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 Brief
CON TEN TS

List of Maps xxiii

List of Graphs xxv
Preface xxvii
About the Authors xxxi

Part 1: INDUSTRY AND EMPIRE, 1893–1945

Chapter 1: The United States in the World Economy at the

Dawn of the Twentieth Century 3

Chapter 2: The New Imperialism 31

Chapter 3: Reforming Modern Society 62

Chapter 4: Global Shifts and the First World

War, 1914–18 89

Chapter 5: Revolution and Reaction, 1917–24 116

Chapter 6: Democracy Faces the Great Depression,

1925–36 142

Chapter 7: Global War, 1937–45 171

vii
viii | Brief Contents

Part 2: BURDENS OF THE COLOSSUS, 1945–2012

Chapter 8: America’s Cold War Ascendancy, 1945–54 203

Chapter 9: American Reform and the Third World,

1955–65 240

Chapter 10: Crisis of Authority, 1965–72 273

Chapter 11: Imperial Impasse, 1972-80 308

Chapter 12: Converging Global Trends, 1980–91 334

Chapter 13: The United States as Global Leader,

1990–99 366

Chapter 14: Global Divergence: The Post-9/11 World,

1999-2012 396

Index 427
 CON TEN TS

List of Maps xxiii

List of Graphs x xv
Prefacex xvii
About the Authors xx xi

Part 1: INDUSTRY AND EMPIRE, 1893–1945

CHAPTER 1: The United States in the World Economy
at the Dawn of the Twentieth Century3

1893: World’s Columbian Exposition3

Progress and Poverty in the World Economy4

The Rise of Capitalism 5
The First Industrial Revolution6
Growth and Inequality 7

The World Economy in Three Tiers7

Class and Race in the Agrarian South9
Uneven Development in the Middle Tier10
Britain: Capitalist Headquarters12

ix
x | Contents

The Place of the United States12

Corporate Capitalism 13
Finance Capitalism14
Laissez-Faire15

From Country to City16

Mass Migrations17
Working-Class Gains and Losses 19
Labor Unrest 20
Chicago: Crossroads of Capital and Labor21
Responses to Class Conflict22

Farm Distress in North America24

Populist Revolt 25
Varieties of Rural Protest 26

Progress at the World’s Fair27

Conclusion29
Further Reading30

CHAPTER 2: The New Imperialism31

Colonial Migrations 31

The New Imperialism32

The New Imperialism and the World Economy 36

The Tribute of the Market36
Imperial Cola37

Conflict in the Caribbean 38

The War of 1898 39
Formal and Informal Empire41
War in the Philippines42
The Philippine Insurrection43
Debate over Empire: The United States44
Debate over Empire: Europe46
 Contents | xi

Empire and Resistance in East Asia46

The Open Door in China47
The Boxer Rebellion48
The Rise of Japan 49
Japan versus the West 50

The U.S. Sphere of Influence in Latin America51

Relations with El Norte51
Building the Panama Canal 52
Business and Empire54
Dollar Diplomacy54
The Reach of the Monroe Doctrine55

Domestic Consequences of Empire 56

Uncle Sam and Jim Crow58

Conclusion 60
Further Reading60

CHAPTER 3: Reforming Modern Society62

Transatlantic Reform: Alice Paul and the Women’s

Suffrage Movement 62

Reforming Modern Society 63

Economic Foundations for Transatlantic Reform64

Intellectual Foundations for Reform: Theorizing

Modernity and Its Discontents 65
Social Foundations for Reform: Changes in Property and Family65
Transatlantic Reform 67
Reform or Revolution?69

Revolt against Patriarchy70

New Sexual Morality 71
International Women’s Suffrage Movement72
Race and Reform74
xii | Contents

Capitalism and the Social Question 76

Religion and Reform78

Social Protection in Comparative Perspective 79

Comparative Political Economy81

Revolution and Reform in Russia, Germany, and Britain81
The Road to Reform in the United States 83
A Special Path? 84
Similarities between the United States and Other Western Nations85
The United States in Western Society 87

Conclusion88
Further Reading 88

CHAPTER 4: Global Shifts and the First World War, 1914–1889

The American Red Cross in Europe89

America and the Great War90

Prewar Internationalism 90

Underlying Causes of the War: Nationalist Ethnic Tensions
and Imperial Rivalries 92
Outbreak of War in Europe93
Early Years of War in Europe 94
United States Neutrality94

Total War and People’s War96

War Economies97
War for Empire98

Increasing U.S. Involvement99

The Preparedness Movement99
The Testing of Neutrality 100
The United States in Latin America101
United States Interventions in Latin America during World War I103
 Contents | xiii

Open Door Policy and U.S. Involvement in the World War 104
On the Home Front 105
World War I and the Social Contract 108
The U.S. Contribution to Allied Victory110
American Ascendance 112
Antiwar Sentiment113

Conclusion114
Further Reading115

CHAPTER 5: Revolution and Reaction, 1917–24116

1917: John Reed and Louise Bryant in Russia 116

American Responses to Revolution 117

Revolutions in the Agricultural Belt117

The United States and Revolutionary Mexico119

War and Revolution in Europe120

People’s Peace and the Bolshevik Revolution 121
Wilson versus Lenin122
Separate Peace and Allied Intervention124
1919: Millennial Moment125
Love and Revolution127

