx 
 sec n2 x tan x  (n  2) (I n  I n 2 ).
1 n2
That is, In  sec n  2 x tan x  I n2 . ... (5)
n 1 n 1
That is the required reduction formula.
When n is even, the last integral to which In can be reduced is I0 which is  dx  x  c1.
When n is odd, the ultimate integral is I1, which is  sec x dx  log | sec x  tan x |  c2 .

5
Evaluate  sec x dx .
Solution : On using the reduction formula 6.4.8 (5) with n = 5, we have
sec3 x tan x 3
 sec x dx 
5
I5   I3
4 4
sec3 x tan x 3 sec x tan x 3
   I1
4 4 2 8
sec3 x tan x 3 3
  sec x tan x  log |sec x  tan x|  c .
4 8 8
Exercise 6(f)
 e (1  x ) dx
x 2 2 3 x
1. 2.  x e dx
 x e dx
3 ax
3.
II. 1. Show that  x n e  x dx   x n e x  n  x n 1 e x dx
1 n 1
2. If I n   cos n x dx, then show that I n  cos n 1 x sin x  In2 .
n n
III. 1. Obtain reduction formula for I n   cot n x dx, n being a positive integer, n > 2 and deduce the
value of  cot 4 x dx .
2. Obtain the reduction formula for I n   cosec n x dx, n being a positive integer, n > 2 and
deduce the value of  cosec5 x dx .
3. If I m, n   sin m x cos n x dx, then show that
sin m 1 x cos n1 x m 1

I m, n    I m 2, n , for a positive integer n and an integer m > 2.
mn mn
(compare it with the formula obtained in 6.4.5(3)).
4. Evaluate  sin 5 x cos 4 x dx.
5. If In   (log x) n dx then show that I n  x (log x) n  n I n 1, and hence find  (log x) 4 dx.
Integration 245
Key Concepts
v Let E be a subset of R and let f : E  R be a function. If there is function F on E such that F( x)
= f (x) for all x  E, then we call F an antiderivative of f or a primitive of f.
v Let I be an interval of R. Let f : I  R . Suppose that f has an antiderivative F on I. Then we say that
f has an integral on I and, for any real constant c, we call F + c an indefinite integral of f over I and
denote it by  f ( x) dx .
Hence  f ( x) dx = F(x) + c; c is called a constant of integration.
v
d
 f ( x) dx   f ( x) .
dx
v If f : I  R is differentiable on I, then  f  ( x ) dx  f ( x )  c where c is a consant.
v Indefinite integrals of certain standard forms
(a) If nR {1}, then n x n 1 on R.

 x dx  n  1
dx
(b)   log | x |  c on any interval I  R {0}.
x
ax
(c) If a > 0 and a  1, then  a dx  x
 c on R.
loge a
 e dx  e  c, x  R.
x x
(d)
(e)  sin x dx   cos x  c, x  R.

(f)  cos x dx  sin x  c, x  R.
 ( 2n  1)  
: n Z .
 sec x dx  tan x  c on I  R 
2
(g)
 2 
(h)  cosec
2
x dx   cot x  c on I  R {n : n  Z }.
 ( 2n  1)  
(i)  sec x tan x dx  sec x  c on I  R  : n Z .
 2 
(j)  cosec x cot x dx   cosec x  c on I  R {n : n  Z }.
1
(k)  1 x 2
dx  Sin 1 x  c on (1, 1).
= Cos1x + c on (1, 1).
1
(l)  1  x2 dx  Tan 1 x  c on R.
= Cot1x + c on R.
1
(m)  dx  Sec 1 x  c .
2
| x| x 1
= Cosec1x + c on any interval I  (,  1)  (1,  ) .
(n)  sinh x dx  cosh x  c on R.
(o)  cosh x dx  sinh x  c on R.
 sech x
2
(p) dx  tanh x  c on R .
(q)  cosech x dx   coth x  c on R {0}.
2
(r)  sech x tanh x dx   sech x  c on R.

(s)  cosech x coth x dx   cosech x  c on R {0}.
1
(t)  1 x 2
dx  sinh 1 x  c
 log ( x  x 2  1) on R.
1  cosh 1 x  c on (1,  )
(u)  x2  1
dx   1
  cosh (  x )  c on (  ,  1)
log ( x  x 2  1)  c on (1, )

 log e ( x  x 2  1)  c on ( ,  1)
 log | x  x 2  1 |  c on I  R [1, 1].

v If f and g have integrals on I, then f + g has an integral on I and
( f  g ) ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   g ( x) dx  c.
v If f has an integral on I and a is a real number then a f has an integral on I and
 (a f ) ( x) dx  a  f ( x) dx  c.
v Method of substitution
Let f : I  R have an integral on I and F be a primitive of f on I. Let J be an interval of R and g
: J  I be a differentiable function. Then (fog)g' has an integral on J, and
 f ( g ( x)) g ( x) dx  F( g ( x)  c.
i.e.,  f ( g ( x)) g ( x) dx   f (t ) dt  t  g ( x) .
Integration 247
v Let f : I  R have an integral on I and F be a primitive of f . Let a, b  R with a  0. Then

1
 f (ax  b) dx  a F(ax  b)  c for all x  J, where J = {x  R : ax + b I}.
v Let f : I  R be differentiable. Then the following are true.
f f ( x)
(a) If f is never zero on I, then has an integral on I and  dx  log | f ( x) |  c
f f ( x)
on I.
(b) If is a positive integer or if  R {1} and f (x) > 0 for all x  I then f  f  has
 [ f ( x)] 1
an integral on I and  [ f ( x)] f ( x) dx   c.
 1
1 f ( x)
In particular, when    , we have  dx  2 f ( x)  c on I.
2 f ( x)
1
(c) If a  R {0}, then  f (ax  b)dx  a f (ax  b)  c on J = {x R : ax+b I}.
v Integration by the method of substitution continued
Let J be an interval and  : J  I be a one-to-one differentiable mapping of J onto I such that 
is differentiable in I. Let f : I  R be such that (fo  has a primitive F on J. Then f has an
integral on I and
1
 f ( x)dx  F( ( x))  c    f ((t ))  (t ) dt  1 .
t  ( x )
v Evaluation of integrals of special forms
Let a be a positive real number. Then we have the following :
1 1 x
(a)  x2  a2 dx 
a
Tan 1    c on R.
a
1 1 xa
(b)  x 2  a 2 dx  2a log x  a  c on any interval containing neither  a nor a.
1  x
(c)  a2  x2
dx  sinh 1   on R.
 a
 x  x2  a2 
= log    c on R.
 a 
 
1  
x
(d)  2
a x 2
dx  Sin 1    c on (a, a).
 a
  x
 cosh 1    c on ( a ,  )
dx   a
(e)   
x2  a2   cosh 1   x   c on (  ,  a )
  
a
  x  x2  a2 
 log    c on ( a ,  )
  a 

   x  x2  a2 
  log    c on (  ,  a )
  a 
| x  x2  a2 |
 log  c on I  R [a, a].
a
a2  x x 2 2
(f)  a 2  x 2 dx 
2
Sin 1   
 a 2
a  x  c on (a, a).
 x x2  a2 a2  x
  cosh 1    c on [ a ,  )
 2 2  a
(g)  x 2  a 2 dx  
 x x2  a2 a2  x
  cosh 1     c on (   ,  a ]
 2 2  a
x x2  a2 a2  x
(h)  a 2  x 2 dx 
2

2
sinh 1    c on R.
 a
v Formula for integration by parts
Let u and v be real valued differentiable functions on I. Suppose that uv has an integral on I.
Then uv has an integral on I and  (uv ) ( x ) dx  (uv ) ( x )   (u v ) ( x ) dx
v Given a differentiable function f on I,
e
x
( f ( x )  f ( x ) dx  e x f ( x )  c.
v To evaluate integrals of the form
1
 ax 2  bx  c dx, where a, b, c are real numbers, a  0, reduce ax2 + bx + c to the
form a[(x + )2 + ] and then integrate using the substitution t = x + .
dx
v To evaluate integrals which are of the form (i)  or of the form
ax 2  bx  c
(ii)  ax 2  bx  c dx , where a, b, c are real numbers and a  0, we adopt the following working rule
:
Integration 249
case (a) : If a > 0 and b2  4ac < 0 then reduce ax2 + bx + c to the form
a [(x + )2 + ] and then integrate.
case (b) :
If a < 0 and b2  4ac > 0 then write ax2 + bx + c as (a) [  (x + )2] and then integrate.
v To evaluate integrals of any of the three forms
px  q px  q
(i)  ax 2  bx  c dx (ii)  ( px  q) ax 2  bx  c dx and (iii)  dx
ax 2  bx  c
where a, b, c, p, q are real numbers, a  0 and p  0 , we write px + q in the form

d
A (ax 2  bx  c)  B and then integrate.
dx
dx
v To evaluate integrals of the type  , where a, b, p and q are real numbers, a  0
(ax  b) px  q
and p  0 , we put t  px  q and then integrate.
v Integrals of the form
1 1
(i)  a  b cos x dx and (ii)  a  b sin x dx,
x
where a and b are real numbers and b  0, are evaluated by using the substitution t  tan .
2
v Integrals of the form
a cos x  b sin x  c
 d cos x  e sin x  f dx
where a, b, c, d, e, f are real numbers d  0, e  0 are evaluated by using the following rule :
We find real numbers ,  and  such that
( a cos x  b sin x  c )  [ d cos x  e sin x  f ]  [ d cos x  e sin x  f ]  
and substitute this expression for the integrand, to evaluate the given integral.
f ( x)
v Let R ( x)  , where f and g are polynomials in x with rational coefficients and g  0 on I.
g ( x)
If the degree of f(x) is greater than or equal to that of g(x), then by dividing f(x) by g(x), using
synthetic division, we find polynomials Q(x) and h(x) such that f(x) = Q(x) g(x) + h(x), where h is
either the zero polynomial or h  0 and degree of h(x) is less than the degree of g(x). In this case, we
have
h( x )
R( x)  Q( x)  .
g ( x)
h( x ) h( x )
When h  0, we obtain the resolution of into partial fractions using which we evaluate  dx .
g ( x) g ( x)
f ( x) h( x )
We have  dx   Q( x)dx   dx  c.
g ( x) g ( x)
x n eax n
 x e dx , then In   In 1, for a positive integer n.
v If I n  n ax
a a
 sin n1 x cos x (n  1)
v If I n   sin n x dx, then In 
n

n
In  2 , for an integer n > 2.
cos n 1 x sin x (n  1)
v If I n   cos n x dx, then In 
n

n
In  2 , for an integer n > 2.
tan n 1 x

n
v If I n  tan x dx, then I n   In  2 , for an integer n > 2.
n 1
1 n 1
v If I m, n   sin x cos x dx, then I m, n 
m n
cos n 1x sin m1x  I m,n  2 ,
mn mn
where m is a positive integer and an integer n > 2.
Historical Note
The beginnings of Integral Calculus can be traced back to antiquity. Ancient mathematicians
of Greece developed the method of exhaustion which they have applied to calculate areas of plane
surfaces and volumes of solids. Thus this method can be regarded as a primitive procedure for
integration. Eudoxus (ca.408-355 B.C.) and Archimedes (ca. 287-212 B.C.) contributed vastly to
the development of the method of exhaustion.
Wallis (1616-1703) chief contribution to the development of calculus in its early period lay in
the theory of integration.
With the invention of the calculus, the fundamental concepts of function, continuity, differentiablity
and integration got systematized.
Augustin Louis Cauchy (1789 - 1857) gave the modern definition of continuity in his Cours
d analyse (1821). He defined the definite integral as a limit of a sum. He introduced Cauchy sum
n
 f ( xi ) ( xi  xi 1 ) for a continuous function f on [a, b] and defined the limit of the sum as the definite
i 1
integral.
Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866) began with the question when is a function integrable?,
which led him to the investigation of convergence of Cauchy sums. Thus he refined
and clarified the notion of integral and that is what we call now the Riemann Integral.
Integration 251
Answers
Exercise 6(a)
4
I. 1. x  2 x 3  3 x  c 2. 4 x 52  c
4 3 5
5
3. 3
2 3 x3  c 4. x 2  3 x  1 log | x | c
5 4 2 2
5. log x  2 x  c 6. x  2 log | x |  3  c
x
2
7. x  4Tan 1 x  c 8. e x  log | x |  2 log | x  x 2  1 |  c
2
9. tanh 1 x  Tan 1 x  c 10. Sin 1 x  2sinh 1 x  c
11. tan x  c 12. 1

(tan x  x)  c
2
II. 1. x  x 3  3 x 5  1 x 7  c 2. 6 x  2log x  1  c
5 7 3x
3. log x  4  1  c 4. 9 x 2  3 x  1 log | x |  c
x x 4 2
5. 2 x 2  4 x  1 log x  c 6. 2 x  2cosh 1 x  3  c
9 9 9 2x
3
7. tan x  sin x  x  c 8. sec x  3 log | x |  4 x  c
3
3
9. 2 x 2  2Tanh 1 x  c 10. x 4  sin x  4sinh 1 x  c
3 4
11. sinh x  sinh 1 x  c 12. cosh x  log | x  x 2  1 |  c
 a
      2 x  c
x x
1
13. (log a  log b)  b  b
 a
1
14. tan x  cot x  c 15.  cot x  xc
2
16.  2 cos x  c 17.  cosh x  sinh x  c
18.  cot x  cosec x  c
Exercise 6(b)
I. 1. 1 e  c
2x
2
2.  1 cos 7 x  c
7
3. 1 log(1  x 2 )  c 4.  cos ( x 2  1)  c
2
3
5. (log x )  c
1
6. eTan x
c
3
7.  cos(Tan 1 x )  c 8. 1 tan 1 x  c
4 2
9. Tan 1 x 3  c
10. 2 sinh 3 x  c
1
3 5
11. cosh 1 3x  c
 cos(m  n) x cos(m  n) x 
12. 1  c
2  ( m  n) (m  n) 
13. 1  sin(m  n) x  sin(m  n) x   c

2  (m  n) ( m  n) 
14. 1  sin(m  n) x  sin(m  n) x   c

2  ( m  n) (m  n) 
15. 1  cos 6 x  1 cos 4 x  cos 2 x   c

4  6 4 2 
16. (x + a) cos a  sin a log|sin (a + x)| + c

3
II. 1. 2 (3 x  2) 2  c 2. 1 log | 7 x  3 |  c
9 7
2
3. (log (1  x ))  c 4. 1 (3 x 2  4) 2  c
2 12
5. 2 1  5 x  c 6. (1  2 x 3 ) 2
 c
5 12
7.  1 c 8.  1 cos x 4  c
2(1  tan x ) 2 4
9.  1 c 10. 3 sin 43 x  c
1  sin x 4
Integration 253
2
11. e x  c 12. x c
13.
1 Sin 1 x3  c 14. 1 Tan 1 x 4  c
3 2
15. 1 Tan 1 x9  c 16. tan ( xe x )  c
9
17. 1 c 18.  cos e x  c
4b( a  b cot x ) 4
19.  cos (log x )  c 20. log(| log x |)  c
(1  log x ) n1
21. c 22. sin(log x )  c
n 1
23. 2 sin x  c 24. log | x 2  x  1 |  c
25. a log | bx n  c |  c 26. log | log(log x ) |  c

bn 1
1 Sin 1 (2 x)  c
27. log | sinh x |  c 28.
2
5 
29. sinh 1 x  c 30. 2Tan 1 ( x  2)  c
1 1 Tan 1  x 2  1  c
31.  c 32.  
1  tan x 2 2x 
33. 1 log | 1  2 tan x |  c 34. (sin x + cos x) + c
2
35. 2 sin x  c 36. x+c
 a 
37.  2  log| a  b cos x |    c
b 2  ( a  b cos x )
38.  1 c
2(sec x  tan x)2
39.
ab b 
1 Tan 1 a tan x  c

40. 1 sin ( x  b)
log c
sin(b  a) sin( x  a)
1 sec ( x  b)
41. log c
sin( a  b) sec( x  a)
III. 1. 1 log | a cos2 x  b sin 2 x |  c 2. log | cos x  sin x |  c

ba
3. log | sin (log x ) |  c 4. log| sin e x |  c
5. log tan    1 tan x   c

3
6. 2 (sin x ) 2  c
4 2  3
tan 5 x
7. c 8. 2 x 2  3x  4  c
5
3
9.  2 (cot x ) 2  c
3
10. 1 (log (sec x  tan x ))2  c
2
11. 1 (cos 3 x  9 cos x)  c
12
12. 1 (sin 3 x  9 sin x )  c
12
13. 1 (sin 3 x  3 sin x )  c

6
14. sin 4 x  sin 2 x  c

8 4
15. 1 (12 x  sin 4 x  8 sin 2 x )  c

32
16. 1 (4 x  3) 52  1 (4 x  3) 32  c
40 8

17. 1 Sin 1 b  cx  c1
c a 
18. 1 Tan 1  b  cx   c
ac  a  1
19. x  log(1  e x )  c
1  a2   c
20. 3 ( a  bx )  2 a log | a  bx | 
b a  bx 
3 5
21. 4 (1  x ) 2  2 (1  x ) 2  2 1  x  c
3 5
Integration 255
Exercise 6(c)
I. 1. x tan x  log | sec x |  c 2. e x Tan 1 x  c

1 1
3.  log x   c
x x
4. x (log x ) 2  2 x log x  2 x  c
5. e x sec x  c 6. e x (sin x  cos x )  c

2
7. e x sin x  c 8. e x log| sec x |  c
II. 1. x n 1 [(n  1) log x  1]  c 2. x log(1  x 2 )  2 x  2Tan 1 x  c

(n  1) 2
3 3
3. 2 x 2 log x  4 x 2  c 4. 2 xe x
 2e x
c
3 9
5. x 2 sin x  2 x cos x  2 sin x  c
2
6. x  1 x sin 2 x  1 cos 2 x  c
4 4 8
2
7. x  1 x sin 2 x  1 cos 2 x  c
4 4 8
8. 2( x sin x  cos x )  c
tan 2 x 1
9. x  log | sec 2 x |  c
2 4
2
10.  x cot x  log | sin x |  x  c
2
11. e x tan x  c 12. e x log x  c
13. e ax (a sin bx  b cos bx )  c 14. 1 ex  c

a2  b2 x 1
15. 1
2a 3  a 2   
 Tan 1 x  1 sin 2 Tan 1 x   c
a 
16. ex log (e2x + 5ex + 6) + 2 log (ex + 2) + 3log(ex + 3)  2ex + c
17. ex  c
x3
18. x cos(log x )  sin(log x)]  c

2
III. 1.  x  1 Tan 1 x  1 x  c

2
 2  2
3 2
2. x Tan 1 x  x  1 log(1  x 2 )  c
3 6 6
Tan 1 x
3.   log | x |  1 log(1  x 2 )  c
x 2
2
4. x Cos 1 x  1 Sin 1 x  1 x 1  x 2  c
2 4 4
5. x 3 Sin 1 x  1 (1  x 2 ) 32  1 1  x 2  c
3 9 3
 2 
6. 1 ( x 2  1) log (1  x )  x  x   c
2 2 
7. 2(sin x  x cos x )  c
e ax [ a sin (bx  c)  b cos(bx  c)]  c

8. 1
a2  b2
x x
9. 2a sin 2 x  (log a ) a cos 2 x  c
(log a )2  4
10. 3x Tan 1 x  3 log(1  x 2 )  c
2
11. x sinh 1 x  x 2  1  c
12. x cosh 1 x  x 2  1  c
13. x tanh 1 x  1 log(1  x 2 )  c

2
Exercise 6(d)
 cos  
I. 1.
3
 2 
1 Sin 1 3 x  1  c 2. Sin 1 
 2 
c
3. Tan 1 (sin x  2)  c 4. 1 Tan 1  tan x   c

 
2  2 
Integration 257
5. 1 Tan 1  2 tan x   c
 3 
6  
6. 1 x  1 log | sin x  cos x |  c

2 2
7. 1 x  1 log | sin x  cos x |  c

2 2
II. 1. 2 x  3 1  3 x  x 2  13 Sin 1 2 x  3  c
4 8 13
2. x  log | 4 sin x  5 cos x |  c
3. 23 x  2 log | 4cos x  5sin x |  c

