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 Contents vii

THINKING COMPARATIVELY Qualities of Good Analysis and

Argumentation 34
Step 1: Asking Good Questions: Why? 34
Step 2: Hypothesis Testing: Generating Good Hypotheses and Testing Them
Fairly 34
Step 3: Balancing Argumentation: Evidence, Originality, and Meaningfulness 34

Part II The State, Development, Democracy, and Authoritarianism 37

3 The State 38
Concepts 40
The Modern State 40
Post-colonial States and Settler States 41
State Capacity 42
Failed States 43
The State–Society Relationship 43
Types 45
Characteristics of Modern States 45
Traditional Functions of States 49
Causes and Effects: Why Did States Emerge and Expand? 51
Political/Conflict Theories 51
Economic Theories 53
Cultural Theories 53
Diffusion Theories 54
THINKING COMPARATIVELY Great Britain, the United Kingdom, or Neither?
State and Nation in England and Scotland 57
CASES IN CONTEXT
Mexico 45
United Kingdom 54
Brazil 55

4 Political Economy 62
Concepts 63
Inequality 65
Employment and Inflation 67
Types 69
Markets and States in Modern Economies 69
Economic Functions of Modern States 73
Causes and Effects: Why Do Welfare States Emerge? 76
Cultural Changes 76
Industrial Capitalism 77
viii Contents

Mobilization and Political Action 78

International Learning Effects 80
THINKING COMPARATIVELY Welfare States in the Nordic Countries: What
Can We Learn, and How? 81
CASES IN CONTEXT
Japan 75
Canada 78

5 Development 84
Concepts 85
Types 86
Poverty 86
Social Outcomes and Human Development 86
Gender Relations and Racial and Ethnic Identities 88
Satisfaction and Happiness 90
Cultural Development 91
Sustainability 92
Causes and Effects: Why Does Development Happen? 92
Institutions: The Market–State Debate, Revisited 93
Institutions: Beyond the Market–State Debate 95
Culture and Development 96
Systems and Structures: Domestic and International 100
THINKING COMPARATIVELY Explaining the Development of North and
South Korea 102
CASES IN CONTEXT
India 87
Japan 88
Saudi Arabia 90
China 95
Iran 99

6 Democracy and Democratization 107

Concepts 109
Democracy and Democratic Regimes 109
Regime Change and Democratization 111
Types 112
Types of Democracy 113
Types of Democratization 116
Causes and Effects: What Causes Democratization? 117
Modernization 118
Culture and Democracy 119
The International System 121
 Contents ix

Domestic Institutions 122

Agents and Actors: The Role of Individuals and Groups 122
Combining Arguments and Theories: Multiple Causes 124
THINKING COMPARATIVELY Is Canadian Democracy a Model? 125
CASES IN CONTEXT
Canada 118
India 119
United States 125

7 Authoritarian Regimes and Democratic Breakdown 129

Concepts 131
Authoritarianism and Authoritarian Regimes 131
Transitions to Authoritarian Regimes 132
Types 132
Types of Authoritarianism 132
Types of Transition (or Nontransition) to Authoritarianism 137
Causes and Effects: What Causes Authoritarian Regimes to Emerge
and Persist? 142
Historical Institutionalist Theories 142
Poverty and Inequality 143
State Weakness and Failure 145
Political Culture Theories of Authoritarian
Persistence 145
Barriers to Collective Action 146
Special Causal Circumstances Surrounding
Hybrid and Semi-authoritarian Regimes 147
THINKING COMPARATIVELY Why Did Zimbabwe Become Authoritarian? 149
CASES IN CONTEXT
Iran 134
Mexico 139
Germany 141

Part III Institutions of Government 153

8 Constitutions and Constitutional Design 154

Concepts 156
Constitutions 156
Constitutional Design: Including Some, Excluding Others 158
The Separation of Powers? 161
Types 162
Flexible and Rigid Constitutions 162
x Contents

Separation of Powers: Judicial Review and Parliamentary Sovereignty 164

Federalism and Unitarism 165
Authoritarian and Democratic Constitutions 167
Causes and Effects: What Are the Effects of Federal Constitutions? 168
Are Federal Constitutions Good for Social Stability? 168
Are Federal Constitutions Good for Democratic Rights? 170
Are Federal Constitutions Good for the Economy and Society? 171
Judicial Review and Democracy 172
THINKING COMPARATIVELY What Explains the Similarities between the
Brazilian and South African Constitutions? 174
CASES IN CONTEXT
Iran 169
Canada 170
India 172

9 Legislatures and Legislative Elections 178

Concepts 180
What Legislatures Are 180
What Legislatures Do 181
Types 182
Unicameral and Bicameral Legislatures 182
Electoral Systems 184
Executive–Legislative Relations 189
Causes and Effects: What Explains Patterns of Representation? 191
Patterns of Representation 192
Electoral Systems and Representation 193
Legislative Decision-Making and Representation 196
Executive–Legislative Relations and Representation 197
THINKING COMPARATIVELY Representation in New Zealand
and Beyond 198
CASES IN CONTEXT
Japan 190
Germany 191
United States 195

10 Executives 202
Concepts 203
Types 206
Executive Structures: Presidential and Parliamentary 206
Formal Powers 209
Partisan Powers 212
 Contents xi

Coalitions 212
Informal Powers 216
Causes and Effects: What Explains Executive Stability? 216
Stable and Unstable Regimes: Presidentialism, Parliamentarism,
and Democracy 217
Stable and Unstable Executives: Styles of Presidential Rule 218
Stable and Unstable Executives: Patterns of Parliamentary Rule 219
THINKING COMPARATIVELY Beyond the American and British Models 221
CASES IN CONTEXT
France 207
United States 208
Russia 211
Nigeria 217