Search for Order127

Versailles Peace Conference128

Postwar Disorders 129

Disorder in the United States131
Clashes along the Color Line 131
Red Scare133
Sacco and Vanzetti134
The Resurgence of Patriarchy 134

Retreat from Reform136

xiv | Contents

Retreat from Internationalism 137

A World Safe for Empire138
Washington Naval Conference139

Conclusion140
Further Reading141

CHAPTER 6: Democracy Faces the Great Depression, 1925–36142

1933: Depression Journey 142

Democracy Faces the Great Depression143

Peaceful Interlude, 1925–29 143

The American Role in Economic Stabilization144
New Woman at Bay 145
Romance of Consumption146
American Culture Overseas146
American Model versus Soviet Model 148

From Boom to Bust 149

Similar Responses151
Gender and Sexuality152
Different Responses: Fascist, Communist, Liberal154
Depression as a War Emergency156
Economic Planning 157
A New Deal to Save Democracy160
Race and Racism162

International Relations 164

Militarism in Japan and Germany164
The Spanish Civil War, 1936–39165
American Isolation 166
Good Neighbors? The United States and Latin America 167

Conclusion 170
Further Reading170
 Contents | xv

CHAPTER 7: Global War, 1937–45171

Escape from Nazi-Occupied Europe 171

Global Conflict and Total War 172

War in Asia173

War in Europe175
Diplomatic Surprises175
Blitzkrieg177

United States Responses before Pearl Harbor178

Marketing the War180
Operation Barbarossa 181
Crimes against Humanity182
Pearl Harbor183
The United States and the Grand Alliance184

Total War185
Class Relations and the Social Contract 187
Labor and Women Workers 188
Race Changes 189
Allied Victory: The Russian Contribution192
Allied Victory: D-Day and the American Contribution193

Endgame195
Hiroshima and Nagasaki196
Sorrow of War197
Conclusion 198
Further Reading199

Part 2: BURDENS OF THE COLOSSUS, 1945–2012

CHAPTER 8: America’s Cold War Ascendancy, 1945–54203

George Marshall in Moscow: 1947203

American Ascendancy in the Cold War 205

The World in 1945205
Internationalism Reborn207
xvi | Contents

Economic Reconstruction, 1944–47 210

The Challenge of Cooperation at Home211

Social Roots of the Imperial Rivalry between

the Superpowers 213
United States: An Open System 213
Soviet Union: A Closed System215

Cold War Conflict, 1947–54217

Consolidating Borders in Europe 218
Mutual Containment221
The Cold War Goes Global222
Establishing Borders in Asia 223
Korean War224
Cold War Culture 226

Colonial Independence 228

Civil Rights Revival231

The Golden Age233

Role of the State 234
The Americanization of Western Europe236

Conclusion238
Further Reading239

CHAPTER 9: American Reform and the Third World, 1955–65240

Journey to Freedom: 1957240

Reform, the Third World, and the Cold War241

The Third World242
Sino-Soviet Split244
The Lower Tier in the World Economy244

Africa in the Cold War246

Civil Rights Movement248
 Contents | xvii

Consumer Culture 250

The Empire of Consumption252

The Balance of Power, circa 1960254

Berlin Crisis256
Cuban Revolution 257
Cuban Missile Crisis258
The United States in the Third World259

Peaceful Revolution for Civil Rights260

Africa, the Cold War, and Civil Rights261
African Americans and the Colonial Analog y263
Second Reconstruction265

Johnson’s Great Society 267

Cold War Liberalism 269
Liberal Interventionism 270

Conclusion271
Further Reading272

CHAPTER 10: Crisis of Authority, 1965–72 273

The Tet Offensive: 1968273

Crisis of Authority, 1965–72 274

Disorder in the Cold War275

Global Conflict in Vietnam 276

Proxy War on the Frontier of Empire276
America’s War for Empire 277
Revolutionary Nationalism 279
Escalation in Vietnam 281
America’s Global Reach 282

Revolt against Authority, 1965–67284

The Black Power Revolt 284
xviii | Contents

New Left and the Antiwar Movement286

The Tet Offensive288

1968291
Liberal Dilemmas 293
Conservative Counterrevolt 294
America at Impasse 295

Conservative Dilemma in Vietnam 296

Cultural Revolutions in the East 298
Cultural Revolutions in the West298
Counterculture300
Collapse of the New Left 301
Changing Patterns of Social Reproduction 302
Feminism and Its Enemies 304

Conclusion: Mixed Legacy 306

Further Reading307

CHAPTER 11: Imperial Impasse, 1972–80308

1972: Nixon Meets Mao308

America at Impasse 309

Adjusting to Economic Limits310

Toward a Multipolar World 312

China Beckons313
The United States Responds314
Soviet–American Détente 316

Shocks from the Middle East318

Nixon’s Fall320
Defeat in Vietnam322

Downshift in the World Economy 324

Roots of Globalization326

Challenges from the Third World 327

Crisis in Iran 329
 Contents | xix

Conclusion332
Further Reading332

CHAPTER 12: Converging Global Trends, 1980–91334

The World Car, 1980 334

Global Convergence335

Economic Globalization336
The Global Factory 337
Social Dislocations 338

Rise of Conservatism 340

The Politics of Religion340
Cultural Conservatives and Family Values 341
Science and Religion343