41 41
4. log |1  tan x |  c
2
5. 2 Tan 1  6 x  1  c
 
11 11 
6. 1 Sin 1 2( x  1)  c
2 7
 
III. 1. x 2  x  1  3 sinh 1  2 x  1  c
2  3 
 
3
2.  (6  2 x 2  x) 2  637 Sin 1 4 x  1  13 (4 x  1) 6  2 x 2  x  c
32 2 7 16
2 tan x  1
3. 1 log 2 c
3 x
2(tan  2)
2
4. 1 log 5 tan x  1
c
2 5 5 tan x  1
5.  1 (1  x  x 2 ) 2  5 Sin 1  2 x  1  2 x  1 1  x  x 2  c
3
 
3 16 5  8
2 tan x  1
6.  1 3 x c 7. 1 log 2 c
2 1 x 5 x
2 tan  4
2
3 tan x  1
9. 1 Tan 1 
tan x 
8. 1 log 2 c c
2 x
3 tan  3 3  3 
2
10. 1 log | 3sin x  4 cos x  5 |  18 x  4 c

25 25 5(tan 2x  3)
11.
2  3 
7 x  x 2  10  3 Sin 1 2 x  7  c
12. Sin 1 x  1  x 2  c 13. 1 3  x  c

2 1 x
14. 2Tan 1 ( x  1)  c 15. 1 log 2x  4 1  c

2 2x  4 1
2( x  1)
16. c 17. 2 2 x  1  c
1 x x 1
 
 ex  4 
18. 2 e x  4  4Tan 1  c 19. 2Sin 1 2 sin x  c
 2  2
1  x 2  1 1 x2  1  2 x
20. Tan 1   log c
2 2  x 2  4 2 x2  1  2 x
Exercise 6(e)
I. 1. 2 log | x  3 |  log | x  2 |  c
2. log | x  1 |  4  c
x2
3. 2 log | x  1 |  log( x 2  1)  Tan 1 x  c

Integration 259
4. 1
2 a
b a 
2 a b 
 1 Tan 1 x  1 Tan 1 x   c
b  
5. log  e  1  e  x  c
x
6. log x  1  c
 e x  x2
x
7. log e  1  c
ex
8.  1 log|1  x |  1 log(4  x 2 )  1 Tan 1 x  c

5 10 10 2
9.  3 log | x |  1 log | x  2 |  5 log | x  1 |  c

2 6 3
II. 1. log 2 x  1  c
3x  1
2. 1 log| x |  log | x  1 |  1 log | x  2 |  c

2 2
3.  1 log | x  1|  8 log | x  2 |  7 log | x  3 |  c

6 15 10
1
4. 2 log | x  1 |  x  1  2 log | x  2 |  c
III. 1. 1 log| x  a |  1 log | x  b |  1 log | x  c |  c1

(a  b)(a  c) (b  a)(b  c) (c  a)(c  b)
2.  3 log | x  3 |  3 log( x 2  4)  17 Tan 1 x  c

13 26 26 2 
3. 16 log | x  3 |  34 log | x  2 |  11  c
25 25 5( x  2)
4. 1 log | x  1|  1 log | x 2  x  1|  1 Tan 1  2 x  1  c

 
3 6 3 3 
cos x  1
5. log c
(cos x  2) 2
Exercise 6(f )
I. 1. e x ( x 2  2 x  3)  c
3 x
2.  e (9 x 2  6 x  2)  c
27
ax
3. e (a3 x 3  3a2 x 2  6 ax  6)  c
a4
cot n 1 x 3
III. 1. I n    I n  2 ;  cot x  cot x  x  c
n 1 3
2.  1 cosecn  2 x cot x  n  2 I ;
n 1 n  1 n2
cosec3 x cot x 3
  cosec x cot x  3 log tan x  c
4 8 8 2
4 5
4.  sin x cos x  4 sin 2 x cos5 x  8 cos5 x  c
9 63 315
5. x [ (log | x |) 4  4(log | x |)3  12(log | x |) 2  24(log | x |)  24]  c.

Definite Integrals 261
If only I had theorems then I should find the proofs

easily enough
- Riemann
Introduction
Calculus originated to solve mainly two geometric problems
: finding the tangent line to a curve and finding the area of a region
under a curve. The first was studied by a limit process known as
differentiation (which we studied in Intermediate first year) and
the second by another limit process - integration - which we study
now.
We recall from elementary calculus that to find the area of
the region under the graph of a positive and continuous function f
defined on [a, b], we subdivide the interval [a, b] into a finite number Bernhard Riemann
of subintervals, say n, the kth subinterval having length xk, and (1826-1866)
n
we consider sums of the form  f (tk ) xk, where tk is some Bernhard Riemann was a
k 1 German mathematician who
point in the kth subinterval. Such a sum is an approximation to the
made important contributions to
area by means of the sum of the areas of rectangles. Suppose we
analysis and differential
make subdivisions finer and finer. It so happens that the sequence
geometry, some of them paving
of the corresponding sums tends to a limit as n  . Thus, roughly
the way for the later development
speaking, this is Riemanns definition of the definite integeral
of general relativity. He was a
b
student of C.F. Gauss.
 f ( x)dx. (A precise definition is given below).
a
7.1 Definite integral as the limit of sum
We discussed in the earlier chapter that indefinite integration is an inverse process of differentiation. We
recall that, if f is the derivative of F, then  f ( x) dx  F( x)  c, where c is a real constant. In this case, F is
called a primitive of f.
Now to define the definite integral, we need the following :
7.1.1 Definition (Partition)

Let a, b  R be such that a < b. Then, a finite set P = {x0, x1, ..., xi-1, xi, xi+1, ..., xn} of
elements of [a, b] is said to be a partition of [a, b] if a = x0 < x1 < ... < xi-1 < xi < xi+1 < ... <
xn-1 < xn= b.
7.1.2 Definition (Norm)

If P = {x0, x1, ..., xn} is a partition of [a, b], then the norm of the partition P, denoted by ||P||, is
defined by ||P|| = max {x1  x0, x2  x1, ..., xn  xn1}.
We denote the length of the subinterval [xi-1, xi] by Dxi so that Dxi = xi  xi-1. We denote the set of
all partitions of [a, b] by P([a, b] ).
i.e., P([a, b] ) = {P : P is a partition of [a, b]}.
7.1.3 Definition (Definite integral)

Let f : [a, b]  R be a bounded function (that is, there is a real number M such that | f(x) | < M
for all x in [a, b]). Let P = {x0, x1, ..., xi-1, xi, xi+1, ..., xn1, xn} be a partition of [a, b], and let
n
ti  [xi-1, xi], for i = 1, 2, ..., n. A sum of the form S(P, f ) =  f (ti )xi is called a Riemann sum
i 1
of f relative to P.
We say that f is Riemann integrable on [a, b], if there exists a real number A such that S(P, f )
approaches A as ||P|| approaches zero. In other words, given  > 0, there is a  > 0 such that
|S(P, f )  A| <  for any partition P of [a, b] with ||P|| <  irrespective of the choice of ti in
b b
[xi-1, xi]. Such an A, if exists, is unique and is denote by  f ( x) dx . We call  f ( x) dx , the
a a
definite integral of f from a to b, a is called the lower limit and b is called the upper limit
of the integral.
b
The function f in  f ( x) dx is called the integrand. Here we observe that the numerical value of
a
b
 f ( x) dx depends on f and does not dependent on the symbol x. The letter x is a dummy symbol and
a
may be replaced by any other convenient symbol.
b
Suppose that  f ( x) dx exists on [a, b]. Then for every choice of ti  xi 1 , xi 
a
n b
 ( xi  xi 1) f (ti )  S(P, f )   f ( x) dx as ||P||  0.
i 1 a
b n
i.e., the Riemann integral  f ( x) dx is the limit of the sum S(P, f )   (x  x
i 1
i i 1 ) f (ti ) as ||P||  0.
a
In this way, we can regard definite integral as the limit of a sum.
Hereafter, we briefly use the word integrablefor the phrase Riemann integrable.
We assume the following theorems without proof for our further discussion.
b
7.1.4 Theorem : If f : [a, b]  R is continuous, then  f ( x) dx exists.
a
7.1.5 Theorem : If f : [a, b]  R is continuous, then there exist real numbers p and q in [a, b] such that
f(p) < f(x) < f (q) for all x in [a, b].
7.2 Interpretation of definite integral as an area

Let f : [a, b]  [0,  ) be continuous. Let P = {x0, x1, ..., xn} be a partition of [a, b]. Since f is
continuous on [a, b], for each i  {1, 2, ..., n}, there exist pi, qi in [xi1, xi] such that
f (pi) < f (t) < f (qi ) for all t  [xi1, xi]. (Theorem 7.1.5).
n
Let S1 (P, f )   f ( pi ) ( xi  xi 1 ) f (qi)
i 1
n
f (pi)
and S2 (P, f )   f (qi ) ( xi  xi1 ).
i 1
Here f (pi) (xi  xi1) is the area of the
rectangle bounded by the lines x = xi1, x = xi,
y = 0 and y = f (pi). Similarly, f (qi) (xi  xi1) is the
area of the rectangle bounded by the lines x = xi1 , a xi1 pi qi xi b
x = xi, y = 0 and y = f (qi) (See Fig. 7.1). Fig. 7.1
Since f (pi) < f(t) < f (qi) for all t  [xi1, xi], it follows that the curve y = f (x), (xi1 < x < xi) lies
between the lines y = f (pi) and y = f (qi). Hence the area below the curve y = f(x), (xi1 < x < xi) , (that is,
the area bounded by the lines x = xi1, x = xi, y = 0 and the curve y = f(x)) lies between f (pi) (xi  xi1) and f(qi)
(xi  xi1). Hence
n n n
 f ( pi ) xi   (area below the curve y = f(x) over [xi1 , xi])   f (qi ) xi .
i 1 i 1 i 1
That is,
S1(P, f ) < area below the curve y = f (x) over the interval [a, b] < S2(P, f ). ... (1)
b
Since f is continuous on [a, b],  f ( x) dx exists (Theorem 7.1.4), and under the usual notation,
a
b b
S(P, f )   f ( x ) dx as ||P||  0. Hence, both S1(P, f ) and S2(P, f ) approach  f ( x ) dx as ||P||  0.
a a
Since the inequality (1) is true for all partitions P of [a, b], and both S1(P, f ) and S2(P, f ) tend to
b
 f ( x ) dx as ||P||  0, it follows that

a
b
 f ( x ) dx = area below the curve y = f(x), a < x < b, the ordinates x = a, x = b and the X-axis.
a
b
Thus definite integral  f ( x ) dx of a nonnegative function f on [a, b] can be interpreted as the area of the
a
region bounded by the curve y = f (x) and the lines x = a, x = b and the X-axis.
n
Since ti [xi1, xi], a choice of ti is xi1 in which case we get the sum  f ( xi 1)( xi  xi 1 ) . Another
i 1
n b
choice of ti is xi in which case the sum is  f ( xi )( xi  xi 1) . Therefore  f ( x ) dx can be regarded as the
i 1 a
n n
limit of the sum  f ( xi 1)( xi  xi 1) or  f ( xi )( xi  xi 1) .
i 1 i 1
 1 2 n 1 
7.2.1 Note : If f is continuous on [0, 1] and P  0, , ,...., ,1 is a partition of [0, 1] into n
 n n n 
1
subintervals each of length , then from the above discussion, it follows that
n
1
1 n  i
 f ( x) dx  lim  f   . ... (2)
n n
i 1
 n
0
More generally, if f is continuous on [0, p] where p is a positive integer then
p
1 np  i
 f ( x) dx  lim  f . ... (3)
n n
i 1
 n
0
b
7.2.2 Example : Let us find  f ( x ) dx , where f(x) = x in [a, b] as the limit of a sum.
a
We define f : [a, b]  R by f(x) = x, x  [a, b].
 ba 2(b  a) n(b  a) 

Let P  a, a  ,a  ,...., a   b be a partition of [a, b] into n subintervals so
 n n n 
i (b  a ) x x
that ||P||  b  a . Here x0 = a, xi = a  , i = 1, 2, ...., n. We take ti  i 1 i . Hence
n n 2
n n
x x 
n
xi2  xi21 1 2
S(P, f )   f (ti ) xi    i 12 i  ( xi  xi 1)   2  2 (b  a 2 ).
i 1 i 1 i 1
Hence
b n
1 2 2
 f ( x) dx  lim  f (ti )xi  (b  a ) .
a
n
i 1 2
2
7.2.3 Example : We find  ( x 2  1) dx as the limit of a sum.
0
Here we use the formula (3) of Note 7.2.1 with p = 2 and f (x) = x2 + 1, x  [0, 2]. We observe that
f is continuous on [0, 2]. Now
2
1 np  i
 ( x  1) dx  lim
2
n n
 f 
 n
0 i 1
1 2n  i  
2
= lim
n n
  n  
  1
i 1 
 
1  1  
2 2 2
2  2n 
= lim    1     1       1
n n  n  n  n  

1  1   2  
2 2 2
 2n 
= lim            2n 
n n  n  n  n  

1 12  22   (2n)2 
= lim   2 n 
n n
 n2 
1
= lim 3
(12  22   (2n)2 )  2
n n
1  2n(2n  1)(4n  1) 
= lim
n n3 
 6   2
1 1  1
= lim  2    4    2
n 3  n  n
8 4
= 2  .
3 3
2
7.2.4 Example : We evaluate  e x dx as the limit of a sum.
0
On using the formula (3) of Note 7.2.1 with p = 2 and f (x) = ex, x  [0, 2] we have
2
1 np  i  1 2n i
 e dx  nlim
x
 n
 f  n  = nlim
 n
 en
0 i 1 i 1
1
1 1 en
= lim e n  e n  ....  e n  = lim
2 2n
1  e 1n  ....  e 2 nn1 
n n   n n  
1
en
1
 (e 1n ) 2 n  1 e n  e2  1 
= lim  1  = lim  1 
n n  e n  1  n n e n  1
 
lim e1/ n (e2  1)

n
=
 e1/ n  1 
lim  
n
 1/ n 
1  e1/ n  1 
= e2  1. (since lim e n  1 and lim    1)
n n   1/ n 
 
7.2.5 Example : Let us define f : [0, 1]  R by
1, if x is rational
f ( x)  
0, if x is irrational .
We show that f is not integrable on [0, 1].
Let P = {x0, x1, ..., xn} be a partition of [0, 1]. We know that between any two real numbers there lies a
rational number, and also an irrational number. For each i = 1, 2, ..., n, choose ti, si in [xi1 , xi] such that ti is a
rational number and si is an irrational number.
n n
Let S1 (P, f )   f (ti ) xi and S2 (P, f )   f (si ) xi . Since f (ti) = 1 and f (si) = 0, we have
i 1 i 1
S1(P, f ) = 1 and S2(P, f ) = 0.
Hence S1(P, f )  1 as ||P||  0 and S2(P, f )  0 as ||P||  0.
Hence lim S(P, f ) does not exist. Thus f is not Riemann integrable on [0, 1].
||P||0
7.2.6 Definite integral as an area function

b
Let f : [a, b]  R be continuous and f (x) > 0 for all x in [a, b]. In this section, we define  f ( x ) dx as
a
the area of the region bounded by the curve y = f (x), the ordinates x = a and x = b and X-axis.
x Y
Let x be a point in [a, b]. Then  f (t ) dt )
f(x
a y =
represents the area of the shaded region in
Fig. 7.2. The area of this shaded region depends
A(x)
A(x)
upon the value of x so that this shaded region is a
function of x. We denote this function by A(x) X X
and call A as Area function, and it is given by a x b
x
A(x) =  f (t ) dt . Y
a Fig. 7.2
We state without proof the following theorem which gives an important property of Area function.
7.2.7 Theorem (First Fundamental theorem of integral calculus) : Let f be integrable on [a, b]. We
x
write A(x) =  f (t ) dt , x [a, b] . Then A is continuous on [a, b]. If f is continuous on [a, b] then A is
a
differentiable in [a, b]. Further, A (x) = f (x) for all x [a, b] .
Exercise 7(a)
I. Evaluate the following integrals as limit of a sum
5 4
1.  ( x  1) dx 2. x
2
dx
0 0
II. Evaluate the following integrals as limit of a sum

4 1
 (x  x
2
 (x  e
1. 2x 2. ) dx
) dx
0 0
7.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus

In the evaluation of definite integral, the following Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus is useful.
This theorem is also known as Second Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus.
This important theorem is stated without proof. You will learn its proof in higher classes.
7.3.1 Theorem : If f is integrable on [a, b] and if there is a differentiable function F on [a, b] such that
b
F = f, then  f ( x) dx  F(b)  F(a).
a
7.3.2 Note : We write F ( x)ba for F(b)  F(a) . F ( x)ba is not dependent on x. Also, we write
F ( x)ba =  F( x)b .

a

2
 x dx.
5
1
x6
Solution : f (x) = x5 is continuous on [1, 2] and hence integrable on [1, 2] (Theorem 7.1.4). Also, F( x) 
6
is a primitive of f on [1, 2]. Hence, from the Fundamental theorem of integral Calculus (Theorem 7.3.1), we
have
2 2
26 1
x
5
dx   f ( x) dx  F(2)  F(1)    63  21 .
1 1
6 6 6 2
We note that in the definite integrals that we deal with hereafter in this book, the integrands are invariably
b
continuous functions on their domains of integration and hence are integrable. So to evaluate  f ( x) dx for a
a
given function f on [a, b], we find a primitive, say F, of f on [a, b] (i.e., we find the indefinite integral  f ( x) dx )
b
and find F(b)  F(a) which is equal to  f ( x) dx .
a

2. Problem : Evaluate  sin x dx .
0
 
Solution :  sin x dx   cos x  (since  cos x is a primitive of sin x)
0
0
=  cos   ( cos 0)
= (1) (1) = 2.
a
dx
3. Problem : Evaluate  x2  a2 .
0
a
a
dx 1  x 
Solution :  x2  a2   Tan 1   
0 a  a 
0
1  1  
=  Tan 1 (1)  Tan 1 (0)  = (  0)  .
a a 4 4a
7.4 Properties
We now discuss certain properties of definite integrals.
7.4.1 Definition
a
Let f : [a, b]  R be integrable on [a, b]. Then, we define  f ( x) dx as the negative of
b
b c
 f ( x) dx , and, for any c in [a, b],  f ( x) dx as zero. Thus

a c
a b a b
 f ( x) dx    f ( x) dx ,  f ( x) dx  0 and  f ( x) dx  0.
b a a b
We state without proof, Theorems 7.4.2 to 7.4.5 which will be used in the subsequent development of the
theory and in solving problems.
7.4.2 Theorem : Suppose that f and g are integrable on [a, b]. Then
(i) f + g is integrable on [a, b] and
b b b
 ( f  g ) ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   g ( x) dx .
a a a
(ii) for any   R,  f is integrable on [a, b] and

b b
 ( f ) ( x) dx   f ( x) dx .
a a
7.4.3 Theorem : Let f : [a, b]  R be bounded. Let c  (a, b). Then f is integrable on [a, b] if and
only if it is integrable on [a, c] as well as on [c, b] and, in this case,
b c b
 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx .
a a c
7.4.4 Theorem : If f : [a, b]  R is continuous, then f ([a, b]) is a closed and bounded interval in R.
7.4.5 Theorem (Method of Substitution) : Let g : [c, d]  R have continuous derivative on [c, d]. Let
f : g([c, d ])  R be continuous. Then (fog) g  is integrable on [c, d] and
g (d ) d
 f (t ) dt   f ( g ( x)) g ( x) dx .
g (c ) c
Proof : Since g is differentiable in [c, d], it is continuous therein. Hence by Theorem 7.4.4, g([c, d]) is a closed
t
and bounded interval of the real line, say, []. Define F on [] as F(t) =  f ( s ) ds for all t []. Then
a
F is well defined and continuous. Further, it is differentiable on [], and F(t) = f(t) for all t in []
(Theorem 7.2.7).
Since F is differentiable in [], g is differentiable in [c, d] and g([c, d]) = [], it follows that Fog is
a differentiable function on [c, d] and
(Fog ) = ( Fog ) g  = ( fog) g  .
Hence Fog is a primitive of (fog) g  on [c, d]. Since f is continuous on [] and g  is continuous on
[c, d] it follows that (fog) g  is continuous on [c, d]. Hence ( fog) g  is integrable on [c, d] (Theorem 7.1.4).
Now, from the fundamental theorem of integral calculus (Theorem 7.3.1), it follows that
d
 (( fog ) g ) ( x) dx  (Fog ) ( d )  (Fog ) (c).

c
d
That is,  f ( g ( x) ) g  ( x) dx  F(g (d ))  F( g (c))
c
g (d ) g (c )
  f (t ) dt   (t ) dt
 
g (d )
  f (t ) dt (by Definition 7.4.1 and Theorem 7.4.3).
g (c )
7.4.6 Note : Theorem 7.4.5 remains valid if the continuity of f on g([c, d]) is replaced by the integrability of f
on g([c, d]). The proof of the theorem in this general form is beyond the scope of this book.

