AMERICAN COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

LECTURE NOTES: APPLIED PHYSICS

LECTURER: MR. BOCKARIE LANSANA

1. Introduction to Physics:

Physics is a fundamental scientific discipline that explores the fundamental laws and principles
governing the behavior of the physical world around us. It is concerned with understanding the nature
of matter, energy, space, and time, and the interactions between them. Physics seeks to uncover the
underlying mechanisms and patterns that govern the universe, from the smallest subatomic particles to
the largest celestial bodies. It provides a framework for understanding the physical phenomena we
observe in our daily lives, from the motion of objects to the behavior of light and sound.

2. The Fundamental Questions about the Nature of Matter in Physics:

The fundamental questions about the nature of matter in physics include:

- What is the basic building block of matter? Physics has identified subatomic particles like protons,
neutrons, and electrons as the fundamental constituents of atoms, which are the basic units of matter.

- How do the fundamental particles that make up matter interact with each other? The interactions
between subatomic particles are governed by the four fundamental forces in nature - the strong nuclear
force, the weak nuclear force, electromagnetism, and gravity.

- What are the fundamental forces that govern the behavior of matter? The four fundamental forces -
strong, weak, electromagnetic, and gravitational - are the underlying forces that determine how matter
and energy interact and behave.

- How do the properties of matter, such as mass, charge, and spin, arise from the behavior of these
fundamental particles and forces? The properties of matter emerge from the complex interactions
between the fundamental particles and the fundamental forces acting upon them.

Physics seeks to uncover the underlying mechanisms and patterns that govern the behavior of matter
and energy at all scales, from the smallest subatomic particles to the largest structures in the universe.
This provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the physical world around us.
3. The Importance and Application of Physics in Everyday Life:

Physics plays a crucial role in our everyday lives, as it underpins many of the technologies and
phenomena we encounter daily. Some examples of the importance and application of physics in
everyday life include:

- Understanding the motion of objects, which is essential for activities like driving, sports, and
transportation?

- Explaining the behavior of light, which is crucial for technologies like lighting, optics, and
communication?

- Understanding the principles of electricity and magnetism, which are the foundation for modern
electrical devices and power generation.

- Explaining the behavior of fluids, this is important for understanding phenomena like weather, ocean
currents, and the functioning of the human body.

- Providing the scientific basis for technologies like medical imaging, renewable energy, and space
exploration.

4. The Role of Physics in the Field of Nursing:

Physics plays a significant role in the field of nursing, as it underpins many of the technologies and
principles used in healthcare. Some of the ways in which physics is important in nursing include:

- Understanding the principles of medical imaging, such as X-rays, CT scans, and MRI, which are essential
for diagnosis and treatment.

- Comprehending the behavior of fluids, this is crucial for understanding the functioning of the human
body and the administration of medications.

- Knowing the principles of electricity and magnetism, which are important for the operation of medical
devices like pacemakers and defibrillators?

- Understanding the properties of materials, which is important for the design and use of medical
equipment and devices?

- Applying the principles of thermodynamics and heat transfer to understand the body's temperature
regulation and the effects of various medical treatments.

5. The Branches of Physics:

The main branches of physics include:

- Mechanics: The study of the motion of objects and the forces that cause them to move.

- Thermodynamics: The study of heat, temperature, and their relation to energy, work, and properties of
matter and radiation.

- Electromagnetism: The study of electric and magnetic fields and their interactions with matter.

- Optics: The study of the behavior and properties of light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.

- Quantum Mechanics: The study of the behavior of matter and energy on the atomic and subatomic
scale.

- Relativity: The study of the relationship between space, time, and the physical laws of the universe.

- Astrophysics: The study of the physical properties of celestial objects and the universe as a whole.

- Biophysics: The study of the application of physics to biological systems and processes.

Key aspects to consider:

1. International System of Units (SI):

- The SI is the modern standardized metric system of measurement.

- The seven base units are: meter (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), ampere (A), kelvin (K), mole (mol), and
candela (cd).

- Derived units are formed by combining the base units, such as newton (N) for force, joule (J) for
energy, and watts (W) for power.

2. Measurement Scales:

- Nominal scale: Used for categorization, without any numerical value (e.g., blood type).

- Ordinal scale: Ranks or orders data, but the differences between values are not meaningful (e.g.,
Mohs hardness scale).

- Interval scale: Numerical values with equal intervals, but no true zero (e.g., Celsius temperature
scale).

- Ratio scale: Numerical values with a true zero, allowing for meaningful ratios (e.g., length, mass,
time).
3. Measurement Uncertainty:

- Accuracy: The closeness of a measurement to the true value.