Free-Market Conservatives344
Breakthrough to Power345
Conservatism in Action346
Attack on the Welfare State348
Culture Wars349

Restoring National Greatness350

Cold War II351

Cold War in the Third World352

The Iran–Contra Scandal354
Liberal Response to Conservative Ascendancy355

Peace Movement and Renewal of Détente 356

Gorbachev and Reagan357
End of the Cold War358
Assessing the Cold War360
End of Soviet Empire361
Collapse of the Soviet Union 363

Conclusion363
Further Reading365
xx | Contents

CHAPTER 13: The United States as Global Leader, 1990–99366

Michael Jackson in Japan 366

The U.S. Role in Globalization 368

Economic Globalization 369

Information Technolog y and Interconnectedness369
Finance Capitalism370
Factories Move East 371

The United States in the Global Order372

Americanizing the World Economy 373

World Politics after the Cold War 375

After Communism 377
Regional Settlements 378
Clinton and Blair378
United States as Global Sheriff380

North–South Divide 382

Conditions in the Global South383
Backlash against the Global North 384
Blowback386
Globalization of America: The Open Door in Reverse 387
Decline of the United States?388
China Rising 389

Globalization on Trial391
Culture Clash391
Debt Crises392
Unsustainable Development 393
Mass Protests: Seattle, 1999394

Conclusion394
Further Reading395
 Contents | xxi

CHAPTER 14: Global Divergence: The Post-9/11 World,

1999–2012396

America on the Tigris396

Global Divergence397

Power Surge 398

Republican Power 398
September 11, 2001401

Border Closings 403

Opening the Middle East 404
Call to War404
Invasion and Occupation of Iraq406
The Lonely Superpower407
Closing Cultural Borders 409
Closings in the Open Society410
Power Failures411
Electoral Reversals, 2006–8413

Problems of the Twenty-First Century414

The United States in the World Economy414
Walmart, the Global Department Store 416
Inequality417
The Search for Global Justice 419
End of Empire?420
Environmental Consequences of Economic Growth421
Global Warming423

Conclusion425
Further Reading426

Index 427
 List of
MAPS

Map 1.1: The World Economy in Three Tiers 8

Map 1.2: Share of World Manufacturing Output in 1900 11
Map 1.3: Mass Migrations from Europe to the Americas 18
Map 2.1: The New Imperialism, 1870–1914 35
Map 2.2: The Route to China 45
Map 3.1: The International Women’s Suffrage Movement 73
Map 3.2: The Pan-African Movement 75
Map 4.1: World War I, 1914–18 95
Map 4.2: U.S. Interventions in Latin America Before World War I 102
Map 5.1: The United States and Revolutionary Mexico 119
Map 5.2: The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917–22 125
Map 6.1: Walter Reuther’s Journey, 1933–35 158
Map 6.2: The Good Neighbor Policy 168
Map 7.1: George Watt’s Escape, November 1943 173
Map 7.2: The D-Day Landings and the Invasion of Normandy,
June 6, 1944 194

xxiii
xxiv | Maps

Map 8.1: The Cold War 216

Map 8.2: The Soviet Empire in Eastern Europe 219
Map 8.3: The Korean War 225
Map 8.4: Decolonization in Africa and Asia 229
Map 9.1: The Division of the Postwar World 243
Map 9.2: U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe, 1950–91 255
Map 9.3: Direct U.S. Military Interventions in Latin America
and the Caribbean since World War I 259
Map 9.4: African Independence 262
Map 10.1: Urban Riots in the United States, 1965–70 285
Map 10.2: The Tet Offensive 289
Map 11.1: OPEC, Oil, and Geopolitics, 1973 319
Map 11.2: Latin America 328
Map 12.1: The Middle East 353
Map 12.2: The End of the Soviet Empire 364
Map 13.1: The First Gulf War, 1990–91 375
Map 13.2: The Three Bloc International Economy in the Early 1990s 381
Map 13.3: Malnutrition in Africa, c. 2000 385
Map 14.1: Wars and Conflicts in the Middle East, 1990–2012 399
Map 14.2: The Arab Spring 403
Map 14.3: NATO Expansion in Eastern Europe 409
Map 14.4: Global Warming 424
Another random document with
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 ♦ added missing word “worthy” per Errata