4
1. Problem : Evaluate x x 2  1 dx .
1
Solution : Define g : [1, 4]  R by g(x) = x2  1. Clearly g is differentiable, g  is continuous in [1, 4] and

g (x) = 2x. We have g([1, 4]) = [0, 15]. Define f : [0, 15]  R by f (t) = t . Then f is continuous on
[0, 15]. Hence from Theorem 7.4.5, we have
4 g (4)
 f ( g ( x)) g ( x) dx   f (t ) dt.
1 g (1)
4 15
 2x 
2
i.e., x  1 dx  t dt.
1 0
15
4 2 3  2
3
i.e., 2  x 2
x  1 dx   t 2   (15) 2 .
1  3  3
0
4 3
1
x
2
Thus x  1 dx  (15) 2 .
1
3
The above problem is worked out in a simple way as follows. Usually we adopt this formal procedure in
evaluating such integrals.
Put x2  1 = t. Then 2x dx = dt.
When x = 1, t = 0; when x = 4, t = 15.
15
4 15
 3
t  1 t2 
Hence x x 2  1 dx   2
dt    
3
1 0 2 
 2 0
15
1  2
3 3
1
 t   (15) 2 .
3  3
 
0
When we integrate a function by expressing the given variable in terms of a new variable it is sometimes
difficult to translate the result back into the original variable. But, when integrating between limits, we may avoid
the process of restoring the original variable by changing the limits corresponding to the new variable. This
process is illustrated in the following problem.
2
2. Problem : Evaluate  4  x  dx.
0
 
Solution : Define g on 0,  as g() = 2 sin . Then g has continuous derivative,
 2

g () = 2 cos    0,  , g(0) = 0, g     2 and g  0,     [0, 2]. Define f on [0, 2] as
 2   2
2  
f(x) = 4  x 2  x  [0, 2]. Then f is continuous on [0, 2]. Hence by Theorem 7.4.5, it follows that
 
( fog) g  is integrable on 0,  and
 2
g ( 2 ) 
2
 f ( x ) dx   f ( g ()) g  () d .
g (0) 0

2 2
 
2
i.e., 4  x dx  4  4sin 2  . 2 cos  d  . ... (1)
0 0
 
We have 4  4sin 2   4 cos 2   2 cos      0,  .
 2
 
2 2
Hence  4  4sin 2  . 2 cos  d    4 cos 2  d 
0 0

2
 1  cos 2 
= 4  
 2
 d

0

 sin 2  2
= 2  
 2 
0

= 2   .
2
2
Hence, from (1),  4  x 2 dx  .
0

The above problem is usually worked out in a formal way by substituting x = 2 sin  (0    ),
2
replacing dx by 2 cos  d in the given integral and by taking the lower and upper limits in the integral so obtained
  
as 0 and respectively, since x = 0 when  = 0, x = 2 when  = and x  [0, 2] when   0,  .
2 2  2
1
16
x4
3. Problem : Evaluate  1
dx.
0
1 x2
Solution : Put x = t4. Then dx = 4t3 dt. Also, when t = 0, x = 0; when t = 2, x = 16; when x  [0, 16],
t  [0, 2]. Hence
1
16 2 2
x4 t  1 
  1  t 2 . 4t dt.  4   t 2  1  1  t 2  dt
3
1
dx 
0 0 0
1 x2
2
 t3 1 
 23 
 4   t  Tan t   4   2  Tan 1 2 
 3  0 3 
2 
 4   Tan 1 2  .
3 

2
4. Problem : Evaluate  sin | x | dx.

2
Solution : We have
sin(  x), if x  0
sin | x |  
sin x, if x  0.
 
2 0 2
Hence  sin | x | dx   sin | x | dx   sin | x | dx
  0
2 2
 
0 2 0 2
  sin ( x) dx   sin x dx    sin x dx   sin x dx
 0  0
2 2
0 
= cos x    cos x 2  1  0  0  1  2.
 0
2
We now prove the following theorems by using the method of substitution in its general form.
7.4.8 Theorem : Let f be integrable on [a, b]. Then the function h, defined on [a, b] as
h(x) = f(a + b  x) for all x in [a, b], is integrable on [a, b] and
b b
 h( x) dx   f ( x) dx .
a a
Proof : Define g on [a, b] by g(x) = a + b  x. Then h = fog, g  (x) = 1, g(a) = b, g(b) = a and
g([a, b]) = [a, b].
From Note 7.4.6, it follows that (fog) g  is integrable on [a, b] and
h g (b )
 f ( g ( x)) g ( x) dx   f (t ) dt.
a g (a)
b a
i.e.,  f (a  b  x) (1) dx   f (t ) dt.
a b
b a
i.e.,   f (a  b  x) dx   f (t ) dt.
a b
b a
Hence  f (a  b  x) dx    f (t ) dt
a b
b
  f (t ) dt (by Definition 7.4.1).
a
7.4.9 Corollary : If f is integrable on [0, a], then the function h defined on [0, a] as h(x) = f (a  x)
for all x in [0, a] is integrable on [0, a] and
a a a
 f ( a  x ) dx   h ( x ) dx   f ( x ) dx.
0 0 0
Proof : Follows from Theorem 7.4.8 by replacing a by 0 and b by a.
7.4.10 Theorem : Let f : [a, a]  R be integrable on [0, a]. Suppose that f is either odd or even.
Then f is integrable on [a, a] and
a
0, if f is odd

 f ( x) dx   a
a 2  f (x) dx, if f is even.
 0
Proof : Define g : [a, 0]  [0, a] as g(x) = x for all x in [a, 0]. Then g has continuous derivative on
[a, 0] and g  (x) =  1 for all x in [a, 0].
Case (i) : f is odd.
Then f (x) = f (x) = (fog) (x)

= (( fog) g )(x)  x  [a, 0].
Hence, from Note 7.4.6, it follows that f is integrable on [a, 0] and

0 0
 f ( x) dx   (( fog ) g ) ( x) dx
a a
g (0) 0 a
=   f (t ) dt   f (t ) dt    f (t ) dt .
g (a) a 0
Hence f is integrable on [a, a] and

a 0 a
 f ( x) dx   f ( x ) dx   f ( x) dx
a a 0
a a
   f ( x) dx   f (x ) dx  0.
0 0
Case (ii) : f is even.

Then f (x) = f(x) = (fog) (x) =  (( fog ) g ) ( x ) for all x in [a, 0]. Hence, from Note 7.4.6, it follows that
f is integrable on [a, 0] and
0 0
 f ( x)dx    (( fog ) g ) ( x) dx
a a
g (0) 0 a
   f (t )dt    f (t ) dt   f (t ) dt .
g (a) a 0
Hence f is integrable on [a, a] and

a 0 a
 f ( x)dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx
a a 0
a a a
  f ( x)dx   f ( x) dx 2  f ( x) dx .
0 0 0
7.4.11 Theorem : Let f : [0, 2a]  R be integrable on [0, a].

(i) If f (2a  x) = f (x) for all x in [a, 2a] then f is integrable on [0, 2a] and
2a a
 f ( x)dx  2  f ( x) dx.
0 0
(ii) If f (2a  x) = f(x) for all x in [a, 2a], then f is integrable on [0, 2a] and
2a
 f ( x)dx  0.
0
Proof : Define g on [a, 2a] as g(x) = (2a  x) for all x in [a, 2a]. Then g has continuous derivative, g ( x)  1
for all x in [a, 2a], g(a) = a, g(2a) = 0 and g([a, 2a]) = [0, a]. Hence, from Note 7.4.6, it follows that ((fog) g  )
is integrable on [a, 2a] and
g (2 a ) 2a
 f (t ) dt   (( fog ) g ) ( x) dx . ... (1)

g (a) a
We have ( fog) g  =  ( fog) on [a, 2a].

Since ( fog) g  is intergrable on [a, 2a], g  = 1, it follows that fog is also integrable on [a, 2a]. We have
(fog) (x) = f (g(x)) = f (2a  x) for all x [a, 2a].
(i) Suppose that f(2a  x) = f(x) for all x  [a, 2a ] . Then
f = fog on [a, 2a].
Hence f is integrable on [a, 2a] and
2a 2a 2a
 f ( x) dx   ( fog ) ( x) dx   (( fog ) g ) ( x) dx
a a a
g (2 a )
   f (t ) dt (from (1))
g (a)
0 a
   f (t ) dt   f (t ) dt.
a 0
Hence f is integrable on [0, 2a] and

2a a 2a a
 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx  2 f ( x) dx .
0 0 a 0
(ii) Suppose that f ( 2a  x)   f ( x)  x  [ a, 2a ]. Then it can be shown as above that f is integrable

on [a, 2a] and that
2a a
 f ( x) dx    f (t ) dt
a a
Hence f is integrable on [0, 2a] and

2a a 2a
 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx  0.
0 0 a
We state the following theorem without proof.

7.4.12 Theorem : If f and g are integrable functions on [a, b], then their product fg is integrable on
[a, b].
7.4.13 Theorem (Integration by parts formula)
Let u and v be real valued differentiable functions on [a, b] such that u and v are integrable on
[a, b]. Then u v and u v are integrable on [a, b] and
b b b
 (uv)( x) dx  (uv )( x)    (u v)( x) dx

a
a a
b b
That is,  u ( x) v ( x) dx  u (b) v(b)  u ( a ) v( a )   u  ( x) v ( x) dx.
a a
Proof : Since u and v are differentiable on [a, b], they are continuous on [a, b] and hence they are integrable on
[a, b]. We know that the product of two integrable functions is integrable (Theorem 7.4.12). Since u, v, u and
v are integrable on [a, b], so are u v and u v .
Since both u and v are differentiable on [a, b], uv is differentiable on [a, b] and (uv )  uv  u v.
Since u v and u v are integrable on [a, b], so is u v + u v = (uv ) and
b b b
 (uv)( x) dx   (uv)( x) dx   (uv)( x) dx . ... (1)

a a a
From the fundamental theorem of integral calculus, (Theorem 7.3.1), it follows that
b
 (uv)( x) dx  (uv) (b)  (uv) (a). ... (2)

a
From (1) and (2), we have

b b b
 (uv) ( x) dx  u ( x) v( x)a   (uv) ( x) dx.

a a

 
2 2
 sin x dx   cos n x dx.

n
1. Problem : Show that
0 0
Solution : Suppose that f (x) = sinn x. Then

 
f (  x)  sin n (  x )  cos n x.
2 2
  
2 2 2
 
 sin  f ( x) dx f
Now, n
x dx     x  dx
0 0 0 2 

2
 cos
n
= x dx . (by Corollary 7.4.9)
0
 5
2
cos 2 x
2. Problem : Evaluate  5 5
dx
0
sin x  cos 2 x
2

5 2
cos 2 x
Solution : Let f ( x)  5 5
and A =  f ( x) dx.
0
sin 2 x  cos 2 x
 
2 2
 
By Corollary 7.4.9, we have A =  f ( x) dx   f   x  dx
2 
0 0
 
 5
2 cos 2   x 
2
5
2 sin 2 x
  dx 
 dx .
   
5 5
0 sin 2   x  cos 2   x 5 5
2 2 0 sin 2 x  cos 2 x
 5  5
2 2
cos 2 x sin 2 x
Hence 2A   5 5
dx   5 5
dx
0 sin 2 x  cos 2 x 0 sin 2 x  cos 2 x
 5 5 
2 2
cos 2 x  sin 2 x 
  5 5
dx   dx 
2
.
0 sin 2 x  cos 2 x 0
 5
2
cos 2 x 
Hence A   5 5
dx 
4
.
0 sin 2 x  cos 2 x

2
x 
3. Problem : Show that  sin x  cos x dx  2 2
log ( 2  1).
0

2
x
Solution : Let A   sin x  cos x dx.
0
  
2   x
Then A  2  dx
   
0 sin
  x   cos   x 
2  2 
  
2   x
2  dx .
=  (by Corollary 7.4.9)
0
sin x  cos x

2  x 
x
Hence 2A     2
 dx
0  sin x  cos x sin x  cos x 

2
 dx

2  sin x  cos x .
0

2
 dx
Hence A 
4  sin x  cos x .
0
x 1 2 x 2t 1  t 2 and sec 2 x  1  t 2 .
Put t = tan . Then dt = sec dx, sin x  , cos x 
2 2 2 1 t2 1 t2 2

When x = 0, t = 0 and when x  , t = 1. Thus
2
 1 2x
sec 1
2 2 2  2dt
A   dx   2t  1  t 2
40 1 x 4
(sin x  cos x)  sec 2  0
2 2
1
 dt
 
4 0 ( 2)  (t  1) 2
2
1
 1 2  t  1   2 1 
  log    log  
2 2 2 2  t  1 4 2  2  1 
0
 2 1 
 log .  log ( 2  1).
2 2 2 1 2 2

3
sin x
4. Problem : Evaluate  sin x  cos x
dx.

6
  
Solution : Let A denote the value of the given integral. Put x   t. Then dx =  dt. When x  , t  ;
2 6 3
 
when x  , t  . Hence
3 6
   
3 6 sin   t 
sin x 2 
A   dx    dt
 sin x  cos x     
6 3 sin   t   cos   t 
2  2 
 
3 3
cos t cos x
  cos t  sin t
dt   cos x  sin x
dx.
 
6 6
 
3 3
sin x cos x
Thus 2A   sin x  cos x
dx   sin x  cos x
dx
 
6 6
  
3 3
sin x  cos x 3 
  dx   dx  x   .
 sin x  cos x   6
6 6 6

Hence A= .
12
 x 
a
2
5. Problem : Find  a 2  x 2 dx .
a
Solution : We have
 x  dx 
a a a
x 
2 2 2 2
 a x dx  a 2  x 2 dx.
a a a
Since x2 and a 2  x 2 are even functions, by Theorem 7.4.10, we have

a a a a
x x  
2 2 2 2
dx  2 dx ; a  x dx  2 a 2  x 2 dx.
a 0 a 0
Therefore
a a a
 (x  a  x ) dx  2  x dx  2 
2 2 2 2
a 2  x 2 dx
a 0 0
a a
 x3   a2  x x a x 
2 2
 2    2  Sin 1    
3
 0  2  a  2 
 0
a3 a2  2 a 2
 2.  2. .  a3  .
3 2 2 3 2

x sin x
6. Problem : Evaluate  1  sin x dx.
0

x sin x
Solution : Let A   dx.
0
1  sin x

(  x) sin(  x)
Then A dx (by Corollary 7.4.9)
0
1  sin(  x)

(  x) sin x
 dx .
0
1  sin x
 
x sin x (  x) sin x
Hence 2A   dx   dx
0
1  sin x 0
1  sin x
 
[ x  (  x)] sin x sin x
  1  sin x
dx    1  sin x
dx
0 0
 
  1   1
    1 
0  1  sin x
 dx   
 
 dx    1  sin x dx
0 0

1
 2    1  sin x dx. ... (1)
0

1
Let us now evaluate  1  sin x dx.
0
Since sin (x) = sin x, by Theorem 7.4.11 (i) it follows that


 2
1 1
 1  sin x
dx  2 
1  sin x
dx
0 0

2
1
 2 dx (by Corollary 7.4.9)
0

1  sin   x
2 
 
2
2
1 dx
 2 dx  2  2 x
1  cos x 0 2 cos
0 2

2 /2
x  x

2
 sec dx   2 tan   2. ... (2)
2  2 0
0
2
Hence, from (1) and (2), 2A = 2  2 and A =  .
2

2
7. Problem : Evaluate  x sin x dx.
0
Solution : Let u(x) = x and v(x) = cos x. Then u (x) = 1; v (x) = sin x.
Using the formula for integration by parts (7.4.13), we have
  
2 2 2
 x sin x dx   x ( cos x) dx   u ( x) v( x) dx
0 0 0
 
2 2
 u ( x) v( x)    u ( x) v( x) dx
0
0
 
2 2
  x cos x    ( cos x)dx
0
0
 
2 2
  cos x dx  sin x0  1.
0
n
1 n i
8. Problem : Evaluate lim    by using the method of finding definite integral as the
i 1 n  n  i 
n
limit of a sum.
 i 1
n n 1
1 n i 1 n 1 x
Solution : lim    lim      dx
n 
i 1 n  n  i 
n i
i 1 n 1  
 1  x 
0
 n
1 x
by using the formula (2) of Note 7.2.1 with f ( x)  , x [0,1] .
1 x
Now
1 1 1 1
1 x x 1 2 1
 1  x dx    1  x dx   dx  2 1  x dx (by Theorem 7.4.2)
0 0 0 0
1
1
= [ x] 0  2 ln (1  x) (by Theorem 7.3.1)
0
= 1 + 2 ln 2.
2k  4k  6k  ...  (2n)k
9. Problem : Evaluate lim by using the method of finding definite integral
n n k 1
as the limit of a sum.
k
2k  4k  6k    (2n)k 1 n k i
Solution : lim
n n k 1
= lim
n n
 2  n 
i 1
1
2
k k
= x dx ,
0
by using the formula (2) of Note 7.2.1 with f (x) = 2kxk, x  [0, 1], k is a fixed real number not equal to 1.
Now
1 1
 x k 1  2k .
 2 x dx  2  k  1  k  1
k k k
0  0
Hence
2k  4k  6k    (2n)k 2k
lim  .
n n k 1 k 1
1
 n  n
10. Problem : Evaluate lim 1   1   ..... 1    .
1 2
n  n   n   n 
Solution : Let lim 1  1 


2   n  n
1   .....  1     l .

n  n  n   n  
Then
1 n  i
ln l  lim
n n
 ln 1  n  , since logarithmic function is continuous. Now by using (2) of Note 7.2.1 with
i 1
f (x) = ln(1 + x), x  [0, 1], we get
1
1 n  i
lim  ln  1     ln(1  x) dx
n  n n 0
i 1 
1
= [(1  x) ln(1  x)  (1  x)]0
= 2 ln 2  2  (1)
= ln 4  1.
Hence
ln l = ln 4 1.
i.e., l = eln41 = 4e1.
11. Problem : Let f : R  R be a continuous periodic function and T be the period of it. Then
prove that for any positive integer n,
nT T
 f ( x) dx  n  f (x) dx. ... (1)

0 0
Solution : Let k be an integer and define

g : [kT, (k + 1) T]  [0, T] as g(t) = t kT. Then g (t )  1 for all t  [kT, (k + 1)T].
Hence by Theorem 7.4.5, (fog) g  is integrable on [kT, (k + 1)T] and
( k 1)T T
 f ( g (t )) g (t ) dt   f (x) dx. ... (2)

kT 0
We have f ( g (t )) g (t )  f (t  kT ) . 1  f (t ),
since f is periodic with T as the period.
( k 1)T ( k 1)T
Hence  f ( g (t )) g (t ) dt   f (t ) dt. ... (3)
kT kT
Thus, from (2) and (3),

( k 1)T T
 f (t ) dt   f (t ) dt.
kT 0
Let us now prove formula (1) by using the principle of mathematical induction.
For n = 1, clearly (1) is true.
Assume (1) is true for a positive integer m.
mT T
Thus  f ( x) dx  m  f ( x) dx.
0 0
Now, by Theorem 7.4.3 and by (4) and (5), we get

( m 1)T mT ( m 1)T
 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx
0 0 mT
T T
 m  f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx
0 0
T
 (m  1)  f ( x) dx.
0
Hence formula (1) is true for n = m + 1.