- Precision: The degree of repeatability or reproducibility of a measurement.

- Significant figures: The number of digits in a measurement that are known with certainty, including
the uncertain last digit.

- Uncertainty: The range of values within which the true value is expected to lie, often expressed as a
margin of error.

4. Unit Conversions:

- Conversion factors: Ratios used to convert between different units of the same quantity (e.g., 1
meter = 100 centimeters).

- Dimensional analysis: Using the relationships between units to perform unit conversions and check
the consistency of equations.

5. Prefixes and Scientific Notation:

- Prefixes: Used to indicate the order of magnitude of a unit (e.g., milli-, centi-, kilo-, mega-).

- Scientific notation: A way of expressing very large or very small numbers using powers of 10 (e.g.,
6.022 × 10^23 for Avogadro's number).

Key points in unit conversion:

1. Conversion Factors:

- Conversion factors are ratios that relate one unit to another within the same physical quantity.

- For example, 1 meter = 100 centimeters, so the conversion factor is 1 m = 100 cm.

- Conversion factors can be used to convert between different units of the same quantity, such as
length, mass, time, or volume.

2. Dimensional Analysis:
 - Dimensional analysis is a systematic approach to unit conversions that involves using the
relationships between units.

- The general process is to set up a series of multiplication steps, where each step involves a
conversion factor that cancels out the unwanted units and leaves the desired unit.

- For example, to convert 5 miles to kilometers:

- 5 miles × (1.609 km/1 mile) = 8.045 km

3. Conversion Strategies:

- Start with the given unit and work towards the desired unit, using the appropriate conversion factors.

- Break down the conversion into multiple steps if necessary, using intermediate units.

- Pay attention to the direction of the conversion (e.g., converting from a larger unit to a smaller unit,
or vice versa).

- Ensure that the units cancel out correctly, leaving only the desired unit.

4. Common Conversion Examples:

- Length: inches to centimeters, feet to meters, miles to kilometers

- Mass: pounds to kilograms, ounces to grams

- Time: seconds to minutes, hours to days

- Volume: liters to milliliters, gallons to liters

- Temperature: Celsius to Fahrenheit, Kelvin to Celsius

5. Conversion Factors and Tables:

- Memorize or have access to common conversion factors, such as 1 inch = 2.54 cm, 1 pound = 0.454
kg, 1 gallon = 3.785 liters.

- Refer to conversion tables or online resources for less common or more complex conversions.

MOTION: Motion simply means a moving object, which changes the position or direction of objects
Types of Motion:

- Linear motion: Motion along a straight line, characterized by displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
Eg: Linear motion: A car accelerating from rest to a constant speed.

- Circular motion: Motion along a circular path, characterized by angular displacement, angular
velocity, and angular acceleration. Eg: - Circular motion: A satellite orbiting the Earth.

- Rotational motion: Motion involving the rotation of an object around a fixed axis, characterized by
angular quantities. Eg: Rotational motion: A spinning top or a rotating wheel.

- Projectile motion: Motion of an object under the influence of gravity, with both horizontal and
vertical components. Eg: Projectile motion: A ball thrown at an angle.

- Oscillatory motion: Repetitive back-and-forth motion, such as that of a pendulum or a mass-spring

system. Eg: Oscillatory motion: A mass-spring system or a pendulum

 Velocity-Time Graph:

- The velocity-time graph is a plot of an object's velocity (y-axis) against time (x-axis).

- The shape of the graph provides information about the object's motion, such as constant velocity,
acceleration, or deceleration.

 Kinematic Equations from the Velocity-Time Graph:

- Displacement (d):

- d = area under the velocity-time graph

- d = (v₀ + v) / 2 × t (for constant acceleration)

- Acceleration (a):
 - a = slope of the velocity-time graph

- a = (v - v₀) / t

- Velocity (v):

- v = slope of the position-time graph

- v = v₀ + at (for constant acceleration)

 Calculations Using the Velocity-Time Graph:

- Constant Velocity:

- Displacement: d = vt

- Constant Acceleration:

- Displacement: d = v₀t + 1/2at²

- Velocity: v = v₀ + at

- Deceleration (Negative Acceleration):

- Displacement: d = v₀t - 1/2at²

- Velocity: v = v₀ - at

Examples:

- Constant Velocity:

- A car traveling at a constant speed of 60 km/h for 2 hours.

- Displacement: d = vt = 60 km/h × 2 h = 120 km

- Constant Acceleration:

- A car accelerating from 0 to 100 km/h in 10 seconds.