17. And now since it appears that the means that lead to our end,
the great highway to happiness, are no other than the
commandments of God, it appears with equal clearness, that the one
business of every prudent Christian is, to pay a due obedience to all
these commandments. This is our wisdom, and indeed the only wise
thing we can do, not to indulge our own fancies, not to fulfil our own
will, or to follow the devices and desires of our own hearts, but to
apply ourselves to the law of God, to lay hold of those paths of life
which he hath described to us. By doing this, we shall give a better
proof of our wisdom, than by all the fine-wrought plots, and cunning
intrigues of worldly policy, or by the most acute reasonings of
philosophy, or deepest treasures of learning. These things cast
indeed a dazzling light, and make a figure in the world: but after all,
the wisdom of man is, to attain to his end, and consequently to find
and use the true means of attaining it. And since the commandments
of God are those true means, to keep and do them is our wisdom
and understanding, or, as Job expresses it: Behold, the fear of the
Lord, that is wisdom, and to depart from evil is understanding.
 18. It is not only wisdom, but our wisdom, the wisdom of man, the
wisdom that belongs to his nature, as being made for happiness; that
belongs to the present state and condition of his nature, as having
capacities to qualify himself fully for this; whereas his faculties will
carry him but a very little way in speculative knowledge: it is the
wisdom that belongs to his present circumstances in this world,
which is wholly in order to the other, and is no farther considerable
than it is a preparation for eternity; and after this I need not say, it is
the wisdom that belongs to his interest, nothing being more evident,
than that it is every man’s greatest interest to be everlastingly happy.
Upon all which considerations it appears, that the study and practice
of God’s commandments, the devoting himself to his service, and to
the obedience of all his laws, is the true and proper wisdom of man,
in which alone he is concerned to employ and improve himself, and
to which all his other learning, knowledge and business, all he thinks,
says, or does, is to be referred.
 C H A P T E R II.
How far Christian Prudence is concerned in the manner of
keeping God’s commandments.

AS difficulty
1. to the manner of keeping God’s commandments, the main
is in the doing, and not in determining what in
prudence ought to be done. Prudence doubtless (as well as
duty) requires, that we should keep them in as good a manner as we
can. For since the commandments of God are evidently the means
that qualify us for happiness, it follows, that the better they are kept
by us, the more we shall be qualified by them. Now ’tis
unquestionably the part of every prudent man, to obtain as much
happiness as he can: and consequently to do his best to serve God,
and keep his commandments, in the most perfect manner he is able;
because the better he keeps them, the happier he will be; and no
wise man would be less happy when he may be more so.
 2. Setting aside therefore all inducements of either love or fear,
all arguments of gratitude or generosity, all the reasonableness and
justice of serving God, and living in obedience to his laws, all the
pleasures of religion, and the present advantage of it both to our
souls and bodies I say, tho’ we should set aside all these
considerations, yet there is a prudential consideration, sufficient to
engage every wise Christian to do his best, and to be as holy as he
can, viz. That the better he is, the happier he will be; every addition
to virtue being so much stock laid in for his future happiness. The
question concerning degrees of glory, seems to have been put
merely for argument sake, for it cannot be put seriously, but by one
that is as ignorant of the nature of things, as of divine revelation:
were the scripture silent, yet the very nature of the thing infers it; for
since holiness is a natural qualification for happiness, it necessarily
follows, that the more holiness the more happiness; and
consequently, that the best must be the happiest man; and therefore
’tis great prudence for every Christian, to labour to be excellently
good, as good as he can be, according to the measure of grace
imparted to him. To reduce this to an instance; our Saviour has
annexed to purity of heart a particular blessedness, even that of
seeing God: whence we may gather, that this is a particular
qualification for the beatific vision, and accordingly, that those who
have most of this purity, will be most happy, as either seeing more of
God, or as being more delighted with what they see of him; and
therefore every prudent Christian that hath this hope, will study to
purify himself as much as he can, that so he may be a more meet
partaker of that happiness, which is promised to the pure in heart.
 *3. Let not therefore any Christian content himself with his
present state, or his past attainments in goodness; much less let him
designedly aim at a slender degree, such as he thinks may just carry
him to heaven. He may be mistaken in his measure, and when laid in
the balance be found wanting: but suppose he be not, yet he stands
in his own light, and is frugal to his own great loss: for, ’tis but an ill
thrift to deal hardly for heaven, and to think to go thither the cheapest
way; since beside the danger of miscarrying, so much as he abates
of his holiness, so much he abates of his own perfection, and cuts
short his own happiness: and where is the gain or the wisdom of
such a thrift? ’Tis folly and loss all over. Let us not therefore rest
satisfied with narrow and scanty measures, much less expresly
design them: for besides, that ’tis not easy to persevere in such a
weak and languishing state of piety (every little blast of temptation
being ready to blow out a lamp that is fed with so little oil:) suppose
we should persevere in it, yet there is no getting over this
consideration, that the more we come short in goodness, the more
we shall fall short in happiness; that every abatement in the former is
so much deducted from the latter, a jewel taken out of their crown.
Therefore let no one who pretends to Christian prudence, sit down
with a low infant-state of goodness, but let him endeavour to grow in
grace, and always to abound in the work of the Lord: not contenting
himself with his present state, but always studying to excel himself,
to grow better and better, and to make a constant progress in
religion, correcting what is amiss, and supplying what is wanting, and
aspiring after the largest measures and fullest degrees of holiness,
always remembring, that all the while he is thus serving God, he is
consulting his own interest, and that the more goodness he brings
with him to heaven, the more happiness he will find there.
 4. In consequence of this, a prudent Christian will begin betimes,
and set out early in the ways of piety; not only that he may have the
advantage of the morning, the proper time for travelling, and the
satisfaction of serving God in the prime of his age, and the vigour of
his strength: but also that he may lengthen his day, and have the
more time to serve God in, and to prepare himself for the fruition of
him in glory; that he may have the more time before him, to correct
his disorders, to fill up his deficiencies, to regulate his passions, to
purify his heart, to perfect his habits, to adorn his soul with all
Christian virtues; in a word, to compose the state and frame of his
mind for happiness, and to put himself in a due order for heaven. For
these reasons ’tis Christian prudence to begin betimes, to run the
way of God’s commandments, and not to defer that work to the
declining part of life, which is the one business of the whole.