Thus, formula (1) is true for any positive integer n, by the principle of mathematical induction.
7.4.15 Note : Formula (1) of Problem 7.4.14(11) is valid for any integer n. Further, it remains valid if the
continuity of f on R is replaced by integrability on [0, T], in view of Note 7.4.6.
Exercise 7(b)
I. Evaluate the following definite integrals

a 3 
2x
 (a  
2 3
1. x  x ) dx 2. dx 3. 2  2 cos  d 
0 2 1  x2 0
 
2 2

3
sin x cos x dx 3
1  x dx cos x
4. 5.  6.
 dx
0 0 1 ex

2

1
dx a 2
7.  3  2x
8.  ( a x ) 2 dx 9.  sec
4
 d
0 0 0
3 1 5
x  x2 dx
10.  2
dx 11. xe dx 12.  2x 1
0 x  16 0 1

4
x2 2
x2 1
x2
1.  1 x
dx 2.  2
x  2
dx 3.  x2 1
dx
0 1 0
 4 
2
 | 2  x | dx
2
sin 5 x
4.  x 2 sin x dx 5.
0
6.
 sin 5 x  cos5 x
dx
0 0

7.
2
sin 2 x  cos 2 x
 sin 3 x  cos3 x
dx
0
Evaluate the following limits
n  1  n  2  ....  n  n  1 1 1
8. lim 9. lim    ...  
n n n n   n  1 n  2 6n 
1  2 n 
n
i3
10. lim  tan  tan  ...  tan 11. lim  i4  n4
n n  4n 4n 4n  n 
i 1
n
i 1  24  34  ....  n 4
12. lim
n
 n2  i 2 13. lim
n n5
i 1
1
1
 1  2   n 2 2  n (n !) n
14. lim 1  2  1  2  ..... 1  2   15. lim
n  n   n   n   n n



2 b
dx
1.
 4  5cos x
2.  ( x  a ) (b  x) dx
0 a
1 
3.
2
x Sin 1 x 4.
4
sin x  cos x
 1  x2
dx  9  16 sin 2 x
dx
0 0
 2
a
2
a sin x  b cos x  x 2  x dx
5.
 dx 6.  x ( a  x ) n dx 7.
0
sin x  cos x 0 0
  
x x sin 3 x
8.  x sin 3 x dx 9.  dx 10.  dx
0 0 1  sin x 0 1  cos 2 x

1 
log(1  x) x sin x 2
sin 2 x
11.  dx 12.  1  cos 2 x
dx 13.
 dx
0 1  x2 0 cos x  sin x
0
 3
 4
1 2
14.  3  2 cos x dx 15.  log(1  tan x) dx 16.  x sin x dx
0
0 1
1 1
2x  1 

x sin x
17.  Sin  2 
dx 18.  x Tan x dx
1
19.  1  cos 2 x dx
0 1 x  0 0
20. Suppose that f : R  R is a continuous periodic function and T is the period of it.
a  nT a T
Let a  R. Then prove that for any positive integer n,  f ( x) dx  n  f ( x) dx .
a a
7.5 Reduction Formulae

In this section, we derive some reduction formulae for the evaluation of definite integrals of sinnx, cosnx

and sinmx cosnx between 0 and for positive integers m, n.
2

The following theorem gives a useful formula to evaluate the definite integral of sinnx between 0 and ,
2
when n is an integer > 2.
7.5.1 Theorem : Let n be an integer greater than or equal to 2. Then
  n 1 n3 1 
2  n  n2
"
2 2
 , if n is even.
 sin x dx   n  1
n
 n3 2
0  " , if n is odd .
 n n2 3
Proof : On using the formula for integration by parts (Theorem 7.4.13), we have
  
2 2 2
n 1 d
 sin
n
x dx   sin x . sin x dx   sin n 1 x ( cos x) dx
0 0 0
dx
 
2 2
 sin n 1 x ( cos x)    (n  1) sin n 2 x cos 2 x dx
0 0

2
n2
 0  (n  1)  sin x (1  sin 2 x) dx
0
 
2 2
n2
 sin  sin
n
 (n  1) x  (n  1) x dx.
0 0
 
2 2
n2
 sin  sin
n
Hence n x dx  (n  1) x dx.
0 0
 
2 2
(n  1) n2
 sin  sin
Therefore n ... (1)
x dx  x dx.
0
n 0

2
In =  sin x dx, then from (1), we have
n
Hence if we write
0
n 1
In  In2 .
n
This is the reduction formula.
On applying successively, the formula for integration by parts to the right hand side integral, we get
n 1 n  3
In   In4
n n2
#
n 1 n  3 n  5
   " A,
n n2 n4
 / 2
  dx, if n is even
 0
where A  
/2

  sin x dx, if n is odd
 0

 , if n is even
 2
 1, if n is odd .
  n 1 n3 1 
2   "  , if n is even
 n n2 2 2
 sin x dx   n  1 n  3 2
n
Therefore, we have
0   " , if n is odd .
 n n2 3
7.5.2 Observation : From problem 7.4.14(1), we have
 
2 2
 sin  cos
n n
x dx  x dx.
0 0
Therefore from Theorem 7.5.1, for an integer n > 2, we have

  n 1 n3 1 
2   "  , if n is even
 n n2 2 2
 cos x dx   n  1 n  3 2
n
0   " , if n is odd.
 n n2 3
  
2 2 2
1. Problem : Find (i)  sin x dx 4
(ii)  sin
7
x dx (iii)  cos8 x dx .
0 0 0
Solution: We solve (i) and (ii) by using Theorem 7.5.1.

2
4 1 4  3 
 sin
4
(i) x dx   
0
4 42 2
3 1  3
    .
4 2 2 16

2
7 1 7  3 7  5
 sin
7
(ii) x dx   
0
7 72 74
6 4 2 16
    .
7 5 3 35
We solve (iii) by using Observation 7.5.2.

2
8 1 8  3 8  5 8  7 
 cos
8
(iii) x dx     
0
8 82 84 86 2
7 5 3 1 
    
8 6 4 2 2
35
 .
256
a
2. Problem : Evaluate  a 2  x 2 dx.
0
Solution : Put x = a sin . Then dx = a cos  d. When  = 0, x = 0 and when    , x = a. When
2
 
 0, , x  [0, a ]. Hence, by the method of substitution (Theorem 7.4.5) it follows that
 2

a 2
 a 2  x 2 dx   a cos   a cos  d .
0 0

2
 a2  cos
2
 d .
0
1  2 a 2
 a    (on using Observation 7.5.2).
2 2 4
Now, the following theorem gives a formula for evaluating the definite integral of sinm x cosn x between

0 and , where both m and n are positive integers.
2
7.5.4 Theorem : Let m and n be positive integers. Then
 1
 m  1 , if n  1

 n 1  n  3 " 2  1 , if 1  n is odd
 m  n m  n  2 m  3 m 1
2 
 n 1 n3 1 m 1 1 

m n
sin x cos x dx    "  "  , if n is even and m is even
0  m  n m  n  2 m  2 m 2 2
 n 1 n3 1 m 1 2
 m  n  m  n  2 ... m  2  m " 3 , if n is even, 1  m is odd

 1 , if m  1.
 n  1
Proof : It is easy to see that

 
2 2
1 1
 sin x cos x dx  m  1 ; and  sin x cos
m n
x dx  .
0 0
n 1
Suppose that m > 2 and n > 2. On using the formula for integration by parts (Theorem 7.4.14), we have
 
2 2
 sin
m
x cos n x dx   sin
m
x cos n1 x cos x dx
0 0

2
n 1 d  sin m1 x 
=  cos x   dx
0
dx  m 1 
 
2 2
 1  1 d
  cos n 1 x sin m1 x    sin m1 x (cos n1 x) dx
 m 1  m 1 0 dx
0

2
n 1 m 2
 0  sin x cos n2 x dx
m 1 0

2
n 1
  sin
m
x cos n2 x (1  cos 2 x) dx
m 1 0
 
2
n 1 n2 n 1 2 m
 
m
 sin x cos x dx  sin x cos n x dx.
m 1 0
m 1 0
 
2 2
 n 1  n 1
Hence
1  m  1   sin
m
x cos n x dx   sin m x cos n2 x dx.
0
m 1 0
 
2 2
Therefore n 1 ... (1)
 sin x cos x dx  m  n
m n
 sin
m
x cos n2 x dx.
0 0

2
 sin
m
Hence, if we write I m, n  x cos n x dx, then from (1),
0
n 1
we have I m, n  I m, n2 .
mn
This is the required reduction formula.
Now, on using the formula for integration by parts to Im; n2, we get
n 1 n3
I m, n   I m, n 4 .
mn mn2
On proceeding like this we obtain
n 1 n3
I m, n  . ....Im, or Im, 0
mn mn2
according as n is odd or even, where

2
1
 sin
m
I m,1  x cos x dx  ;
0
m 1
 m 1 m  3 1 
 m  m  2 " 2  2 , if m is even

2 
 m 1 m  3 2
and I m,0   sin x dx  
m
 " , if m is odd
 m m  2 3
0 (Theorem 7.5.1)
1, if m  1 and m  2.



2
n 1 n3 2 1
 sin
m
Hence x cos n x dx   "  , if 1  n is odd.
0
mn mn2 m  3 m 1
Hence, when n is even, we have
  n 1 n3 1 m 1 1 
2  m  n  "  "  , if m is even
mn2 m2 m 2 2
 sin x cos x dx   n  1
m n
 n3 1 m 1 2
0  "  " , if 1  m is odd .
 m  n mn2 m2 m 3
1. Problem : Evaluate the following definite integrals.
  
2 2 2
(ii)  sin x cos x dx (iii)  sin x cos x dx
5 4 6 4
 sin
4
(i) x cos5 x dx
0 0 0
Solution : We use Theorem 7.5.4 to solve (i), (ii) and (iii).


2
5 1 53 1
 sin
4
(i) x cos5 x dx   
0
4  5 4  5  2 4 1
4 2 1 8
    .
9 7 5 315

2
4 1 43 5 1 5  3
 sin
5
(ii) x cos 4 x dx    
0
5 4 5 42 5 52
3 1 4 2 8
     .
9 7 5 3 315

2
4 1 43 6 1 6  3 6  5 
 sin
6
(iii) x cos 4 x dx      
0
64 642 6 62 64 2
3 1 5 3 1  3
       .
10 8 6 4 2 2 512
2
 sin
4
2. Problem : Find x cos6 x dx .
0
Solution : Let f(x) = sin4 x cos6 x.
Since f(2 x) = f( x) = f(x), it follows from Theorem 7.4.11, that
2 2
 sin 4 x cos 6 x dx  2  sin 4 x cos 6 x dx

0 0
2
 sin
4
 4 x cos6 x dx
0
6 1 63 65 3 1 
 4     
46 462 464 4 2 2
3
 .
128

2
 sin
2
3. Problem : Find x cos 4 x dx.

2
Solution : Let f(x) = sin2x cos4x.
Since f is even, by Theorem, 7.4.10, we have
 
2 2
 f ( x) dx  2  f ( x) dx.
 0
2
 
2 2
 sin x cos 4 x dx  2  sin 2 x cos 4 x dx
2
Hence
 0
2
4 1 43 1 
 2   
2 4 2 42 2 2
3 1  
 2    .
6 4 4 16

 x sin
7
4. Problem : Find x cos6 x dx .
0

 x sin
7
Solution : Let A  x cos6 x dx . Then
0

 (  x) sin
7
A  (   x) cos 6 (   x) dx (by Corollary 7.4.9)
0
 (  x) sin
7
 x cos 6 x dx
0
 
  sin x cos x dx   x sin 7 x cos 6 x dx.

7 6

0 0

This implies 2A    sin 7 x cos6 x dx .
0


 sin
7
Hence A  x cos6 x dx ... (1)
2 0
Let f (x) = sin7x cos6x.
Since f( x) = sin7( x) cos6( x)
= sin7x cos6x = f (x),
by Theorem 7.4.11, we have


 2
 sin x cos6 x dx  2  sin 7 x cos6 x dx .
7
0 0

2
 sin
7
Hence from (1), A   x cos6 x dx
0
6 1 63 65 7 1 7  3 7  5
      
76 762 764 7 5 3
16
 .
3003
a
x
2
5. Problem : Find (a 2  x 2 )3/ 2 dx.
a
Solution : Since f(x) = x2(a2  x2)3/2 is an even function, by Theorem 7.4.10, it follows that
a a
x dx  2  x 2 (a 2  x 2 )3 / 2 dx.
2 2 2 3/ 2
(a  x )
a 0
  
Put x = a sin . Then dx = a cos  d. When  = 0, x = 0; when   , x  a ; when  0, , x [0, a ].
2  2
Hence, by Theorem 7.4.5, it follows that


a 2
2 x 2 (a 2  x 2 )3/ 2 dx  2  a 2 sin 2   a3 cos3   a cos  d 
0 0

2
 2a 6  sin 2  cos 4  d 
0
 a 6
 2a 6   .
32 16
1 3
6. Problem : Find  x2 1  x dx.
0
Solution : Put x = sin2  . Then dx = 2sin  cos  d.

When  = 0, x = 0; when = , x = 1.
2

When   0, , x [0, 1] . Hence by Theorem 7.4.5, it follows that
 2

1 3 2
  sin
3
x 2 1  x dx   cos   2sin  cos  d 
0 0

2
 2  sin 4  cos 2  d 
0

 2
32

 .
16
Exercise 7(c)
I. Find the values of the following integrals.
  
2 2 2
 sin  cos
7
1. 10
x dx 2.  cos
11
x dx 3. x sin 2 x dx
0 0 0

2  2
 sin  sin  sin

4 4 3 6 2
4. x cos x dx 5. x cos x dx 6. x cos 4 x dx
0 0 0
 
2 2
sin
3
 cos3  d 
7.
sin 8.
2
 cos7  d 
 
2 2
a 7 2 3
 x( a
2 2 2
9. x ) dx 10.  x2 2  x dx
0 0
1 5 4 5 3
x   (9  x
5 2 2 2 3/2
1. (1  x) 2 dx 2. (16  x ) dx 3. ) x dx
0 0 3
5  7
7x
4.  x (25  x )
3 2 7/2
dx 5. 
8
sin x cos x dx7 6.  x3
dx
0  3

6 2
7.  (6  x)( x  2) dx 8.
 tan 5 x cos8 x dx
2 0

1 
1.  x 7/2 (1  x)5/2 dx 2.  (1  cos x)
3
dx
0 0
9 5
dx
 x
2
3. 4. ( 5  x )7 dx
4
(9  x)( x  4) 0
2
5.  (1  cos x)5 (1  cos x)3 dx
0
7.6 Applications of definite integral to areas
In the previous sections of this chapter, we observed that if y = f(x) is a non-negative continuous function
defined on [a, b] then the area under the graph of f between the ordinates x = a, x = b and the X-axis is given
a
by the value of the definite integral  f ( x) dx . In the following, we give different possible ways of calculating
b
such areas depending on the nature of the integrand.
7.6.1 Areas under curves Y
(i) If f : a, b   0,   is continuous, then the area

y = f(x)
A of the region bounded by the curve y = f(x),
the X-axis and the lines x = a and x = b is given
b A
by A =  f ( x) dx which is shown in Fig. 7.3 O a b X
a
graphically.
Fig. 7.3
(ii) Let f : a, b  , 0 be continuous. Then the graphs of y = f(x) and y = f(x) on [a, b] are
symmetric about the X-axis. So, the area bounded by the graph of y = f(x), the X-axis and the lines
x = a, x = b is same as the area bounded by the graph of y = f(x), the X-axis and the lines x = a,
b
x = b which is, hence, given by A =   f ( x) dx . This is shown graphically in the Fig. 7.4.
a
a b
X
O
AA
y = f(x)
Fig. 7.4
b
From (i) and (ii), we observe that A   f ( x) dx .
a
(iii) Let f :[ a, b]  R be continuous and f  x   0 for all x  a, c  and f  x   0 for all x  c, b 
where a  c  b . Then the area of the region bounded by the curve y  f  x  , the X-axis, and the
lines x  a, x  b is given by
c b
A   f ( x)dx    f ( x)dx
a c
c b
  f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx ... (1)
a c
which is shown in Fig.7.5 graphically.
A
A y = f(x)
a c X
O b
Fig. 7.5
c b
Note : (1) can be written as A   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
a c
(iv) Let f :[ a, b]  R and g :[ a, b]  R be continuous and f  x   g  x  for all x  a, b  . Then the
area of the region bounded by the curves y  f  x  , y  g  x  and the lines x  a, x  b is given by
b b Y
A   g  x dx   f  x dx (See Fig.7.6).
a a
y = g(x)
In case g  x   f  x  for all x   a, b 

A
then the area A is given by y = f(x)
b b
A   f  x  dx   g  x  dx . O a b
X
a a
Hence, in either case the area A is given by Fig. 7.6

b b
A   f ( x )dx   g( x)dx .
a a
(v) Let f and g be two continuous real valued functions on [ a, b] and c( a, b) such that
f x   g x  for all x[ a, c) and Y
y = g(x)
g  x   f  x  for all x(c, b] with c
 (g  f)
b
f c   g c  . Then the area A of the a  ( f  g)

c
y = f(x)
region bounded by y = f(x), y = g(x),
and the lines x  a, x  b is given by O a c b

X
Fig. 7.7
c b
A   [ g ( x)  f ( x)]dx   [ f ( x)  g ( x)]dx
a c
c b
  ( f ( x)  g ( x)) dx   ( f ( x)  g ( x)) dx
a c
which is shown in Fig. 7.7 graphically.
(vi) Let f :[ a, b]  R, and g :[ a, b]  R be two continuous functions. Suppose that, there exist points
x1 , x2  a, b  with x1  x2 such that f  x1   g  x1  and f  x2   g  x2  and f  x   g  x 
for all x   x1 , x2  . Then the area A of the region Y
y = f(x)
bounded by the curves y = f (x), y = g(x)
and the lines x  x1 , x  x2 is given by
A
y = g(x)
x2
  f  x   g  x dx (See Fig.7.8).

x1 x2
A X
O a b
x1
Fig. 7.8
In case f  x   g  x  for all x   x1 , x2  , then the area A is given by
x2
A  ( g ( x)  f ( x)) dx .
x1
Hence, in either case, the area A is given by

x2
A   ( f ( x)  g( x))dx .
x1
7.6.2 Note
(i) Some regions are best treated by regarding x as a function of y. If a region is bounded
by the curve x  g  y  where g is a Y
y=d
non-negative continuous function on d
c, d  , the Y-axis and the lines y  c,

A x = g(y)
and y  d , then its area is given by
d c
y=c
A   g ( y)dy X
c O
and this is illustrated in Fig. 7.9.
Fig. 7.9
(ii) Similarly, if g : [c, d]  (, 0 ] is Y

continuous, then the area A of the region y=d
d
bounded by the curve x  g  y  , the
Y-axis and the lines y  c, y  d is
x = g(y) A
d
A    g ( y )dy . c
y=c
c
X
This is shown graphically in Fig. 7.10. O
Fig. 7.10
d
Combining (i) and (ii), we may write A   g ( y) dy .
c
(iii) If a region is bounded by the curves with equations x  f  y , x  g  y , y  c and y  d , where
f and g are continuous and f  y   g  y  for c  y  d (See Fig. 7.11), then its area is
d
Y
A    f  y   g  y  dy. d
y=d
c
If we write xR for the right boundary and

x = g(y) x = f(y)
xL for the left boundary, then the above
area A is given by
c
d y=c
A    xR  xL  dy . X
c O
Fig. 7.11
In general, when f(x) > g(y) on [c, d] or f(y) < g(y) on [c, d], we have
d
A   f ( y)  g ( y) dx
c
1. Problem: Find the area under the curve f  x   sin x in [0, 2].
Solution: Consider the graph of the function f(x) = sin x with respect to the interval [0, 2]. We know that
sin x > 0 for all x  [0, ] and sin x < 0 for all x  [, 2]. The graph of f will be as shown in Fig. 7.12.
Hence, the area of the region enclosed by the curve y = sin x in [0, 2] is given by
3/2
 X
O /2 2
A
1
Fig. 7.12
 2
 2
A   sin x dx   (  sin x) dx   cos x]  cos x]  2  2  4.
0 
0 
2. Problem: Find the area under the curve f  x   cos x in 0, 2 .
Solution: We know that cos x  0 for all Y

1
    3 
x   0,  *  , 2  and cos x  0 for all
 2  2 
  3   X
x , . The graph of cos x in [0, 2] is O /2 3/2 2 
 2 2  A
therefore as shown in Fig. 7.13. Hence, the area A 1
under the curve f (x)  cos x in [0, 2] is given by
Fig. 7.13
/2 3 / 2 2
A   cos x dx   ( cos x) dx   cos x dx
0 /2 3 / 2
/ 2 3 / 2 2
 sin x   sin x   sin x   1  2  1  4.
0 / 2 3 / 2
3. Problem: Find the area bounded by the parabola y  x 2 , the X-axis and the lines x  1, x  2 .
Solution: The region bounded by the parabola y  x 2 , the X-axis and the ordinates x  1, x  2 is as
shown in Fig. 7.14.
Y
The required area A is given by
2
x3 
2
A   x dx 
2

1
3  1
8  1
      3. X
3  3 1 O 1 2
Fig. 7.14
4. Problem: Find the area cut off between the line y  0 and the parabola y  x 2  4 x  3 .
Solution: First we find the points of intersection of the line y  0 and the parabola
Y
y  x 2  4 x  3 . The abscissae of these
points of intersection are given by
y = x2  4x +3
x2 4x + 3 = 0 i.e., x = 1, 3. That is, the
parabola cuts the X-axis at x  1 and at X
O 1 3
x  3 . Hence the graph of the parabola and
the region bounded by the parabola and the
1
X-axis are as shown in Fig. 7.15.
Fig. 7.15
The required area A is therefore given by
3 3
 ( x  [1  ( x  2)
2 2
A   4 x  3) dx  ]dx
1 1
3
( x  2)3  2 4
 2   2  ..
3  3 3
1
5. Problem: Find the area bounded by the curves y  sin x and y  cos x between any two
consecutive points of intersection.
Solution: Two consecutive points of intersection of the curves y  sin x and y  cos x are
 5 Y
x and x  . Also, we have 1.5
4 4 y = sin x
1
  5 
sin x  cos x for all x   , . 0.5
4 4 
Hence, the area bounded by these curves /2  5 X
O /4 3
 5 0.5
and the ordinates x  and x  is 1
4 4 y = cos x
as shown in Fig. 7.16. 1.5
Fig. 7.16
The area A required is therefore given by
5 / 4 5 / 4
A  (sin x  cos x) dx  (  cos x  sin x 
/4
/4
 2  2  2 2.
6. Problem: Find the area of one of the curvilinear triangles bounded by y  sin x, y  cos x and
X-axis.
Solution: OAB is one of the curvilinear triangles bounded by y  sin x, y  cos x and the X-axis.
 