- Acceleration: a = (v - v₀) / t = (100 km/h - 0 km/h) / 10 s = 10 km/h/s

- Displacement: d = v₀t + 1/2at² = 0 × 10 s + 1/2 × 10 km/h/s × (10 s)² = 500 m

- Deceleration:
 - A car braking from 80 km/h to a stop in 5 seconds.

- Deceleration: a = (v - v₀) / t = (0 km/h - 80 km/h) / 5 s = -16 km/h/s

- Displacement: d = v₀t - 1/2at² = 80 km/h × 5 s - 1/2 × (-16 km/h/s) × (5 s) ² = 200 m

 Vector Concepts:

- Vectors are mathematical quantities that have both magnitude (size) and direction.

- Scalars, on the other hand, are quantities that have only magnitude, not direction.

- Vectors can be represented by arrows, where the length of the arrow represents the magnitude, and
the direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector.

 Vector Operations:

- Addition: Vectors can be added by placing those head-to-tail and finding the resultant vector.

- Subtraction: Subtracting a vector is the same as adding the negative of that vector.

- Scalar Multiplication: Multiplying a vector by a scalar (a number) changes the magnitude of the
vector, but not its direction.

- Dot Product: The dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity that represents the projection of one
vector onto the other.

- Cross Product: The cross product of two vectors is a vector quantity that is perpendicular to both
input vectors.

 Vector Equations:

- Displacement: r = r₀ + vt

- Velocity: v = Δr / Δt

- Acceleration: a = Δv / Δt

- Newton's Second Law: F = ma

- Work: W = F · d

- Torque: τ = r × F
  Vector Calculations:

- Addition and Subtraction:

- Graphical method: Place vectors head-to-tail and find the resultant vector.

- Analytical method: Use the components of the vectors and apply the parallelogram rule.

- Scalar Multiplication:

- Multiply the vector by the scalar to obtain the new vector.

- Dot Product:

- Multiply the magnitudes of the vectors and the cosine of the angle between them.

- Cross Product:

- Use the determinant formula or the right-hand rule to find the resulting vector.

Examples:

- Displacement: A person walks 5 meters east and then 3 meters north. The resultant displacement
vector is 5.83 meters at an angle of 30.96 degrees.

- Velocity: A car travels at a constant velocity of 60 km/h in the positive x-direction.

- Acceleration: A ball is thrown upward with an initial velocity of 20 m/s. The acceleration due to
gravity is -9.8 m/s².

- Work: A person applies a force of 50 N to push a box 10 meters. The work done is 500 J.

Newton's laws of motion are fundamental principles that describe the relationship between an object
and the forces acting upon it. These laws, along with their associated equations of motion, are essential
in understanding and analyzing the motion of objects. Here's an overview of Newton's laws of motion
and the derivation of the equations of motion:

1. Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia):

 - An object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will remain in motion, unless acted upon
by an unbalanced force.

- This law establishes the concept of inertia, which is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its
state of motion.

2. Newton's Second Law (Law of Acceleration):

- The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting upon it and inversely
proportional to its mass.

- Mathematically, this can be expressed as: F = ma, where F is the net force, m is the mass, and a is the
acceleration.

3. Newton's Third Law (Law of Action and Reaction):

- For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

- This means that when one object exerts a force on another object, the second object exerts an equal
and opposite force on the first object.

Derivation of the Equations of Motion:

Using Newton's second law, we can derive the equations of motion for an object under constant
acceleration. Let's consider the motion of an object in one dimension (along the x-axis):

1. Displacement (x):

- Initial position: x₀

- Final position: x

- Displacement: Δx = x - x₀

2. Velocity (v):

- Initial velocity: v₀

- Final velocity: v
 - Velocity change: Δv = v - v₀

3. Acceleration (a):

- Acceleration is assumed to be constant.

Using Newton's second law, we can write:

F = ma

Rearranging the terms, we get:

a = F/m

Now, we can integrate the acceleration to obtain the equations of motion:

1. Displacement equation:

- Δx = v₀t + 1/2at²

2. Velocity equation:

- v = v₀ + at

3. Acceleration equation:

- a = constant

These equations, known as the kinematic equations of motion, allow us to relate the displacement,
velocity, and acceleration of an object under constant acceleration.

Examples:
- A ball is dropped from a height of 50 meters. Assuming no air resistance, find the time it takes for the
ball to reach the ground.

- A car accelerates from 0 to 60 mph in 8 seconds. Calculate the car's acceleration.

- A person applies a constant force of 50 N to push a 10 kg object. Find the object's acceleration.