5. But if it be prudence, as to keep the commandments of God,

so to keep them in the very best manner we can, what shall we think
of those who serve God by halves, who halt between two masters,
the almost Christians? Because this is so common a case, it may be
proper to bestow some reflections upon it. I shall therefore consider
more at large,

First, what it is that hinders their rising any higher than to be

almost Christians. And

Secondly, The imprudence of this lame way of serving God, of

being Christians by halves.
 *6. First, The general hindrance to our being more than almost
Christians, is the corrupt perverseness of human nature: this it was
that made the fair inclinations of King Agrippa proceed no farther
than they did: than to extort from him that ingenuous confession,
Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. Then, it seems, he
was not absolutely persuaded, tho’ he was inclining toward it. Poor
Agrippa! He had heard St. Paul giving an account of his manner of
life from his youth, and of his miraculous conversion to Christianity,
with great plainness, modesty and simplicity, and was not a little
affected with the discourse; especially with the conclusion, King
Agrippa, believest thou the prophets? I know that thou believest.
This nearly touched him, and left a very sensible impression upon
his heart.

And yet there was something more prevalent within him, that
would not suffer him quite to yield. He had a good mind to be a
Christian, but fear, interest and prejudice outweighed that inclination,
and after some uncertain suspenses, the scale turned on the other
side. And this is the case of too many: they have several good
thoughts and purposes: but their thoughts and purposes are too
much like the endeavours of those that are trying to wake out of a
deep sleep, into which they sink back again, overcome by the dead
weight that hangs upon them. There is a weight, an impediment in
their will, that stops the wheels of virtuous action, so that there can
be no motion, tho’ the springs of religion bear ever so hard upon
them. Sometimes indeed conscience works so strongly, that she
wants but little of gaining her point. But even that little, it seems, is
too much; she is like a bowl thrown up against a steep bank, which it
nimbly climbs, till it is just about to lodge and settle at the top: but
wanting some degrees of force to overcome the resistance, it cannot
reach it, and rolls back again.
 7. Thou art not far from the kingdom of God, was just such a cast
as this: and yet lackest thou one thing, was such another. These
men’s religion had carried them a good way, and they were well
onward in their journey to heaven; but it tired, and grew faint in the
latter stages of the road, which was found either too narrow or too
long, and so they stopped short, and made an eternal halt, when a
little more resolution would have carried them through. The same
thing we now see every day; there are many who have a liking to
religion, who have had a good natural disposition, assisted by a
religious education. Nor are they only inclined to religion, but partly
practise it; they do many things, and forbear others. All goes on
hopefully toward a thorough conversion; they are already past the
most painful part of it, and are now upon the critical point; so that a
grain or two more would turn the scale; insomuch, that there begins
to be joy in heaven, and the angels are tuning their harps: yet there
wants a little more weight on the side of religion, for want of which
the counter-weight prevails against it; against reason, religion and
divine grace together. They have indeed the workings of religion
upon them; they feel several pangs of the new-birth; but after all,
they want strength to bring forth.

8. The imprudence of this lame way of serving God (which I was

to shew in the second place) appears first from this, that it is
insufficient. Such a half religion can never hold weight in the balance
of the sanctuary. Such men, ’tis true, are almost good; but almost to
hit the mark is really to miss it. For religion consists in an entire love
of God, and an effectual resolution to obey him. Even a bad man
may love what is good in some degree, but not with an effectual,
prevailing love. This therefore is what denominates a man good,
when religion is the commanding ♦ bias of his soul. And none but
those who are thus thoroughly good, are so good as to be fit for
happiness. To make us capable of that, there must be a peculiar
frame of mind, to affect which in us is the one business of religion.
And if it does this only almost, and by halves, as it can never bring
us to heaven, so neither if it could, would it be able to make us
happy there.
 ♦ “biass” replaced with “bias”