The area of this curvilinear triangle is as shown in Fig. 7.17. Since cos x  sin x for x  0,  and
 4
cos x  sin x for x    ,   , the required area A is given by
 4 2 
/4 /2
/2
cos x dx   cos x   sin x 
/4
A  sin x dx   0 /4
0 /4
Y
 1   1  y = sin x
 1    1    (2  2). 1
A
 2  2
B X
O /4 /2 
1
y = cos x
Fig. 7.17
7. Problem: Find the area of the right angled triangle with base b and altitude h, using the
fundamental theorem of integral calculus.
Y
Solution: Let OAB be a right angled triangle and
JJJG A(b, h)
B  900 . Choose O as the origin and OB as
the positive X-axis. If OB = b and AB = h then
h
A  b, h  . (See Fig. 7.18). So, the equation of
B
JJJG h X
OA is y    x . O b (b, 0)
b
Fig. 7.18
h
Hence, the area A of the triangle is equal to the area bounded by the lines x = 0, y = h and y    x .
b
h
h  x2  
h
hx 1
So, A   dx      bh .
0
b b  2   2
0
8. Problem: Find the area bounded between the curves y 2  1  2 x and x  0 .

Y
Solution: The parabola y 2  1  2 x
1 1
meets the X-axis at x =  and
2
Y-axis at y  1 and y = 1. As the 0.5, 0)
X
curve is symmetric about the X-axis, 1 O 0.5 1 1.5
the area bounded by the curve and the
Y-axis is as shown in Fig. 7.19. 1 y21 = 2x
Fig. 7.19
Hence, the required area
1 1
1
 y2 1 
A    x  dy      dy     y  1dy
2
1 1 
2  0
1 2
 1  .
3 3
9. Problem: Find the area enclosed by the curves y  3 x and y  6 x  x 2 .

Y
Solution: The straight line y  3x meets the 8
y = 6x  x2
parabola y  6 x  x at the points whose
2 6
4 3x
x-coordinates are given by 3x = 6x  x2 i.e., y=
2
x = 0, 3. Since 3x  6x  x 2 for all x  0, 3 , O 6
X
1 1 2 3 4 5
the area enclosed by the parabola and the given
line is as shown in Fig.7.20.
Fig. 7.20
Hence, the required area A is given by.
3 3
A   6 x  x 2   3x  dx   3x  x dx
2
0 0
3
 3x 2 x3   27 27 27 9
        .
 2 3  
0
2 3 6 2
10. Problem: Find the area enclosed between y  x 2  5 x and y  4  2 x .
Solution: The points of intersection of the parabola and straight line are given by y = x2  5x = 4  2x (i.e.,)
x2  3x  4 = 0. Hence x = 4 , 1. Y
Also 1  x  4  ( x  1)( x  4)  0 8
6
 x 2  3x  4  0 y = x2  5x
 x2  5x  4  2 x .
So, the area enclosed by the parabola and
2 1 O 1 2 3 4 5 X
the straight line is as shown in Fig. 7.21. 2
4
y = 4  2x
6
Hence, the required area
4
 [(4  2 x)  ( x  5 x )] dx
2
A  Fig. 7.21
1
4
4
  x 2  x3 
  (4  3x  x )dx   4 x  3    
2
1   2  3  1
45 65 125
 20    .
2 3 6
11. Problem: Find the area bounded between the curves y  x 2 , y  x.
Solution: x 2  x  x4  x Y
y = x2
 x  x  1  0
3
 x  0 or 1. y= x
Hence,the two curves intersect at 0, 0  1
and 1, 1 . Also y  x is the branch of

the parabola y 2  x that lies in the first
X
quadrant. Further x  x 2 x  [0, 1] . 1 O 1
So the area enclosed by the two curves is as

shown in Fig. 7.22.
Fig. 7.22
The required area

1
1  2 3 x3  2 1 1
A   ( x  x ) dx   x 2      .
2
0  3 3 
0
3 3 3
12. Problem: Find the area bounded between the curves y2 = 4ax, x2 = 4 by (a > 0, b > 0).
Solution: First we find the points of intersection of the given curves.
2
 x2 
   4ax  x  0 or x 3  64ab 2
 
 4b 
 x  0 or x  4a1 / 3b 2 / 3
4 a , 4a 2 / 3b1/ 3  . Further 2 ax  x
2
Therefore, the two curves intersect in 0, 0  , 1/ 3 2 / 3
b
4b
1/ 3 2 / 3
x  [0, 4a b ] . So the area enclosed by the two parabolas is as shown in the Fig. 7.23.
1 2
4 a 3b 3
 x2 
Required area A 
 0
 2 a x   dx
 4b  Y
x2 = 4by
4 a1/3b 2/3
 2 3/2 x3  y2 = 4ax
=  (2 a ) x 
 3 12b  0
32 ab 16 ab
=  X
3 3 O 4a1/3b2/3
16ab
= .
3
Fig. 7.23
Exercise 7(d)
I. Find the area of the region enclosed by the given curves.

2x . 
1. y  cos x, y  1  2. y  cos x, y  sin 2 x, x  0, x  .
 2
3. y  x  3, y  0, x  1, x  2 .
3
4. y  e x , y  x, x  0, x  1 .

5. y  sin x, y  cos x, x  0, x  . 6. x  4  y 2 , x  0.
2
7. Find the area enclosed within the curve x  y   .
II. 1. x  2  5 y  3y2 , x  0 . 2. x 2  4 y , x  2, y  0 .
3. y 2  3 x, x  3 . 4. y  x 2 , y  2 x .

5. y  sin 2 x, y  3 sin x, x  0, x  . 6. y  x 2 , y  x3 .
6
7. y = 4x  x2, y = 5  2x.
8
8. Find the area in sq. units bounded by the X-axis, part of the curve y  1  and the ordinates
x2
x = 2 and x   .
9. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas y 2  4 x and x 2  4 y .
10. Find the area bounded by the curve y  ln x , the X-axis and the straight line x  e .
III. 1. y  x  1, y  2 x  2, x  1, x  2 .
2
2. y  4 x, y  4 4  x  .
2 2
3. y  2  x , y  x .
2 2
4. Show that the area enclosed between the curves y  12  x  3 and y 2  20 5  x  is 64 53 .

2
5. Find the area of the region {(x, y) : x2  x  1 < y < 1}.
6. The circle x 2  y 2  8 is divided into two parts by the parabola 2 y  x 2. Find the area of both the
parts.
x2 y2
7. Show that the area of the region bounded by   1 (ellipse) is  ab . Also deduce the area
a 2 b2
of the circle x  y  a .
2 2 2
8. Find the area of the region enclosed by the curves y  sin  x, y  x  x, x  2 .

2
x2 y2
9. Let AOB be the positive quadrant of the ellipse   1 with   a,   b . Then
a2 b2
  2  ab
show that the area bounded between the chord AB and the arc AB of the ellipse is .
4
10. Prove that the curves y 2  4 x and x 2  4 y divide the area of the square bounded by the lines
x  0, x  4, y  4 and y  0 into three equal parts.

Key Concepts
v The Definite Integral : Let f : [a, b]  R be a bounded function. Let

P = {x0, x1, ..., xi1, xi, xi+1, ..., xn} be a partition of [a, b] and let ti  [ xi 1 , xi ] for each i = 1,
2, ..., n. A sum of the form
n
S(P, f )   f (ti ) xi
i 1
is called a Riemann sum of f.

We say that f is Riemann integrable on [a, b] (or simply integrable on [a, b]) if there exists a
real number A such that S(P, f ) approaches A as ||P|| approaches zero. Such an A, if exists, is
b b
unique and is denoted by  f ( x ) dx . We call  f ( x) dx , the definite integral of f from a to b.
a a
1 2 n 1 
v If f is continuous on [0, 1] and P  0, , , ...., , 1 is a partition of [0, 1] into n subintervals
n n n 
1 n
1 1  i
each of length , then  f ( x) dx  lim  f  
n n n
i 1
 n
0
More generally, if f is continuous on [0, p] where p is a positive integer then,

p
1 np  i
 f ( x) dx  lim
n n
 f .
 n
0 i 1
v First Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus : Let f be integrable on [a, b]. We write
x
A( x)   f (t ) dt , x  [ a, b] . Then A is continuous on [a, b]. If f is continuous on [a, b] then
a
A is differentiable in [a, b]. Further, A(x )  f ( x ) for all x  [ a, b] .
v The Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus : If f is integrable on [a, b] and if there is a

differentiable function F on [a, b] such that F = f then
b b
 f ( x) dx  F( x)  F(b)  F(a ).
a
a
a b c
v If f : [a, b]  R is integrable, then  f ( x) dx    f ( x) dx and  f ( x) dx  0  c  [ a, b] .
b a c
v If f and g are integrable on [a, b], then f + g is integrable on [a, b] and

b b b
 ( f  g ) ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   g ( x) dx.
a a a
v Let f : [a, b]  R be integrable and   R. Then  f is integrable on [a, b] and
b b
 ( f )( x) dx    f ( x) dx .
a a
v Let f : [a, b]  R be bounded. Let c  (a, b). Then f is integrable on [a, b] if and only if it is
integrable on [a, c] as well as on [c, b] and, in this case,
b c b
 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx.
a a c
v Method of Substitution : Let g : [c, d]  R have continuous derivative on [c, d]. Let
f : g([c, d])  R be continuous. Then ( fog) g  is integrable on [c, d] and
g (d ) d
 f (t ) dt   f ( g ( x )) g ( x ) dx.
g (c ) c
v Let f be integrable on [a, b]. Then the function g defined on [a, b] as
g(x) = f(a + b  x) for all x in [a, b], is integrable on [a, b] and

b b
 g ( x ) dx   f ( x ) dx.
a a
v If f is integrable on [0, a], then the function g defined on [0, a] as g(x) = f(a  x) for all x in
[0, a] is integrable on [0, a] and
a a a
 f (a  x) dx   g ( x) dx   f ( x) dx .
0 0 0
v Let f : [a, a]  R be integrable on [0, a]. Suppose that f is either odd or even. Then f is
integrable on [a, a] and
a
0, if f is odd.
 a
 f ( x) dx  2 f ( x)dx, if f is even.
a 
 0
v Let f : [0, 2a]  R be integrable on [0, a]. Suppose that f(2a  x) = f (x) for all x in [a, 2a].
Then f is integrable on [0, 2a] and
2a a
 f ( x) dx  2  f ( x) dx.
0 0
v Let f : [0, 2a]  R be integrable on [0, a]. Suppose that f(2a  x) = f(x) for all x in [a, 2a].
Then f is integrable on [0, 2a] and
2a
 f ( x) dx  0.
0
v Integration by parts formula : Let u and v be real valued differentiable functions on [a, b] such
that u and v are integrable on [a, b]. Then u v and u v are integrable on [a, b] and
b b
 u ( x) v( x) dx  u (b) v(b)  u (a) v(a)   u( x) v( x) dx.

a a
v If n is an integer > 2, then
  n 1 n3 1 
2  n  n2
"  , if n is even
2 2
 sin x dx   n  1
n
 n3 2
0  " , if n is odd.
 n n2 3
 
2 2
 sin
n
v x dx =  cos n x dx , n is a positive integer.
0 0
v If m and n are positive integers then

 1
 m  1 , if n  1

 n 1  n  3 " 2  1 , if 1  n is odd
 m  n m  n  2 m  3 m 1
2 
 n 1 n3 1 m 1 1 

m n
sin x cos x dx    "  "  , if n is even and m is even
0 m  n m  n  2 m2 m 2 2
 n 1 n3 1 m 1 2
m  n  m  n  2 " m  2  m " 3 , if n is even and 1  m is odd

 1 , if m  1.
 n  1
v Area A of the region bounded by the curve y  f  x  , the X-axis, x  a and x  b is given by
 b
  f  x  dx, if f  x   0 x  a, b 
 a
A  b
 f x dx, if f x  0 x  a, b
       
 a
v Area A of the region bounded by the curve x  g  y  , the Y-axis and the lines
y  c, y  d is given by
 d d
  xdy or  g ( y ) dy, if g ( y )  0 y  [c, d ]
 c c
A  
d d

 
 xdy or   g ( y)dy, if g ( y)  0 y  [c, d ]
 c c
v The area of the region enclosed between the curves y  f  x  , y  g  x  and the lines x  a, x  b
b
is given by the formula : Area    f  x   g  x  dx if f  x   g  x  for all x  a, b .
a
v If f  x   g  x  in a, c  and f  x   g  x  in c, b , a  c  b , then area bounded by the two

curves y  f  x , y  g  x  and the lines x  a, x  b is
c b
=  [ f ( x)  g ( x)] dx   [ g ( x)  f ( x)] dx.
a c
Historical Note
Integral Calculus is the study of the definition, properties and applications of two related concepts :
the indefinite integral and the definite integral.
The indefinite integral is the antiderivative. The definite integral inputs a function and outputs a
number. The technical definition of the definite integral is the limit of a sum of areas of rectangles, called
Riemann sum, as propounded by Riemann.
The symbol for indefinite integration was introduced by Leibnitz. The notation for definite integral
b
i.e.,  f ( x) dx was proposed by Fourier and Cauchy immediately adopted and popularised it.
a
Answers
Exercise 7(a)
I. 1. 35 2. 64
2 3
8
II. 1. 15  e 2. 1
2 6
Exercise 7(b)
a4
I. 1. 2. log 2 3. 4 4. 0
4
a2
5. 1 6. 1 7. 3 1 8.
6
4 e 1
9. 10. 1 11. 12. 2
3 2e
  1   
II. 1. 4 + log 5 2. 3  2 Tan 1   1
  Tan ( 2)  3. 1 
  2  4

4. 2 5. 4 6. 7. 0
4
2(2 2  1) 2 1
8. 9. ln 6 10. ln 2 11. ln 2
3  4
1  4
1
12. ln 2 13. 14. 2e 2 15.
5 e
1  1 3  1
III. 1. log 2 2. (b  a ) 2 3. 2 1   4. log 3
3 8  6  20
 a n2 16 2 2
5. (a  b) 6. 7. 8. 
4 (n  1) (n  2) 15 3
  2
9.  10. (   2) 11. (log 2) 12.
2 8 4
1   3 1
13. log( 2  1) 14. 15. log 2 16. 
2 5 8  2
  1 2
17.  log 2 18.  19.
2 4 2 4
Exercise 7(c)
63 256 16 3
I. 1.  2. 3. 4. 
512 693 315 256
4  32
5. 6. 7. 8. 0
63 8 315
a9 
9. 10.
9 2
512 243 2.511
II. 1. 2. 640  3. 4.
153153 8 99
5. 0 6. 2 7. 2 8. 1
24
16(513/2 )
III. 1. 5 2. 5 3.  4.
2048 2 1287
5. 0
Exercise 7(d)
 1 51 3
I. 1. 2  2. 3. 4. e
2 2 4 2
5. 2  2 1 6.
32
3
7. 2
343 2 4
II. 1. 2. 3. 12 4.
54 3 3
7 1 32
5.  3 6. 7. 8. 4
4 12 3
9. 16 10. 1
3
32 2 8 1
III. 1. 9 2. 3. 5.
3 3 6
4 4 5 2
6. 2  , 6  . 8. 
3 3 6 
Differential Equations 315
Among all the mathematical disciplines, the theory of

differential equations is the most important. It furnishes
the explanation of all those elementary manifestations of
nature which involve time - Sophus Lie
Introduction
Differential equations have applications in many branches
of physics, physical chemistry etc.
In this chapter we study some basic concepts of differential
equations and learn how to solve simple differential equations.
8.1 Formation of differential equations -

Claude Alexis Clairaut
Degree and order of an ordinary
(1713 - 1765)
differential equation
Clairaut was a French
mathematician and thinker. He was
The present section is aimed at defining an ordinary
a prodigy at the age of twelve and
differential equation, forming such an equation from a given firmly wrote a memoir on four geometrical
of curves or surfaces. We also define two concepts, namely order curves, and at the age of sixteen he
wrote a treatise on tortuous curves
and degree of an ordinary differential equation. which on publication in 1731 got
him admission into French Academy
8.1.1 Definition
of Sciences. He wrote various
An equation involving one dependent variable and papers on the orbits of moon and
its derivatives w.r.t. one or more independent variables planets particularly on the path of
Halleys Comet.
is called a differential equation.
If a differential equation contains only one independent variable, then it is called an ordinary differential
equation and if it contains more than one independent variable, then it is called a partial differential equation.
Hence an ordinary differential equation contains only ordinary derivatives whereas a partail differential equation
contains partial derivatives.
Since derivative is a rate of change, it is only natural that differential equations arise in the description of
change in state or motion. Differential equations occur in problems of radioactive decay, Newtons Law of
cooling, chemical reactions, the motion of a particle or a planet, the motion of springs to electric circuits and
population dynamics.
8.1.2 Examples
dy dy
(i)  5 x = cos x. (ii) = kx (k being a constant)
dx dx
2 3
 d2y   dy  z z
(iii)    3   e x  4. (iv) x y  z.
 dx 2   dx  x y
 
2w 2w 2w

(v)    0.
x 2 y 2 z 2
8.1.3 Note
1. (i), (ii) and (iii) of 8.1.2 are examples of ordinary differential equations in which y is the dependent variable
and x is the independent variable.
2. (iv) and (v) of 8.1.2 are examples of partial differential equations. In (iv), z is the dependent variable and
x and y are independent variables whereas in (v) w is the dependent variable and x, y and z are independent
variables.
In this chapter, we study only ordinary differential equations.
8.1.4 Order and Degree of a differential equation

Order : The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest order derivative occuring in it.
Degree : The degree of a differential equation is the highest power of the highest order derivative
appearing in the equation after the equation is written free from radicals and fractions as far as derivatives are
concerned.
8.1.5 Examples
dy x1 / 2
1. Order and degree of  are 1 and 1.
dx y1 / 2 (1  x1 / 2 )
5/3
2   dy  2 
2. d y  1     has order 2 and degree 3, since the equation can be expressed as a polynomial
dx 2 dx
   
3 5
 d2y   2
equation in the derivatives as    1   dy   . In this the exponent of the highest order derivative
 dx 2  dx
     
2
d y
is 3 and hence the degree is 3.
dx 2
2 3/2
 d2y    dy  2 
3. The order and degree of 1   2   2     are 2 and 4 respectively, since it can be
 dx    dx  
 
2 3
  2 2    dy  2 
d y
expressed in the from 1      2     .
  dx 2     dx  
 
d2y dy  dy 
4. Order of 2 y  log   is 2 and degree is not defined since the equation cannot be
dx 2 dx  dx 
expressed as a polynomial equation in the derivatives.
1/ 4
 1/ 2
 d2y  
1/ 3
 dy 
5. Order and degree of     2  
  0 are 2 and 2, since the equation can be written as
 dx   dx  
   