*9. This imperfect piety is farther condemned by Christian

prudence as very absurd. If we did not intend to go through, why did
we set out? If we did, why do we stop? If we think there is no reason
in religion, why do we any thing? But if we think there is, why don’t
we do enough? For the same reason that we do so much, why don’t
we do more? For either religion has truth on its side, or not. If not,
why do we take so much labour needlesly? But if it has, why do we
take so much labour in vain? ’Tis, I own, a strange piece of even
brutal indifference, to do nothing in order to our eternal happiness:
and, yet, methinks, to do a part only, has something in it more
extravagant than the other. He that does nothing, whatever he loses
besides, has yet no labour to lose. But to labour by halves, is to lose
the same good, and all that we do in order to it. The atheist and
libertine have something to pretend; but the half-religious has no
excuse; since that very religion he has will condemn him, as an
inconsistent, unprincipled fool.
 10. The last censure of Christian prudence upon the half-way
state of piety, is, that it is very unhappy, I mean even in this world.
The almost Christian is the double-minded man St. James speaks of,
who has two wills, one for God and another for the world, between
which he variously fluctuates. Such an one is unstable in all his
ways: he is a mixed, doubtful, unsettled, wavering creature, never
out of perplexities and intanglements, always disconformable to
himself, doing what he would not, and not doing what he would and
should, never long satisfied with himself. He has indeed a kindness
for religion, but he has a greater kindness for something else; so that
his religion just serves to disturb the enjoyment of his lusts, as his
lusts to deprive him of the comfort of his religion. Nor can he be
perfectly at peace with himself, but by being thoroughly wicked or
thoroughly good. So wicked as to have his conscience sear’d with a
hot iron, or so good as to act up to his principles. He must be of a
single mind, one way or the other, before he can be at rest. And yet
this double-mindedness is the state in which most men chuse to live
and die, having religion enough to disturb them in their sins, but not
enough to engage them to part with them.

*11. And now methinks, I hear one saying within himself, Almost
thou persuadest me to be a Christian. Alas! why not quite? Is it that
we want the art of address, that we do not touch the right spring of
your soul? But sure our cause has weight enough to bear itself out,
and to supply any defect in the management of it. For is there not
truth and reason enough in religion, to gain a reasonable creature?
Or can any motive have a greater force or persuasion, than the joys
of heaven and the pains of hell? Or do you question whether God be
able to reward your entire love and compleat obedience? If you
indeed believe that God is, and that he is a rewarder of them that
diligently seek him, as even your indifferent way of serving him
seems to suppose, then you must needs think it wisdom, to lift up the
hands that hang down, and strengthen the feeble knees; to be
heartily and thoroughly religious, and not to be guilty of so
inconsistent a folly as to take some pains all your life for heaven, and
yet go at last to hell.
 12. Considering then the insufficiency, the absurdity, and the
unhappiness of a half religion, let us instantly labour to fill up the
things that are behind, that are wanting to the measure of our
righteousness. Let us earnestly endeavour to bring ourselves under
the full power and influence of religion, that it may have its due work
upon our hearts and lives, that we may be perfect, entire, and
wanting nothing: always imploring the Holy Spirit of God, by the
victorious sweetness of his divine grace, to give the last finishing to
that holy birth, he is forming in us, that it may come to a perfect man,
to the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ: that so,
according to the apostle’s wish, we may be both almost, and
altogether Christians!

C H A P T E R III.
Of the subordinate means that serve to assist us in keeping
the commandments of God.

1. E have seen that the immediate means to happiness are the

W commandments of God. We come now to consider the
subordinate means to it, which serve to assist us in the
keeping of those commandments. And these are of two sorts: either
such as are appointed and commanded by God, or such as are
recommended by human prudence.
 2. Of the first sort is prayer. This is a glorious means, to withdraw
our thoughts, and affections from sensible objects, and to fix them
upon God and the things of heaven: to stir up in us a sense of our
wants and infirmities, and to quicken our desires of what we pray for:
to maintain a religious warmth in our minds, and to keep up there a
spirit of devotion, the flame of which would soon be extinct without
the breathings of prayer to fan it, and give it motion: to nourish our
communion with God, and make us continually mindful of him, in
whom we live, move, and have our being. It is also a key to open the
store-houses of God’s treasures to us, whereby we may obtain a
supply of all our wants, and particularly grace to help in time of need,
to enable us to resist all temptations.

3. A prudent Christian will therefore pray often: for temporal

things conditionally, as not knowing whether, or how far these may
be for his good, or serve as means to his end. But for spiritual, such
as pardon of sin, and grace to leave it, he will pray not only with
greater earnestness, but also absolutely, and without any condition,
because he knows that God would have all men to be saved, to
attain the happiness for which he made them; and that those (if he
be not wanting to himself) are certain means to his salvation.

4. Reading of the scriptures is the next means which God has

ordained to assist us in keeping his commandments. And an
excellent means it is, both to enlighten our understanding, and to
compose our minds into a religious temper. All scripture is profitable
for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in
righteousness; that the man of God may be perfect, throughly
furnished unto all good works. And therefore every prudent Christian
gives all attendance to reading it. And that not out of curiosity, or for
speculation only, but with a practical design, to learn and do the
whole will of God. And accordingly he will not lay them aside, when
he thinks he understands them, but will renew and continue his
perusal of them, for his constant and greater edification. His delight
will ever be in the law of the Lord, and in his law will he meditate day
and night.
 5. A third means of religion appointed by God, is the hearing the
word preached. This is a standing provision which God has made for
the edification of his church; therefore a prudent Christian, who
never thinks himself too wise to learn, or too good to be better, and
who never omits any means that may bring him nearer his end, is
careful to pay his due attendance to it, humbly waiting for the grace
and blessing of God in the use of his own ordinance.

6. Neither will the sacraments, fourthly, be ever undervalued or

neglected by a prudent Christian, who never thinks himself either too
wise or too good for any institution of God. As to the Lord’s supper in
particular, he never omits any opportunity of receiving it, knowing the
excellent ends for which it serves, and its great usefulness to serve
them. It serves as a sensible image of the death of Christ, and of our
spiritual communion with him; as a memorial of his atonement for our
sins, actually applying it to ourselves. In short, it serves as a channel
to convey all the blessings of God to us, and as a pledge to assure
us of them. And in all this he admires the wisdom and goodness of
God, in making this merciful provision for his church, who,
considering our frame, and how large a share sense has in our
composition, was pleased, in condescension to our infirmity, to
address himself to us by that weaker side of our nature; and lest, in
such a croud of sensible objects, as we daily converse with, we
should (as we are too apt) be tempted to forget him, was pleased, by
those very objects, to bring us to himself, by making use of some of
them as his remembrancers, and as steps whereby we might ascend
to the contemplation of the most spiritual and heavenly mysteries.
 7. Church-communion, in the last place, is an excellent means for
the mutual edification of Christians; for the preservation of the
Christian faith and doctrine, and for the encouragement of Christian
practice. And since for these and the like reasons, God, by his Son
Jesus Christ, has erected and constituted that spiritual society call’d
a church, whereof the same Jesus Christ is the head, as that is his
body, according to the apostle; Christian prudence obliges every
man not to look upon himself only as a private or independent
Christian, that is at liberty to serve God as he pleases, in his own
solitary way, but as a member of this one church, whereof Christ is
the head, and consequently bound to hold communion with it. This
therefore, a prudent Christian will be sure to do, and think it a great
happiness and privilege to have such a help, to enjoy the
communion of saints, and worship God in the assemblies of his
people. From these he will by no means excommunicate himself: but
as he is in spirit united to the whole Christian church, so he actually
communicates with that particular branch of it, whereof he is a
member: and hereby he shews his union with the whole, in which he
will be careful to make no schism; lest, by dividing from that church
whereof Christ is the head, he be divided from Christ, his end as well
as his way.

C H A P T E R IV.
The conduct of a prudent Christian, with regard to the
government of himself.

1. ITHERTO we have been conducting our prudent Christian to his

H end, by the chief of the ways that lead to it, viz. by the direct
and immediate means of happiness, first, the duties of the
divine law, and then by the means to those means, such of them in
particular, as are of divine appointment. For the application of which,
it may now be convenient to draw a little nearer, and consider the
conduct which a prudent Christian uses in the government of
himself.
 2. And first let us consider ♦how the prudent Christian pursues
improvement by the government of his senses. He does not study
the pleasing of his senses. This indeed many make the great end of
their lives, which are almost wholly devoted to the pursuit, and spent
in the various entertainments of sensible pleasure; as if they thought
(and perhaps some of them do) that their supreme happiness
consisted in it. But this a prudent Christian will not do; for he knows
we are already too much in love with sensible pleasure, the great
disease of our nature, and therefore will not by indulging it inflame a
passion which is already too violent. *He finds that as the more we
abstain from these pleasures, the more cold we grow to them, so by
indulgence our appetite acquires a new edge, and grows the more
sharp and keen: he that drinks of this water shall not only thirst
again, but the more he drinks, he shall thirst the more. He considers
likewise, how entirely different from these, are the intellectual
pleasures of heaven, and how apt the love of them is to indispose us
for these, and in this sense to alienate us from the life of God. He is
therefore so far from feasting his senses (as the manner of the world
is) by all the variety of studied entertainments, that he endeavours by
all manner of ways to mortify them, and instead of setting up for a
soft, voluptuous life (according to St. Paul’s advice to Timothy)
inures himself to hardships, as a good soldier of Jesus Christ: Not
indeed by any such rigid austerities, as would destroy or impair his
health, but by such a sparing use of, and well-governed
abstemiousness from, even those pleasures which are lawful in
themselves, as may deaden his love to them, and make him more
indifferent to the enjoyment of them.

♦ inserted the word “how” per Errata

 ♦ 4. He will likewise keep a strict guard over his senses
themselves; as knowing they are the inlets of temptation, the landing
ports of our spiritual enemies, and the feeble parts of our nature,
which expose us to continual danger. Particularly, what can be more
dangerous than an unguarded eye or ear, while there is every day so
much to be seen and to be heard, to provoke to wickedness, and so
little to encourage holiness? Over these therefore he keeps a
constant guard, to prevent invasion and surprize, especially over the
eye, the most dangerous of the two, as being concerned with more
objects: praying also to God, without whose keeping the city the
watchman waketh but in vain, To turn away his eyes lest they behold
vanity, and to quicken him in his way; that nothing he sees or hears
in this his pilgrimage, may either turn him out of it, or hinder him in it.