3 2
 dy   d2y 
     .
 dx   dx 2 
 
8.1.6 Note : The general form of an ordinary differential equation of nth order is
 dy dny 
F x, y, , ..., n  = 0
 dx dx 

or F(x, y, y(1), ..., y(n)) = 0.
8.1.7 Formation of a differential equation : Suppose that an equation
y = (x, 1, 2, ..., n) ... (1)
where 1, 2, ..., n are parameters (or arbitrary constants), representing a family of curves is
given. Then by successively differentiating (1), a differential equation of the form
F(x, y, y(1), ..., y(n)) = 0 ... (2)

can be formed by eliminating the parameters 1, 2, ..., n. This process is called the formation
of differential equation (2) satisfying the family of curves (1). For example, we know that
y = mx ... (3)
represents a family of straight lines passing through the origin. This can be represented by (x, m) = y, where
(x, m) = mx. Infact for different values of the parameters m, we get different straight lines of the family. Hence
by eliminating m from (3), that is, y = (x, m) we get the required differential equation. Differentiating (3) w.r.t.
x, we get
dy
= m. ... (4)
dx
Substituting the value of m from (4) in (3), we get
 dy 
y= x
 dx 
i.e.,  dy   dy 
F  x, y ,   y  x  0. ... (5)
 dx   dx 
Hence (5) is a differential equation whose solution set represents the family of straight lines (3).

d2y
1. Problem: Find the order and degree of the differential equation 2
  p 2 y.
dx
2
d y d2y
Solution : The given equation is a polynomial equation in . Hence the degree is 1. Since is the highest
dx 2 dx 2
derivative occuring in the equation, its order is 2.
2 2
 d3y   dy 

2. Problem: Find the order and degree of  3    3 x
   e  4.
 dx   dx 
dy d3y d3y
Solution: The equation is a polynomial equation in and 3 . The exponent of 3 is 2.
dx dx dx
d3y
Hence the degree is 2, since is the highest order derivative occuring in the equation, the order of
dx 3
the equation is 3.
1/ 3
d
1/ 2 y 2
dy
3. Problem: x  x  y  0 has order 2 and degree 1. Prove
 dx 2  dx
 
Solution: The given equation can be written as
3
3/2 d2y  dy 
x 2
   x  y ,
dx  dx 
the order and degree of the equation are 2 and 1 respectively.
6/5
 2 3
4. Problem: Find the order and degree of  d y   dy    6 y.
2
 dx  dx  
3
d2y  dy 
2
    (6 y ) 5 / 6 .
dx  dx 
Hence the order and degree of the equation are 2 and 1 respectively.
5. Problem : Find the order of the differential equation corresponding to y = c(x  c)2, where c is an
arbitrary constant.
Solution : The differential equation of y = c(x  c)2 is obtained by eliminating c from
dy
y = c(x  c)2 and  2c( x  c).
dx
Hence the order of the differential equation is 1.
6. Problem : Find the order of the differential equation corresponding to
y = Aex + Be3x + Ce5x (A, B, C being parameters) is a solution.
Solution: Required differential equation is obtained by eliminating A, B, C, from y,
dy d 2 y d3y
, 2 and .
dx dx dx 3
d3y
Of these the highest order derivative is 3 .
dx
Hence the order of the differential equation is 3.
7. Problem : Form the differential equation corresponding to y = cx  2c2, where c is a parameter.
Solution: We have y = cx  2c2 ... (1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we get
dy
c ... (2)
dx
Substituting the value of c from (2) in (1), we get
2
 dy   dy 
y  x    2  ... (3)
 dx   dx 
Hence (3) is the differential equation corresponding to (1).
8. Problem : Form the differential equation corresponding to y = Acos 3x + B sin 3x, where
A and B are parameters.
Solution: We have y = A cos 3x + B sin 3x ... (1)
dy
= 3A sin 3x + 3B cos 3x ... (2)
dx
Again differentiating (2) w.r.t. x, we get
d2y
= 9A cos 3x  9 B sin 3x
dx 2
= 9(A cos 3x + B sin 3x)
= 9y.
That is, d2y ... (3)

2
 9 y  0.
dx
Hence (3) is the required differential equation.
Alternate Method
Eliminating A, B from the equations
y = A cos 3x + B sin 3x
dy
=  3A sin 3x + 3B cos 3x
dx
d2y
and =  9 A cos 3x  9B sin 3x,
dx 2
we get
y  cos 3x  sin 3 x
dy
3sin 3 x  3cos 3 x  0
dx
d2y
9 cos 3 x 9 sin 3 x
dx 2
dy d2y
(ii) [27 sin2 3x + 27 cos2 3x]y  [9 sin 3x cos 3x + 9 sin 3x cos 3x] 2 2
+ [3 cos 3x + 3 sin 3x] 2 = 0
dx dx
d2y 2
that is, 27y + 3 2= 0 (or) d y  9 y  0.
dx dx 2
This is the required differential equation.
9. Problem: Form the differential equation corresponding to the family of circles of

radius r given by (x  a)2 + (y  b)2 = r2, where a and b are parameters.
Solution: We have (x  a)2 + (y  b)2 = r2 ... (1)
dy
(x  a) + (y  b)  0 ... (2)
dx
Again differentiating (2) w.r.t. x, we get
2
d 2 y  dy 
1 + (y  b) 2     0 ... (3)
dx  dx 
Eliminating a from (1) and (2), we get
 dy 2 
( y  b)    1  r 2
2
... (4)
 dx  
Eliminating b from (3) and (4), we get
2 3
  dy 2 
2
 d 2 y 
r  1    
 dx 2    dx  
 
which is the required differential equation.
10. Problem : Form the differential equation corresponding to the family of circles passing
through the origin and having centres on Y-axis.
Solution : The equation of the family of circles passing through the origin and having centres on the
Y-axis is
x2 + y2 + 2hy = 0 ... (1)
where h is a parameter.
Now differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we get
dy dy
xy  h 0 ... (2)
dx dx
Eliminating h from (1) and (2), we get
dy
( x 2  y 2 )  2 xy  0
dx
and this is the differential equation corresponding to (1).
8.1.9 Solution of a differential equation

Solution : A solution of a differential equation is a relation between dependent variable, independent variables
and along with some arbitrary constants satisfying the differential equation.
General solution : A solution of a differential equation in which the number of arbitrary constants is equal to the
order of the differential equation is called the general solution.
Particular solution : A particular solution of a differential equation is a solution obtained by giving particular
values to the arbitrary constants in the general solution.
8.1.10 Note
1. If the equation of a given family of curves contains n parameters, then we have to differentiate n times
successively to eliminate all the n parameters from it. Hence the order of the differential equation
correpsonding to an equation having n parameters is n.
2. We have seen that a differential equation can be formed corresponding to a family of curves. Conversly,
the solutions of a differential equation are equations of curves. It is obvious that the solutions of a differential
equation of order n contains a family of curves having n parameters. This equation of the family of curves
having n parameters is called the general or primitive or complete solution of the given differential equation
of order n. By giving particular values to the parameters in the general solution, we get different members
of the family of curves. Hence a particular integral or a particular solution is obtained by giving particular
values to the parameters in the general solution.
3. (i) We have seen in 8.1.7 that y = mx, where m is a parameter, is the general solution of the differential
 dy 
equation y    x . Hence by giving a particular value to m say m = 2, we get that y = 2x is a
 dx 
particular solution of the above differential equation.
d2y
(ii) We get from 8 problem of 8.1.8 that y = A cos 3x + B sin 3x is the general solution of  9y  0
dx2
whereas y = cos 3x + sin 3x is a particular solution which is obtained by taking A = 1 and B = 1 in the
general solution.
Exercise 8(a)
I. 1. Find the order of the differential equation obtained by eliminating the arbitrary constants b and c from
xy = c ex + b ex + x2.
2. Find the order of the differential equation of the family of all circles with their centres at the origin.
II. 1. Form the differential equations of the following family of curves where parameters are given in brackets.
(i) y = c(x c)2; (c) (ii) xy = aex + bex; (a, b)
(iii) y = (a + bx) ekx; (a, b) (iv) y = a cos (nx + b); (a, b)
2. Obtain the differential equation which corresponds to each of the following family of curves.
(i) The rectangular hyperbolas which have the coordinate axes as asymptotes.
(ii) The ellipses with centres at the origin and having coordinate axes as axes.
III. 1. Form the differential equations of the following family of curves where parameters are given in brackets:
(i) y = ae3x + be4x; (a, b) (ii) y = ax2 + bx; (a, b)
(iii) ax2 + by2 = 1; (a, b) (iv) xy = ax2 + b/x; (a, b)
2. Obtain the differential equation which corresponds to each of the following family of curves.
(i) The circles which touch the Y-axis at the origin.
(ii) The parabolas each of which has a latus rectum 4a and whose axes are parallel to X-axis.
(iii) The parabolas having their focii at the origin and axis along the X-axis.
8.2 Solving Differential Equations
In this section we discuss methods to solve some first order first degree differential equations.
dy
Since a first order first degree differential equation contains terms like and some terms involving x and
dx
y, a general first order first degree differential equation is of the form
dy
 F( x, y) , where F is a function of x and y.
dx
Throughout our discussion in the rest of the chapter, unless otherwise mentioned, a differential equation
means a first order first degree ordinary differential equation.
8.2(a) Variables separable method

If a given differential equation can be put in the form
f(x) dx + g(y) dy = 0 ... (1)
then its solution can be obtained by integrating each term. This method of solving the differential equation is
called variables separable method.
dx dy
For example, consider the differential equation, x dy  y dx = 0. This can be written as  so that
x y
dx dy
the given equation is one in which the variables are separable. Integrating w.r.t. x, we get    .
x y
Therefore, log x = log y + log c = log(yc), c R is arbitrary.
That is, x = yc which is the required solution.
Hence if the given differential equation can be reduced to the form (1), then its solution can be obtained by
variables separable method.
8.2(a)(i) Solved Problems

1. Problem : Express the following differential equations in the form f(x) dx + g(y) dy = 0
dy 1  y2 dy  dy 
(i)  (ii) y  x  a y 2  
dx 1  x 2 dx  dx 
dy dy
(iii)  e x  y  x 2e y (iv)  x 2  x 2 e3 y
dx dx
Solution
dx dy
(i) 2
  0.
1 x 1  y2
2 dy dx dy
(ii) The given equation can be written as y  ay  ( x  a) so that  .
dx xa y  ay2
y dy
(iii) Multiplying both sides by ey, we get e  e x  x 2 so that (ex + x2) dx  ey dy = 0.
dx
dy
(iv) The given equation can be written as  x 2 (e3 y  1) so that
dx
1
x 2 dx  dy  0.
(1  e3 y )
dy
2. Problem : Find the general solution of x  y  0.
dx
Solution: The given equation can be written as x dx + y dy = 0.
Hence  x dx   y dy  c
i.e., x2 + y2 = 2c is the required solution.

dy
3. Problem : Find the general solution of  e x y .
dx
Solution: The given equation can be written as ex dx  ey dy = 0.
Hence e
x
dx   e  y dy  c so that ex + ey = cis the required solution.
2 dy  dy 
4. Problem : Solve y  x  a y   .
dx  dx 
dy
Solution : Given equation can be written as y2  ay = (x + a)
dx
dx dy  1 1 
so that      dy (using partial fractions).
x  a y( y  a)  ay a( y  a) 
dx dy dy
Hence  xa  
ay

a( y  a)
.
1 1
Therefore, log( x  a)   log( ay)  log( y  a)  log c
a a
  y  a 1 / a 
i.e., log( x  a)  log c   .
  ay  
1/ a
 ya c a ( y  a)
Hence x  a  c  so that y 
 ay  a ( x  a) a
which is the required solution of the differential equation.
dy y2  2 y
5. Problem : Solve  .
dx x 1
dy dx
Solution: From the given equation 2
 . On using partial fractions, we get
y  2y x 1
1 1  dx dy dy dx
 2 y  2( y  2)  dy  x  1 i.e., 2 y  2( y  2)  x  1 .
 
dy 1
Therefore,   log( y  2)  log( x  1)  log c
2y 2
1 1
so that log y  log( y  2)  log( x  1)  log c
2 2
1/ 2
 y 
i.e., log   log[ c( x  1)].
 y2
1/ 2
 y 
Hence    c( x  1) or y  c2 ( x  1)2 ( y  2)
 y  2 
which is the required solution.
dy x (2 log x  1)
dx sin y  y cos y
Solution: From the given equation (sin y + y cos y)dy = x(2 log x + 1) dx.
Hence,  sin y dy   y cos y dy   2 x log x dx   x dx .

Using integration by parts,
1
 sin y dy  y sin y   sin y dy = x 2 log x   x 2 dx   x dx  c
x
so that y sin y = x2 log x + c. This is the required solution.
y
7. Problem : Find the equation of the curve whose slope, at any point (x, y), is and which satisfies the
x2
condition y = 1 when x = 3.
Solution: We know that the slope at any point (x, y) on the curve is dy .
dx
dy y dy dx
Hence, by hypothesis,  2 i.e.,  2.
dx x y x
dy dx 1
Hence  y
  x2 so that log y = 
x
 c. ... (1)
y
Therefore, (1) is the equation of the family of curves whose slope at any point is . Taking y = 1, x = 3
x2
x 3
1 1 1
in (1) we get c = . Hence, log y    , that is y  e 3 x .
3 x 3
This is the required solution.
8. Problem : Solve y(1 + x)dx + x(1 + y) dy = 0.
1 x 1 y
Solution: The given equation can be written as dx  dy  0.
x y
1 x 1 y
Therefore,  x
dx   y
dy  0 or log x + x + log y + y = c
i.e. x + y + log(xy) = c, which is the required solution.
dy
9. Problem : Solve  sin( x  y)  cos( x  y).
dx
dy dt
Solution: Put x + y = t. Then 1   .
dx dx
dt
Therefore, the given equation becomes  1  sin t  cos t
dx
dt
i.e., dx 
1  cos t  sin t
1 2t
dt sec
i.e., dx   2 2 dt .
2 t t t t
2 cos  2 sin cos 1  tan
2 2 2 2
1 2t
sec
Therefore,  dx   2 2 dt.
t
1  tan
2
 t 
Hence x  log 1  tan   c .
 2 
 ( x  y) 
Since t = x + y, we get x  log  1  tan c
 2 
dy
10. Problem : Solve ( x  y) 2  a2 .
dx
dy dt
Solution : Put x  y = t. Then 1  
dx dx
dy dt
so that the given equation becomes t 2 1    a 2 .
dt
(or)  1
dx dx  dx 
dt a2 t 2  a2 t2  a2 
Hence,  1 2  so that dx  dt  1  2
dt .
dx t t2 t 2  a2  t 2
 a 
2
a 1 ta
Therefore,  dx   dt   2 dt so that x  t  a 2  log  c.
t a 2 2a ta
a xya
Since t = x  y, we get x  x  y  log c
2 xya
a xya
i.e., y  log  c , which is the required solution.
2 xya
11. Problem : Solve 1  x2 1  y 2 dx  xy dy  0.
1  x2 1 2y
Solution: The given equation can be written as dx  dy  0.
x 2 1  y2
Therefore,  1  x dx  1  2 y dy  c
2
x 2 1 y2
i.e.,  1  x dx  1 2 1  y 2 dy  c
2
... (1)
x 2
1  x2
Now, we evaluate  x
dx.
1  x2 1 x 2
 dx   dx
x x 1  x2
dx x
   dx
2
x 1 x 1  x2
dx 1 2x dx 1
    dx     2 1  x2
x 1 x 2 2 1 x 2
x 1 x 2 2
(putting x = 1 in the first integral on the right)

t
dt
   1 t 2
 1  x2   log t  1  t 2  1  x 2
1 1  x2
  log   1  x2 .
x x
Hence from (1), required solution is
1 1  x2
 log   1  x 2  1  y2  c
x x
i.e., log | x |  log 1  1  x 2  1  x 2  1  y2  c .
dy x  2 y  1
dx 2x  4 y
dy dt
Solution : Put x  2y = t. Then 1  2  so that the given equation becomes
dx dx
1 dt  t 1
1   
2  dx  2t
dt t 1 1
i.e.,  1  
dx t t
i.e., t dt = dx .
t2
Hence,  t dt    dx so that 2
  x  c. Since t = x  2y, we get
(x  2y)2 + 2x = c, which is the required solution.

dy
13. Problem : Solve  yx .
dx
dy dt dt
Solution : Put y  x = t2. Then 1  2t so that the given equation becomes 2t 1 t
dx dx dx
i.e., 2t dt  dx .
t 1
2t
Therefore,  t  1 dt   dx
 2 
i.e.,   2  dt  x  c.
 t 1 
Therefore, 2t + 2 log(t  1) = x + c.
Since t  y  x , we get 2 y  x  2 log( y  x  1)  x  c

dy
14. Problem : Solve  1  e xy .
dx
dy dt
Solution : Put x + y = t. Then 1   so that the given equation becomes
dx dx
dt dt
 e t and hence  t   dx . That is, et = x + c
dx e
i.e., e(x + y) = x + c (by substituting for t)
(or) e(x + y) + x + c = 0.
This is the required solution of the given equation.
dy
15. Problem : Solve  (3 x  y  4) 2 .
dx
dy dt dt
Solution : Put 3x + y + 4 = t. Then   3 so that the given equation becomes  3  t2
dx dx dx
dt dt 1  t 
Tan 1    x c
(or)
t2  3
 dx. Hence,  t2  3   dx so that
3  3
1  3x  y  4 
(or) Tan 1    x  c (by substituting for t)
3  3 
dy
16. Problem : Solve  x tan( y  x )  1.
dx
dy dt
Solution : Put y  x = t so that 1  .
dx dx
Therefore, the given equation becomes
dt
1  x tan t  1
dx
dt
(or)  x tan t .
dx
Therefore, cot t dt = x dx so that  cot t dt   x dx .
x2
Hence, log | sin t |  +c
2
x2
i.e., log | sin ( y  x ) |   c which is the required solution.
2
Exercise 8(b)
I 1. Find the general solution of 1  x 2 dy  1  y 2 dx  0.

dy  y
2. Find the general solution of  .
dx x
II. Solve the following differential equations.
2 dy
1. dy  1  y 2.  e y x
dx 1  x 2 dx
dy
3. (ex + 1)y dy + (y + 1)dx = 0 4.  e x  y  x 2e y
dx
5. tan y dx + tan x dy = 0 6. 1  x 2 dx  1  y 2 dy  0
dy  dy  dy xy  y
7. y  x  5 y 2   8.  .
dx  dx  dx xy  x
III. Solve the following differential equations.

dy
1. dy  1  y
2
2.  x 2  x 2 e3 y
dx (1  x2 ) xy dx
4. dy  2 y tanh x
2 2
3. ( xy  x )dx  ( yx  y)dy  0
dx
 dy  dy y2  y  1
5. Sin 1    x  y. 6.   0.
 dx  dx x 2  x  1
dy
7.  tan 2 ( x  y).
dx
8.2(b) Homogeneous Differential Equation
8.2(b)(i) Definition
A function f(x, y) of two variables x and y is said to be a homogeneous function of degree  if
f(kx, ky) = kf(x, y) for all values of k for which both sides of the above equation are meaningful.
8.2(b)(ii) Note
  y
If f(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree , then f(x, y) can be written as f(x, y) = x   .
x
For, f(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree implies that
f(kx, ky) = kf(x, y)  k.
1
Taking k= , we get
x
 y 1 1 
f 1,   f   x, y 
 x x x 
1
=  f ( x , y) .
x
  y
Hence f(x, y) = x f  1, 
 x
  y   y  y 
that is, f(x, y) = x    ,  if we write   x   f 1, x   .
x     
8.2(b)(iii) Examples
(i) f(x, y) = 4x2y + 2xy2 is a homogeneous function of degree 3, since
f(kx, ky) = 4k2x2 ky + 2kx k2y2
= k3(4x2y + 2xy2) = k3 f(x, y)  k.

Note that
 y y2  3  y
= x  4  2 2   x   .
3
f(x, y)
 x x  x
1 1
3
(ii) g( x, y)  xy 2  yx 2 is a homogeneous function of degree since
3 1 1 3
2
g( kx, ky)  k 2 ( xy 2  yx 2 )  k 2 g( x , y) k .
3 
1
 y2 y
Note that, g( x, y)  x2 
 1 x
 x2 
 
 1 
    y  
 
3
y 2
 x2
 x  x
 
3
y
 x 2   .
x
x 2  y2
(iii) h( x, y)  is a homogeneous function of degree 1, since
x 3  y3
k 2 x 2  k 2 y2 1  x 2  y2 
h(kx, ky)    3   k 1h( x, y) k  0.
3 3
k x k y 3 3 
kx y  3 
 y2 
 1  
1  x 3  xy 2  1  x2 
Note that, h( x, y)   3 
x  x  y 3  x y3 
1  3 
 x 
1 y y
    x 1  .
x x x
8.2(b)(iv) Definition : Homogeneous Differential Equation

A differential equation of the form
dy f ( x , y)

dx g( x, y)
where f(x, y) and g(x, y) are homogeneous functions of x and y of the same degree is called a
homogeneous equation.
8.2(b)(v) Method of solving a homogeneous differential equation

Consider the homogeneous equation
dy f ( x , y)
 ... (1)
dx g( x, y)
where f(x, y) and g(x, y) are homogeneous functions of the same degree, say . Then in view of
Note 8.2(b)(ii), f(x, y) and g(x, y) can be written as
 y  y
f(x, y) = x   and g(x, y) = x  .
x x
y
 
dy x  y
Hence, (1) becomes     F  . ... (2)
dx y x
 
x
dy dv
Put y = vx. Then  vx . ... (3)
dx dx
dv (v) dv (v)  v(v)

v x  so that x 
dx  ( v) dx  ( v)
( v) dx
(or) dv  .
(v)  v(v) x
This can be solved by variables separable method.
dx  x dx dv
Note : If  F   , then we put x = vy and  vy .
dy  y dy dy
This gives a differential equation in v and y in which the variables are separable. We solve this
x
equation and put v  to obtain the required solution.
y
8.2(b)(vi) Solved problems
1. Problem : Show that f(x, y) = 1 + ex/y is a homogeneous function of x and y.
kx / ky
Solution : f ( kx, ky)  1  e  1  e x / y  f ( x , y) for all k(  0). Hence f(x, y) is a homogeneous
function of degree 0.
2. Problem : Show that f(x, y) = x x 2  y 2  y 2 is a homogeneous function of x and y.

Solution: Now, for k > 0
f (kx, ky)  kx k 2 x 2  k 2 y 2  k 2 y 2
 k 2  x x 2  y 2  y 2  = k2 f(x, y).
 
Hence f(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree 2.
3. Problem : Show that f(x, y) = x  y log y + y log x is a homogeneous function of x and y.

Solution: Now, for k > 0
f(kx, ky) = kx  ky log(ky) + ky log (kx)
= k[x  y log(ky) + y log (kx)]
= k[x  y log k  y log y + y log k + y log x]
= k[x  y log y + y log x] = kf(x, y)
so that f(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree 1.
 x dx x
4. Problem : Express (1 + ex/y)dx + ex/y 1   dy = 0 in the form  F  .
 y  dy  y
x 
e x / y   1
dx y  x
Solution : The given equation can be written as  F  which is in the required form.
dy 1  ex / y  y
5. Problem : Express ( x x 2  y 2  y 2 )dx  xy dy  0 in the form

dy  y
 F  .
dx x
Solution: From the given equation
y2 x x 2  y2
2

dy y2  x x 2  y2  x x2
 xy
dx xy
x2
2 2
 y  y
   1  
x x y
  F  .
 y x
 
x
dy y  
6. Problem : Express  2x
in the form dx  F  x  .
dx dy  y
y
x  ye
Solution: From the given equation
2x
y
dx x  ye

dy y
x 2 ( x / y )  x
 e  F  .
y  y
dy y 2  2 xy
7. Problem : Solve  2 .
dx x  xy
Solution: The given equation is a homogeneous equation, since both the numerator and denominator are
homogeneous functions each of degree 2.
dy dv
Now put y = vx. Then  vx
dx dx
dv v 2  2v
so that the given equation becomes v  x  .
dx 1 v
2 v 2  3v
so that 1  v dv  dx .
dv
Hence, x 
dx 1 v 2 v 2  3v x
1 v
Therefore,  dv   dx.
2v 2  3v x
1 1 1 
Hence,     dv  log x  log c
3  v 2v  3 
1 1 
so that  log v  log(2 v  3)  log x  log c
3 2 
1
that is,  log(v 2v  3)  log x  log c
3
that is, log(v 2v  3)   3log x  3log c   log x 3  log c 3
that is, log ( x 3v 2v  3 )  log c 3 .
Hence x 3v ( 2v  3 )  c 3 .
y y 2y
Put v . Then x 3  3  c3
x x x
2y 2 3
that is, x2 y  3  c 3 (or) xy 2 xy  3 x  c .
x
This is the general solution of the given equation.
8. Problem : Solve (x2 + y2)dx = 2xy dy.
Solution : The given equation can be written as
dy x 2  y 2
 ... (1)
dx 2 xy
which is a homogeneous equation, since the numerator and denominator on the right are homogeneous functions
dy dv
each of degree 2. Put y = vx. Then  vx .
dx dx
Therefore, (1) becomes
dv x 2 (1  v 2 ) 1  v 2 dv 1  v2
vx   so that x  .
dx 2 x 2v 2v dx 2v
2v dx
Hence,
2v
1  v2
dv 
dx
x
so that  1 v 2
dv 
 x
that is, log(1  v2) = log x + log c
so that log[xc(1  v2)] = 0 = log 1.
Hence xc(1  v2) = 1
 y
that is, c(x2  y2) = x  since v  
 x
which is the general solution of the given equation.
9. Problem : Solve xy2dy  (x3 + y3)dx = 0.
dy x 3  y 3
 ... (1)
dx xy 2
which is a homogeneous equation.
dy dv
Put y = vx. Then  vx .
dx dx
dv 1  v3
Therefore, (1) becomes v  x 
dx v2
dv 1 dx
so that x  2 (or) v 2 dv  .
dx v x
dx v3
 x  log x  log c
2
Therefore, v dv  so that
3
y3
that is, 3
 log x  log c (or) y3 = 3x3 log (cx)
3x
which is the general solution of the given equation.

dy x 2  y 2
10. Problem : Solve  . ... (1)
dx 2x 2
dy dv
Solution : The given equation is a homogeneous equation. Put y = vx. Then  vx so that (1)
dx dx
dv 1  v 2
becomes v  x  ,
dx 2
that is, 2x dv = (1 + v2  2v)dx. Separating variables, we have
2 dv dx
2
 .
(v  1) x
Integrating, we get
2
 log x  c.
v 1
But y
v  , so
x
2 2  2x 2x
    .
v 1 y y  x x  y
1
x
2x
Hence  log x  c
x y
so that 2x = (x  y) (log x + c) which is the general solution of the given equation.
 y  y
11. Problem : Solve x sec    (y dx + x dy) = y cosec    (x dy  y dx)
x x
 y  dy   y   dy 
x sec     y  x   y cosec     x  y 
x  dx   x   dx 
dy   y  y 
so that x   x sec    y cosec      y  y cosec y   x sec  y  
dx  x  x   
 x  x 
y y
y cosec   x sec  
dy y x x
that is,  ... (1)
dx x y y
 x sec    y cosec 
x x
which is a homogeneous equation, since the numerator and denominator on the right are homogeneous functions
each of degree 2.
Put y = vx. Then dy  v  x dv .

dx dx
dv  v cosec v  sec v   v cos v  sin v 
v x  v   v  .
dx  v cosec v  sec v   v cos v  sin v 
dv 2 v sin v
Hence, x 
dx v cos v  sin v
that is,  v cos v  sin v  dx

  dv  2 .
 v sin v  x
Integrating, we get
v cos v  sin v dx
 v sin v
dv  2
x
cos v dv
that is,  sin v
dv 
 v
 2log x  log c.
Therefore, log sin v  log v = log x2 + log c

 sin v 
  log(cx ) so that sin v  cx 2
2
that is, log
 v  v
y  y
that is, sin    cxy  since v   which is the general solution of the given equation.
x  x
y 
12. Problem : Give the solution of x sin2 dx  ydx  xdy which passes through the point 1, .
x  4
y
 2 y  y  x sin 2
 x sin  y dx   x dy so that dy  x ... (1)
 x  dx x
which is a homogeneous equation, since both numerator and denominator are homogeneous functions
each of degree 1.
dy dv
Put y = vx. Then  vx
dx dx
dv
so that (1) becomes vx  v  sin 2 v.
dx
dv
Therefore, x   sin 2 v
dx
dv dx
that is,  2  .
sin v x
dv dx
Integrating, we get
  sin v   x
2
2 v dv  log x  c.
that is,   cosec
y
Hence, cot v = log x + c or cot    log x  c ... (2)
x
  
Since this passes through the point 1,  , cot  c so that c = 1.
 4 4
y
Therefore from (2), the required particular solution is cot    log x  1.
x
3 2 2 3
13. Problem : Solve (x  3xy )dx + (3x y  y )dy = 0.
dy x 3  3 xy 2 .
 ... (1)
dx y 3  3 x 2 y
Therefore, the given equation is a homogeneous equation.
dv dy
Put y = vx. Then v  x  so that (1) becomes
dx dx
dv 1  3v 2
vx  3 . ... (2)
dx v  3v
dv 1  v4 v4  1 3v  v 3 dx
Therefore, x   so that dv 
dx v3  3v 3v  v3 2
(v  1)(v  1)(v  1) x
 1 1 2v  dx
that is  2(v  1)  2(v  1)  2  dv  x (by partial fractions).
 v  1
Integrating, we get
1 1
log( v  1)  log( v  1)  log( v 2  1)  log x  log c
2 2
 v 1 v 1  v2  1
that is, log    log(cx ) so that  cx
 v 2
 1  v2  1
v2  1
(or)
2 2
 c2 x 2 .
(v  1)
v
Since y  , y2  x2 = c2(y2 + x2)
x
which is the required general solution.
Exercise 8(c)
 y  dy
I. 1. Express x dy  y dx = x 2  y 2 dx in the form F   .
 x  dx
 y 1 y  y  dy
2. Express  x  yTan 1  dx  xTan dy  0 in the form F   .
 x x  x  dx
dy  y  dy
3. Express x  y(log y  log x  1) in the form F   .
dx  x  dx
1. dy  x  y 2. (x2 + y2)dy = 2xy dx

dx x  y
dy  ( x 2  3y2 )
3.  4. y2dx + (x2  xy)dy = 0
dx 3x 2  y2
2
5. dy  ( x  y) 6. (x2  y2)dx  xy dy = 0.
dx 2x2
7. (x2y  2xy2)dx = (x3  3x2y)dy 8. y2 dx + (x2  xy + y2)dy = 0
2
9. (y2  2xy)dx + (2xy  x2)dy = 0 10. dy  y  y
dx x x 2
11. x dy  y dx  x 2  y 2 dx 12. (2x  y)dy = (2y  x)dx
dy dy y y2
13. ( x 2  y 2 )  xy 14. 2  
dx dx x x2
 x
III. 1. Solve : (1  e x / y )dx  e x / y 1  dy  0.
 y
y dy y
2. Solve : x sin   y sin  x .
x dx x
 2 y
3. Solve : x dy   y  x cos dx .
 x
4. Solve : (x  y log y + y log x)dx + x (log y  log x)dy = 0.
y y
5. Solve : ( y dx  x dy) x cos  ( x dy  y dx ) y sin .
x x
dy y y
6. Find the equation of a curve whose gradient is   cos2 ,
dx x x
 
where x > 0, y > 0 and which passes through the point 1, .
 4
8.2(c) Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations
Differential equations of the form

dy ax  by  c
 ... (1)
dx ax  by  c
where a, b, c, a', b', c' are constants and c and c' are not both zero are called non-homogeneous equations.
We reduce (1) to a homogeneous equation by suitable substitutions for x and y.
We explain three methods (in case (i), case (ii) and case (iii)) of solving (1) depending on the nature of
coefficients of x and y in the numerator and denominator of the R.H.S. of (1).
Case(i)
dy ax  ay  c
Suppose that b = a'. Then (1) becomes  .
Therefore, (a'x + b'y + c' )dy  (ax  a'y + c)dx = 0
that is, a'(x dy + y dx) + b'y dy  ax dx + c' dy  c dx = 0
 y2   x2 
that is, ad ( xy)  bd    ad    c dy  c dx  0.
 2  2
y2 x2
Integrating, we get a xy  b a  cy  cx  k
2 2
8.2(c)(i) Note : In the above case solution can be obtained by integrating each term after regrouping.
dy 3x  y  7
8.2(c)(ii) Example : Let us solve  .
dx x  7y  3
Here b = 1 = a'. Hence we can solve by case(i). Now (x  7y  3)dy (3x  y + 7)dx = 0.
Therefore, (x dy + y dx)  7y dy  3 dy  3x dx  7dx = 0
 y2   x2 
that is, d ( xy)  7d    3dy  3d    7dx  0.
   2 
 2   
Integrating, we get
7 y2 x2
xy   3y  3  7x  c
2 2
(or) 2 2
2xy  7y  6y  3x  14 x = 2c
a b
Case(ii) : Suppose that   m(say).
a b
Then (1) becomes
dy ax  by  c

dx 1 ... (2)
(ax  by)  c
m
dy dv
Put ax + by = v. Then a  b  .
dx dx
dy 1  dv 
Therefore,    a
dx b  dx 
1  dv  vc
so that (2) becomes   a  .
b  dx  v
c 
m
Therefore, dv bm(v  c)
 a
dx v  cm
that is , v  cm
dv  dx
bm(v  c)  a(v  cm)
which can be solved by variables separable method.
dy x  y3
8.2(c)(iii) Example : We shall solve  .
dx 2x  2y  5
Here a = 1, b = 1 a' = 2, b' = 2 and hence
a b 1
  .
a  b 2
Therefore, we can solve the equation by case(ii).
dy dv
Put x  y = v. Then 1  
dx dx
so that the given equation becomes
dv v3
1 
dx 2v  5
dv v2
that is, 
dx 2v  5
2v  5  1 
so that dx  dv   2   dv .
v2  v2
Integrating, we get
x = 2v + log (v + 2) + c
that is, x = 2(x  y) + log(x  y + 2) + c
a b
8.2(c)(iv) Note : If b = a' with  , then the given equation can be solved easily by using case (i)
a b
rather than case (ii).
a b
Case(iii) : Suppose that b  a' and  .
a b
Then taking x = X + h, y = Y + k, where X and Y are variables and h and k are constants, we get
dy dY
 .
dx dX
Hence (1) becomes
dY a( X  h)  b(Y  k )  c

dX a( X  h)  b(Y  k )  c
dY aX  bY  (ah  bk  c)
that is,  ... (i)
dX a X  b Y  (ah  bk  c)
Now choose constants h and k such that

ah + bk + c = 0 ... (ii)
and a'h + b'k + c' = 0 ... (iii)
a b
Since  , we can solve (ii) and (iii) for h and k. Hence (1) becomes
a b
dY aX  bY

dX a X  b Y
which is a homogeneous equation in X and Y and hence can be solved by homogeneous equation method, that
is by putting Y = VX.
8.2(c)(v) Example : We shall solve (2x + y + 3)dx = (2y + x + 1)dy.
The given equation can be written as
dy 2x  y  3
 ... (i)
dx 2y  x 1
a b
Here a = 2, b = 1, a' = 1, b' = 2. Hence, b  a' and  
a b
Therefore, the given equation can be solved by case (iii).

dy dY
Put x = X + h, y = Y + k in (i). Then  and dY  2 X  Y  2 h  k  3 ... (ii)
dx dX dX 2 Y  X  2 k  h  1
Now choose h and k such that
2h + k + 3 = 0 and h + 2k + 1 = 0.
5 1
Solving them for h and k, we get h   , k  .
3 3
dY 2 X  Y
Hence (ii) becomes  ... (iii)
dX 2 Y  X
which is a homogeneous equation.
dY dV
Put Y = VX. Then  VX .
dX dX
dV 2V
Therefore, (iii) becomes V  X 
dX 2V  1
2
that is, X dV  2(1  V ) and hence
dX 2V  1
2V  1 2 dX
dV  .
(1  V)(1  V) X
3 1 2 dX
that is, dV  dV  .
2(1  V) 2(1  V) X
3 1
Integrating, we get  log(1  V)  log(1  V)  2 log X  log c
2 2
that is, 3log(1  V)  log(1  V)  4 log X  2 log c
(or) log[(1  V)3 (1  V) X 4 ]  log c 2

so that X4(1  V)3 (1 + V) = c2.
3
Y
, we get X 4 1   1    c 2
Y Y
Since V =
X  X  X
that is, (X + Y) (X  Y)3 = c2.

Substituting for X and Y, we get,

3
 5 1  5 1  4 3 2
 x   y    x   y    c (or)  x  y   ( x  y  2)  c
2
 3 3  3 3  3
Exercise 8(d)
I. Solve the following differential equations.
1. dy   (12 x  5 y  9) 2. dy  3 x  2 y  5
dx 5x  2 y  4 dx 2x  3 y  5
3. dy  3 x  2 y  5
dy
4. 2( x  3 y  1)  4x  2y 1
dx 2x  3y  5 dx
5. dy  x  y  2 6. dy  2 x  y  1
dx x  y  1 dx x  2 y  3
dy dy 4 x  6 y  5
1. (2 x  2 y  3)  x  y 1 2. 
dx dx 3 y  2 x  4
dy 2y  x 1
3. (2x + y + 1)dx + (4x + 2y  1)dy = 0 4. 
dx 2 x  4 y  3
5. (x + y  1)dy = (x + y + 1)dx
dy 3 y  7 x  7 dy 6 x  5y  7
1.  2. 
dx 3 x  7 y  3 dx 2 x  18 y  14
3. dy  10 x  8 y  12  0 4. (x  y  2)dx + (x  2y  3)dy = 0
dx 7 x  5y  9
5. (x  y)dy = (x + y + 1)dx 6. (2x + 3y  8)dx = (x + y  3)dy
dy 2 x  9 y  20
7. dy  x  2 y  3 8. 
dx 2 x  3 y  4 dx 6 x  2 y  10
8.2(d) Linear Differential Equations

A differential equation is said to be linear if the dependent variable and its derivatives appear only in first
degree and their products do not occur in the equation.
dny d n 1 y d n2 y
8.2(d) (i) Alinear differential equation of nth order is of the form  P1  P2  ....  Pn y  Q,
dx n dx n 1 dx n  2
where P1, P2, ..., Pn, Q are either constants or functions x.
Any linear differential equation of first order is of the form

dy
 Py  Q,
dx
where P, Q are constants or functions of x only.
8.2(d)(ii) Method of solving a linear differential equation of first order
Consider any linear differential equation of first order
dy
 Py  Q ... (1)
dx
Multiplying both sides of (1) by e  Pdx , we get
dy  Pdx
dx
(
e )
 Py e   Q e 
Pdx Pdx
from which it follows that

d
dx
(
y e
Pdx
 Q e .
Pdx
)
Integrating, we get
d
 dx ( y e ) dx  Q e
Pdx Pdx
 dx
y e  Q e  dx  c
Pdx Pdx
Therefore, 
dy
 Py  Q is y e   Q e
Pdx Pdx
The solution of  dx  c .
dx
8.2(d)(iii) Note
1. The function e of x which makes the L.H.S. of (1) as the differential coefficient of y e is called
Pdx Pdx
the integrating factor and is usually denoted by I.F. The above solution can also be written in terms of I.F.

as y(I.F) = (Q  I.F) dx  c.
dx
2. Note that differential equations of the from  Px  Q , where P and Q are constants or functions of
dy
y only are also linear differential equations of first order in x. For such equations I.F. = e  and the
Pdy
solution is
x(I.F.)   (Q  I.F) dy  c.
8.2(d)(iv) Solved Problems

Transform the following two differential equations into linear form
dy
1. Problem : x logx  y  2logx .
dx
dy 1 2 dy
Solution : Dividing both sides by x log x, we get  y  which is in the form  Py  Q .
dx x log x x dx
dy
2. Problem : ( x  2 y 3 )  y.
dx
dx x  2 y3 x dx 1 dx
   2 y 2 that is,  x  2 y 2 which is in the form  Px  Q (linear in x).
dy y y dy y dy
Find I.F. of the following two differential equations by transforming them into linear form :
dy
3. Problem : (cos x )  y sin x  tan x.
dx
dy
Solution : The above equation can be written as  (tan x ) y  sec x . tan x.
dx
Therefore, P = tan x and hence  Pdx   tan x dx  log sec x so that
I.F = e  Pdx  e log sec x  sec x .

dy
4. Problem : ( 2x  10y 3 )  y = 0.
dx
dx 10 y 3  2 x 2
  x  10 y 2
dy y y
dx 2
(or)  . x  10 y 2 (linear in x).
dy y
2
 dy
Therefore, I.F  e  e y
Pdy
 y2.
dy
5. Problem : Solve (1+ x 2 ) + 2xy - 4x 2 = 0 .
dx
dy 2x 4 x2
 y . ... (1)
dx 1  x 2 1  x2
2x 4x2
Here P , Q 
1 x2 1  x2
2x
 dx
I.F. = e  Pdx  e 1 x 2
2
Hence  elog(1 x ) 1  x 2 .
General solution of (1) is given by y(I.F) =  (Q  I.F) dx  c (by 8.2(d) (iii))
 4x 2  4 x3
=  (1  x ) dx  c 
2
Therefore y(1+ x2) 2 
c
 1 x  3
that is, 3y(1 + x2) = 4x3 + 3c which is the required solution.