♦ point “3.” skipped in text

*5. We may, secondly observe, how a prudent Christian pursues

improvement by the government of his understanding. Considering,
in the first place, what an excellent faculty and great endowment
understanding is, and for what great ends it was given him by God,
he thinks himself concerned not to let it lie idle, but to employ and
improve it as much as possible, that he may hereafter give a good
account of his talent: but were no account of it to be given, yet
considering himself farther as a traveller in his way to his end, and
his understanding as a torch that is to light him in it, he would think it
very proper to take care of it, and that not only to preserve it from
going out, but to feed it with such supplies of oil, that it might shine
the more brightly and clearly.
 *6. But yet as much as he is for improving his understanding, he
does not affect universal knowledge, as well knowing the vanity of
pretending to it, by one whose capacity is no greater and whose life
is no longer. Neither is he for filling his head with little things, no nor
with such great things as do not conduce to his end, and whose
impertinency to his business renders them as very trifles to him as
the other. Nor will he apply himself to the study of vain and
unprofitable sciences, nor yet of such theories as exceed the
proportion of his understanding: but as he must be ignorant of many
things, so he will not so much as endeavour to know such as are not
to be comprehended: indeed if God reveals them, he does not think
their being above his understanding, any reason why they should not
be believed. But though he believes them, yet he can see no cause,
to engage his thoughts, or employ his time in the search and study of
such things, only to lose himself in unfathomable depths, to the
neglect of other matters which he can comprehend, and is more
concerned so to do. And for the same cause he declines prying into
the hidden scenes of providence, those secret things that belong to
God, which though not absolutely incomprehensible in themselves,
yet being locked up in the womb of futurity, are by that wall of
partition, as inaccessible to us as the other.

*7. The same wisdom directs him not to study such things as
require great expence of time and labour to master them, unless
they bring him in an advantage answerable to the time and pains
which he bestows upon them. For he has so little time, and so great
an interest depending, he can’t think it frugal to throw away a
moment. Upon the same ground he does not regard what in
reputation, and in the vogue of the world passes for learning, but
what is true and real knowledge, and fit to perfect the mind of man.
And even in pursuing this he is on his guard, not suffering himself to
be transported by an immoderate thirst of it: but as his enquiries into
truth are modest, so he is discreet and select in making them,
applying himself to those most which are of greatest importance,
most serviceable to his moral conduct; especially to the knowledge
of God and of himself, wherein is contained the sum of human
wisdom.
 *8. In all his studies he takes care to avoid the two great
disorders incident to studious men, curiosity and vain-glory: curiosity,
which puts them upon useless enquiries, only to please themselves;
and vain-glory, which puts them on many dry and insipid studies,
only to please and procure the admiration of others. Nor does he
make any knowledge an end, but refers all to the great ends of virtue
and happiness: in all his intellectual applications making this his one
care, to love God, and to be loved by him.

9. After the regulation of his understanding, the next work of a

prudent Christian is, the government of his will and affections. These
of themselves are in the utmost disorder, caused by the general
corruption of our nature: and unless this is removed, no man can be
either good, or happy hereafter.

10. His first step towards this, is to teach his will to follow in all
things, not natural inclination, but the will of God revealed to us in his
word: for the will of God sways more with a prudent Christian than
any inclination of his own, which he is ready at all times, and in all
cases, to sacrifice to his duty; and his only care is to conform his will
to the will and word of God, as knowing that God, being infinitely
wise as well as good, cannot possibly command any thing, but what,
upon the whole account, it is best for him to do. Most chearfully
therefore does he depose his own will from the throne, and sets up
the will of God.
 *11. Nor is he less obedient to a providential than to the written
will of God. Not adhering to any private fancies, opinions or wishes
of his own, he absolutely refers himself to God, to his gracious and
all-wise disposal. He lodges all his concerns in his hands, and is
willing he should chuse for him; and when he does so, concluding it
best that things should be as the Governor of the world would have
them, he thankfully accepts his choice, and humbly acquiesces in
the wisdom of his providence: and accordingly, instead of cherishing
any thought, or using any language of discontent, he is in all things
ready to say with his Lord, Not as I will, but as thou wilt. Lord, thy will
was an innocent will, and yet thou didst resign it. How much more
should we resign our perverse and corrupt wills?

C H A P T E R V.
A persuasive to the study of Christian prudence, with some
advices relating to the practice of it.
1. AVING thus laid down the principles of Christian prudence, what
H remains but to persuade men to the study of it? And the first
consideration I shall offer to recommend the study of this
wisdom is, that it is attainable. *Many things employ the search of
studious men, which, after all, they can never master, but must sit
down, if not with a contented, yet with an unavoidable ignorance of.
But it is not so with wisdom: the acquisition of this depends not upon
great parts, but upon a willing mind. Speculation indeed is infinite,
and the well of truth has no bottom, and besides, Many have nothing
to draw with. But wisdom, like a fountain, lies open, and within
common reach. Some care, and pains, and diligence only it takes to
drink of it; an easy price for so precious a treasure. Now this
certainty of success is an encouraging motive to search after it in
good earnest. Men may seek for silver, and not find it, and search for
hid treasures, without being able to break in upon their dark
retirements. And yet they search on: how much more should we
search for wisdom, when we are sure not to be disappointed in our
search?

2. But may we not be so in our finding? Many things are

attainable by our labour, which are not worth our labour to attain. But
wisdom is not of those; on the contrary, nothing is so well worth
attaining. Wisdom it is that keeps the world in order, and makes
living in it a blessing, that is the parent of laws, the foundation of
government, and the great upholder and sweetner of all society.
Wisdom it is that teaches a man how to obey, and how to govern
even that ungovernable creature himself: to moderate his passions,
to compose his manners, to behave well in all circumstances of life.
In a word, that teaches a man to know God and himself, and by the
shining paths of virtue leads him to everlasting glory and happiness.