1 dy x
6. Problem : Solve  ye x  e(1 x )e .
x dx
dy x
 xe x y  x e(1 x )e ... (1)
dx
x
Here P = xex and Q  x e(1 x ) e .
x
I.F. = e 
xe dx x
Therefore,  e( x1)e .

x
y e( x 1) e   xdx  c
x x2
y e( x 1) e 
x
that is, c (or) 2 y e( x 1)e  x 2  2c
2
dy
7. Problem : Solve sin 2 x. + y = cot x.
dx
dy
 y cosec 2 x  cosec 2 x. cot x ... (1)
dx
Here P = cosec2x and Q = cosec2 x . cot x.
Therefore, I.F = e 
cosec2 xdx
 e cot x .
y e  cot x   e  cot x cosec 2 x cot x dx  c . ... (2)
Put cot x = t. Then dt = cosec2 x dx.

y et    t et dt  c
= (t )et + c.
Hence y ecot x = (cot x  1) ecot x + c
= (1 + cot x) ecot x + c
8. Problem : Find the solution of the equation
dy
x( x  2)  2( x  1) y  x 3 ( x  2)
dx
which satisfies the condition that y = 9 when x = 3.
dy ( x  1)
2 y  x2 ...(1)
dx x( x  2)
( x  1)
Here P  2 and Q  x 2 .
x( x  2)
( x 1)
  2 x ( x  2 ) dx
Therefore, I.F = e
1
log 1
x ( x  2)
= e  .
x( x  2)
y x2 x
x( x  2)

x( x  2)
dx  C   x  2 dx  c
 2 
  1  x  2  dx  C = x + 2 log (x 2) + c.
 
y
Therefore,  x  2log( x  2)  c ... (2)
x( x  2)
9
which is the general solution of the given equation. Taking x = 3 and y = 9 in (2), we get  3  c so that
3
c = 0. Hence y = [x (x  2)] [x + 2 log (x  2)] is the required solution.
9. Problem : Solve (1 + y2)dx = (Tan1y  x) dy

dx x Tan 1 y
  ... (1)
dy 1  y 2 1 y2
which is linear in x.
1 Tan 1 y
Here P= , Q  so that
1 y2 1  y2
dy
 1 y 2 1
I.F. = e  eTan y
.
1 1 Tan 1 y
x eTan y
  eTan y
dy  c ... (2)
1  y2
Now put Tan 1 y  t . Then 1
dy  dt.
1 y2
Hence (2) becomes
xet   t et dt  c  et (t  1)  c
1 1
so that x eTan y
 eTan y
(Tan 1 y  1)  c
Exercise 8(e)
I. Find the I.F.of the following differential equations by transforming them into linear form.
dx dx
1. x  y  2 x 2 sec 2 2 x . 2. y  x  2 y3
dy dy
1. dy  y tan x  cos 3 x 2. dy  y sec x  tan x

dx dx
dy dy
3.  y tan x  e x sec x. 4. x  2 y  log x
dx dx
2 dy 1
dy 2 y
5. (1  x )  y  eTan x . 6.   2x2
dx dx x
dy
7. dy  4 x y  1 8. x  y  (1  x)e x
dx 1  x 2
(1  x 2 ) 2 dx
dy 3x 2 1  x2 dy
9.  y  10.  y   2e  x
dx 1  x 3 1  x3 dx
dy dy
11. (1  x 2 )  y  Tan 1 x 12.  y tan x  sin x .
dx dx
dy
1. cos x .  y sin x  sec 2 x 2. sec x . dy  ( y  sin x ) dx
dx
dy dy
3. x log x .  y  2 log x . 4. ( x  y  1) 1
dx dx
dy 3 dy
5. x( x  1)  y  x 3 ( x  1)3 6. ( x  2 y ) y
dx dx
2 dy dy
7. (1  x )  2 xy  x 1  x 2 8. x( x  1)  ( x  2) y  x3 (2 x  1)
dx dx
dy 2 3 dy
9. ( x y  xy )  1 10.  x sin 2 y  x 3 cos 2 y
dx dx
2  1  dy
11. y   x   .  0.
 y  dx
Key Concepts
v Variables Separable Method
If the differential equation is of the form

f(x) dx + g(y) dy = 0,
then its solution is  f ( x) dx   g ( y ) dy  0 .
v Homogeneous Equations
If the differential equation is of the form dy  f ( x, y ) , where f and g are

dx g ( x, y )
homogeneous functions of x and y of same degree, then we put y = vx and bring it to the form
dx
 (v) dv 
and then we integrate.
x
v Non Homogeneous Equations
Let the differential equation be of the form dy  ax  by  c ,

where a, b, c, a, b, c are constants.
Case(i) : If b =  a, then its solution can be obtained by integrating term by term after regrouping.
a b
Case (ii) : If   m, then we put ax + by = v and bring it to the form
a b
(v) dv = dx and then we integrate.
a b
Case (iii) : If  , then we put x = X + h, y = Y + k (h, k are obtained by solving
a b
dY aX  bY
ah + bk + c = 0, ah  bk  c  0 ) and bring it to the form  .
dX a X  bY
dX
Then we put Y = VX and bring it to the form (V ) dV  and then we integrate.
X
v Linear Differential Equations
If the differential equation is of the form
dy
 Py  Q ,
dx
then its solution is y e   C   Q e  dx .

Pdx Pdx
Historical Note
The study of differential equations began soon after the invention of the Differential and Integral calculus,
to which it forms a natural sequel. A differential equation occurred for the first time in 1693 in the work of
Leibnitz (whose account of the differential calculus was published in 1684).
In the next few years the progress was rapid. In 1694-97, Johann Bernoulli explained the method of
Separating the Variables, and he showed how to reduce a homogeneous differential equation of the first
order to one in which the varibles are separable. He applied these methods to problems on orthogonal
trajectories. Integrating Factors were introduced by Euler in 1734 and (independently of him) by Fontaine
and Clairaut, though some attribute them to Leibnitz.
Answers
Exercise 8(a)
I. 1. 2 2. 1
3
 dy  dy 2 d2y dy
II. 1. (i)    4 xy  8 y  0 (ii) x 2
 2  xy  0
dx
  dx dx dx
d2y dy d2y
(iii) 2
 2k  k2y  0 (iv) 2
 n2 y  0
dx dx dx
2
dy d2y
(ii) xy 2  x    y
y0 dy dy
2. (i) x 0
dx dx  dx  dx
d2y dy 2 d2y dy
III. 1. (i)  7  12 y  0 (ii) x  2 x  2y  0
dx 2 dx dx 2 dx
d2y
2
d2y dy
(iii) xy 2  x   y
dy dy 2
  2y  0
0 (iv) x 2 x
dx  dx  dx dx 2 dx
dy 3
d2y
(ii) 2a 2     0
2 2 dy
2. (i) y  x  2 xy
dx dx  dx 
2
 dy  dy
(iii) y    2 x y
 dx  dx
Exercise 8(b)
I. 1. Sin 1 x  Sin 1 y  c
2. x2 = cy
II. 1. Tan 1 y  Tan 1 x  Tan 1c 2. e  y  e  x  c
yx3 x
y
3. e  k ( y  1) (1  e )x 4. e  e   c
3
5. sin x sin y = c
6. x 1  x 2  y 1  y 2  log  ( x  1  x 2 ) ( y  1  y 2 )   c
 
cy kx
7. 5  x  8. y  x  log
1 5y y
3
III. 1. (1 + x2) (1 + y2) = cx2 2. 1  e3 y  e x . k
3. (x2 + 1) (y2 + 1) = c 4. cy = cosh2 x
5. tan(x + y)  sec(x + y) = x + c
 2 x  1  2 y  1
6. Tan 1    Tan 1  c
 3   3 
1
7. x  y  sin[2( x  y )]  c.
2
Exercise 8(c)
y  y
dy y  y
2 Tan 1    1
 x
I. 1.   1   2. dy  x
dx x  x dx  y
Tan 1  
 x
dy y   y 
3.   log   1 
dx x  x 
II. 1. x2  2xy  y2 = A 2. k(x2  y2) = y

y
 x y  2 xy
3. log   2
4. ky  e x
 c  ( x  y)
 y
5. log x  2Tan 1    c 6. x2(x2  2y2) = k
 x
 y
Tan 1  
7. ky3 ex/y = x2 8. y  c e x
9. xy(y  x) = c 10. y  2x = kx2y
11. cx2 = y + x 2  y 2 12. (x + y)3 = c(x  y)
13. x2 + 2y2 (c + log y) = 0 14. xy2 = c(x  y)2

 y
cos  
III. 1. x + y ex/y = k 2. kx  e x
 y
3. tan    log x  c 4. y log y + (x  y) log x = y + cx
 x
 y  y
5. xy cos    c 6. tan    1  log | x |
 x x
Exercise 8(d)
I. 1. y2 + 6x2 + 5xy  4y  9x = c 2. 4xy + 3(x2 + y2)  10(x  y) = k
3. 4xy + 3(x2 + y2)  10(x + y) = k 4. 2xy + 2y  3y2  x  2x2 = k
5. y2  x2 + 2xy  2y  4x = c 6. y2  x2 + xy  3y  x = c
3
II. 1. 6y  3x + log (3x + 3y + 4) = c 2. y  2 x  log(24 y  16 x  23)  k
8
3. 2y + x + log(2x + y  1) = k 4. (8y  4x) + log (4x + 8y + 5) = c
5. x  y + log(x + y) = c
III. 1. (y  x + 1)2 (y + x  1)5 = k 2. (3y  2x  1)2 (2y + x  2) = c
3. (x + y  1)2 (y + 2x  3)3 = c
1
 x  y 2  2  1 2
4. (x2  2y2  2x  4y  2)  c  
 x  y 2  2  1
 2 y  1  1
5. 2 Tan 1    log c 2  x 2  y 2  x  y  
 2 x  1  2
 Y  (1  3) X 
6. 3 log ( Y 2  2XY  2X 2 ) 2 log  c
 Y  (1  3) X 
where X = x  1, Y = y  2.
2 3 2 3
7. log ( 3Y  X )  log ( 3Y  X )  3C, where X = x  1, Y = y + 2
2 2
8. (2x  y)2 = c(x + 2y  5).

Exercise 8(e)
1 1
I. 1. 2.
x y
II. 1. 2y = x cos x + sin x cos2 x + c cos x
2. y(sec x + tan x) = sec x + tan x  x + c
x2 x2
3. y cos x = ex + c 4. yx 2  log x  c
2 4
1 1 2 x5
5. 2 y eTan x
 e 2Tan x
c 6. yx 2  c
5
7. y(x2 + 1)2 = x + c 8. xy = xex + c
x3
9. y (1  x 3 )  x  c 10. y = ex + c ex
3
1
11. y  Tan 1x  1  c e Tan x
12. y sec x = log sec x + c
1 3 sin x
III. 1. y sec x  tan x  tan x  c 2. y  (sin x  1)  c e
3
3. y log x = (log x)2 + c 4. x = k ey  (y + 2)
xy x5 x 4
5.   c 6. x = y(y2 + c)
x 1 5 4
7. y  1  x 2  c(1  x 2 ) 8. y(x  1) = x2 (x2  x + c)
2 1 2 2
9. 1  x( y 2  2  c e  y /2
)0 10. tan y  ( x  1)  ce x
2
357
Reference Books
h The Elements of Coordinate Geometry; S.L. Loney; Macmillan & Co.,

London; 1975.
h Calculus - Vol - I & II; Lipman Bers; IBH publishing Co., Mumbai;
1973.
h A Course of Pure Mathematics; G.H. Hardy; Cambridge University

Press (ELBS); 1976.
h A First Course in Calculus; Serge Lang; Addison Wesley Publication

Co. Inc., 1965.
h Calculus - Schaums Outline series; Frank Ayres; McGra -Hill; Education

(India) Ltd.; 2007.
h Differential Equations -Schaums Outline series; Richard Bronson;

McGraw - Hill Education (India) Ltd., New Delhi; 2007.
h Differential Equations; Deo; McGraw - Hill Education (India) Ltd.,

New Delhi; 2007.
***
BOARD OF INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION

Syllabus in Mathematics Paper - IIB
To be effective from the academic year 2013-14
Name of Topic and Sub Topics No. of Periods
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
01. Circle
1.1 Equation of a circle - standard form - centre and radius - equation 08

of a circle with a given line segment as diameter & equation of a circle
through three non collinear points - parametric equations of a circle.
1.2 Position of a point in the plane of a circle - power of a point- 06

definition of tangent-length of tangent.
1.3 Position of a straight line in the plane of a circle- conditions

for a line to be tangent- chord joining two points on a circle- 06
equation of the tangent at a point on the circle- point of contact-
equation of normal.
1.4 Chord of contact - pole and polar-conjugate points and conjugate 06

lines - equation of chord in terms of its mid point.
1.5 Relative position of two circles- circles touching each other 08

externally, internally common tangents -centers of similitude-
equation of pair of tangents from an external point.
34
02. System of Circles
2.1 Angle between two intersecting circles. 06

2.2 Radical axis of two circles- properties-common chord and 06
common tangent of two circles - radical centre.
12
Syllabus 359
03. Parabola
3.1 Conic sections -Parabola- equation of parabola in standard form- 08
different forms of parabola- parametric equations.
3.2 Equations of tangent and normal at a point on the parabola 07

(cartesian and parametric) - conditions for a straight line to
be tangent.
15
04. Ellipse
4.1 Equation of ellipse in standard formParametric equations. 06
4.2 Equation of tangent and normal at a point on the ellipse 07

(cartesian and parametric)condition for a straight line to
be tangent.
13
05. Hyperbola
5.1 Equation of hyperbola in standard formParametric equations. 04
5.2 Equations of tangent and normal at a point on the hyperbola 04

(cartesian and parametric)- conditions for a straight line to be
a tangent- Asymptotes.
08
CALCULUS
06. Integration
6.1 Integration as the inverse process of differentiation- 04

Standard forms -properties of integrals.
6.2 Method of substitution- integration of Algebraic, exponential, 14

logarithmic, trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions.
Integration by parts.
6.3 Integration by Partial fractions method. 05
6.4 Reduction formulae. 05
28
07. Definite Integrals
7.1 Definite Integral as the limit of a sum 03
7.2 Interpretation of Definite Integral as an area. 03
7.3 Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus (without proof). 04
7.4 Properties. 04
7.5 Reduction formulae. 06
7.6 Application of Definite integral to areas. 04
24
08. Differential Equations
8.1 Formation of differential equation-degree and order of 02

an ordinary differential equation.
8.2 Solving differential equation by
a) Variables separable method. 03
b) Homogeneous differential equation. 03
c) Non - Homogeneous differential equation. 04
d) Linear differential equations. 04
16
TOTAL 150
361
BOARD OF INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION, A.P.

Mathematics - IIB
Model Question Paper (w.e.f. 2013-14)
Time: 3 hrs Max. Marks:75
Note: This Question paper consists of three sections A, Band C.
SECTION - A
I. Very Short Answer type Questions
(i) Answer all Questions
(ii) Each Question carries 2 marks 10  2 = 20
1. If ax2 + bxy + 3y2 5x + 2y  3 = 0 represents a circle, find the values of a and b. Also find its radius
and centre.
2. State the necessary and sufficient condition for lx + my + n = 0 to be a normal to the circle
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
3. Find the angle between the circles x2 + y2  12x  6y + 41 = 0 and x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y  59 = 0.
4. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is S(1, 7) and vertex is A (1, 2).
x2 y 2
5. Find the angle between the asymptotes of the hyperbola   1.
a 2 b2
1
6. Evaluate  ( x  3) x2
dx
sin 4 x
7. Evaluate  cos6 x dx
1
x2
8. Evaluate  x2  1
dx
0

2
sin 2 x  cos 2 x
9. Evaluate  sin 3 x  cos3 x dx
0
6/5
 d 2 y  dy  3 
10. Find the order and degree of the differential equation      6y.
 dx
2  dx  

SECTION - B
II. Short Answer type Questions
(i) Answer any five Questions
11. Show that the tangent at (1, 2) of the circle x2 + y2  4x  8y + 7 = 0 touches the circle
x2 + y2 + 4x + 6y = 0. Also find its point of contact.
12. Find the equation of the circle passing through the points of intersection of the circles
x2 + y2  8x  6y + 21 = 0, x2 + y2  2x 15 = 0 and (1, 2) .
13. Find the length of major axis, minor axis, latus rectum, eccentricity of the ellipse 9x2 + 16y2 = 144.
x y 
14. Show that the point of intersection of the perpendicular tangents to an ellipse   1 , (a > b) lies
a 2 b2
on a circle.
15. Find the equations of the tangents to the hyperbola 3x2  4y2 = 12 which are (i) Parallel to (ii) Perpendicular
to the line y = x 7.

2
16. Find the reduction formula for  sin n x dx
0
17. Solve: (1 + y2)dx = (Tan1y  x)dy

Model Question Paper 363
SECTION - C
III. Long Answer type Questions
(i) Answer any five Questions
18. Show that the points (1, 1), (6, 0), (2, 2) and (2, 8) are concyclic.
19. Find the direct common tangents to the circles
x2 + y2 + 22x  4y 100 = 0, x2 + y2  22x + 4y + 100 = 0.
20. If y1, y2, y3 are the y-coordinates of the vertices of the triangle inscribed in the parabola y2 = 4ax
1
then show that the area of the triangle is | ( y1  y2 )( y2  y3 )( y3  y1 ) | square units.
8a
9 cos x  sin x
21. Evaluate  4sin x  5cos x dx
dx
22. Evaluate  (1  x) 3  2 x  x2
1
log(1  x)
23. Evaluate  dx
2
0 1  x
dy 2 x  y  3
24. Solve : 
dx 2 y  x  1

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Text Book for

Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi

Pages : xvi + 364 + iv + iv

© Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, Andhra Pradesh

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FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the

Pr of . V. Si v a Ram a Pr asad, Professor of Mat h emat i cs (Ret d.), Osman ia Un i versi t y,

Sr i A. Padm an abh am , H ead of t h e D epar t m en t of M at h em at i cs (Ret d .), M ah ar an i

Pr of , K . Ram a M oh an a Rao, Pr ofessor of Appl i ed Mat h em at i cs (Ret d .), An dh r a

Pr of. G. V. Rav i n dr an at h Babu , Professor of M at h em at i cs, An dh r a Un i ver si t y.

Sr i A. Padm an abh am , H ead of t h e D epar t m en t of M at h em at i cs (Ret d .), M ah ar an i

Col lege, Peddapu r am

Prof. K. Rama Mohan Rao Prof. G. Chakradhara Rao

Prof. S. Kalesha Vali Dr. Y. Purushotama Reddy

Sri K.V.S. Prasad Dr. K. Ravi Babu

Sri M.V. Seshagiri Babu, I.A.S.

Educational Research & Training Wing (Text Books)

Sri. M. Ravi Sankar Naik

Dr. M. Ramana Reddy

Sri J.V. Ramana Gupta

Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, Andhra Pradesh

Sri V. Ramakrishna, I.R.S.

Dr. M. Koteswaramma, M.Com., Ph.D.

Dr. S.A.T. Rajyalakshmi M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A., Ph.D.

Dr. K. Glory Sathyavani, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Ed.

Th e Gover n m en t of In di a vowed to r em ove t h e edu cat i on al di spar i ti es

In t his r evi ewed Edition, n ow being u nder t ak en by the Tel u gu Ak adem i,

Con st r u ct i ve su ggest i on s fr om t h e academ i c fr at er n i t y ar e wel com e

1.1 Equation of a circle, standard form, centre and radius ................................. 2

1.2 Position of a point in the plane of a circle - ..................................... 24

1.3 Position of a straight line in the plane of a circle ..................................... 31

1.4 Chord of contact and polar ..................................... 44

1.5 Relative Positions of two circles ..................................... 60

2. System of Circles 79 - 102

2.1 Angle between two intersecting circles ..................................... 79

2.2 Radical axis of two circles ..................................... 89

3. Parabola 103 - 130

Introduction ..................................... 103

3.1 Conic Sections ..................................... 103

3.2 Equation of tangent and normal at a point ..................................... 117

Introduction ..................................... 131

5. Hyperbola 161 - 176

Introduction ..................................... 161

6. Integration 177 - 260

Introduction ..................................... 177

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