11 Political Parties, Party Systems, and Interest Groups 225

Concepts 226
Political Parties 227
Party Systems 228
Interest Groups 229
Types 230
Political Parties: Elite, Mass, and Catch-All Parties 230
Party Systems: Dominant-Party, Two-Party, and Multiparty Systems 231
Interest Groups: Pluralism and Corporatism 235
Causes and Effects: Why Do Party Systems Emerge, and What Effects Do
They Have? 237
Party Systems and Representation 238
Interest Groups and Representation 241
THINKING COMPARATIVELY Party Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa 243
CASES IN CONTEXT
China 233
Russia 237

Part IV Politics, Society, and Culture 247

12 Revolutions and Contention 248

Concepts 249
What Is “Contention”? 250
Revolutionary and Non-revolutionary Contention 251
Types 251
Social Movements 251
xii Contents

Revolutions 254
Insurgencies and Civil Wars 257
Terrorism 258
“Everyday Resistance” 259
Thinking about Contention: Summary 259
Causes and Effects: Why Do Revolutions Happen? 260
Relative Deprivation 260
Resource Mobilization and Political Opportunities 260
Rational Choice 261
Cultural or “Framing” Explanations 264
THINKING COMPARATIVELY The “Arab Spring” of 2011 265
CASES IN CONTEXT
France 256
Russia 261
China 262

13 Nationalism and National Identity 270

Concepts 271
Identity 271
Nationalism and the Nation 273
Types 273
The Academic Study of Nationalism 273
Types of Nationalism 276
Causes and Effects: What Causes Ethno-National Conflict? 278
Primordial Bonds 279
Cultural Boundaries 280
Material Interests 281
Rational Calculation 281
Social Psychology 283
THINKING COMPARATIVELY Ending Ethnic and National Violence 284
CASE IN CONTEXT
Nigeria 280

14 Race, Ethnicity, and Gender 287

Concepts 289
Race and Ethnicity 289
Gender 290
Sexual Orientation 291
Types 292
Disentangling Race and Ethnicity 292
Discrimination Based on Race and Ethnicity 293
 Contents xiii

Gender Discrimination 294

Empowerment of Women and Minority Groups 296
Feminism and Intersectionality 297
Causes and Effects: What Factors Influence the Political Representation
of Women and Minority Groups? 298
Social Movement Mobilization 298
Political Parties Based on Gender or Ethnicity 299
Institutions for Promoting Women’s and Minority Group Representation 302
THINKING COMPARATIVELY Indicators of Gender Empowerment 304
CASES IN CONTEXT
Brazil 298
Saudi Arabia 300

15 Ideology and Religion in Modern Politics 307

Concepts 308
Modernity and Modernization 309
Ideology 309
Religion 310
Secularization, Religion, and Modern Politics 310
Religious Conflict 312
Types 312
Modern Ideologies 312
Modern Forms of Religion in Politics 315
Causes and Effects: Why Do Religion and Ideology Remain Prevalent in
Modern Politics? 318
Why (and How) Does Modernization Alter Religion’s Role in Politics? 318
Why Didn’t Ideology (and History) End? 320
THINKING COMPARATIVELY Is 21st-Century Populism an Ideology? 323
CASE IN CONTEXT
Saudi Arabia 316

Part V The Comparative–International Nexus 327

16 Comparative Politics and International Relations 328

Concepts 330
Issues 331
Globalization and Trade 331
International Institutions and Integration 335
Immigration 337
Environment and Sustainability 339
xiv Contents

Transnational Networks 341

Nuclear Threats and Terrorism 342
Causes and Effects: What Are the Main Causes in International
Relations? 344
Realism 344
Liberalism 346
Constructivism 347
Socialism 348
THINKING COMPARATIVELY The EU and Levels of Analysis 349
CASES IN CONTEXT
France 339
Iran 343
India 343

Part VI Country Profiles and Cases 353

Brazil 354
PROFILE 354
Introduction 354
Historical Development 356
Regime and Political Institutions 358
Political Culture 359
Political Economy 359
CASE STUDIES 360
Democratic Consolidation in Brazil (Chapter 3) 360
Gender and Political Representation in Brazil: Where Has Progress Come From?
(Chapter 14) 361
Research Prompts 362

Canada 363
PROFILE 363
Introduction 363
Historical Development 365
Regime and Political Institutions 369
Political Culture 370
Political Economy 370
CASE STUDIES 371
How Does Canada Compare in Terms of Gender Equality?
(Chapter 4) 371
 Contents xv

What Is the Future of Reconciliation between Indigenous Peoples and the

Canadian Settler State? (Chapter 6) 372
Is Quebec Independence Now off the Agenda? (Chapter 8) 373
Research Prompts 374

China 375
PROFILE 375
Introduction 375
Historical Development 377
Regime and Political Institutions 379
Political Culture 380
Political Economy 381
CASE STUDIES 382
The Chinese Party System (Chapter 11) 382
The Chinese Revolution (Chapter 12) 382
Research Prompts 383

France 385
PROFILE 385
Introduction 385
Historical Development 387
Regime and Political Institutions 390
Political Culture 390
Political Economy 391
CASE STUDIES 392
Electing the French President: What Do Runoffs Do? (Chapter 10) 392
The French Revolution (Chapter 12) 392
Globalization and Culture in France (Chapter 16) 393
Research Prompts 394

Germany 395
PROFILE 395
Introduction 395
Historical Development 397
Regime and Political Institutions 400
Political Culture 401
Political Economy 401
CASE STUDIES 402
Democracy and Authoritarianism in Germany (Chapter 7) 402
Institutional Design: Germany’s Bundestag and Bundesrat (Chapter 9) 402
Research Prompts 403
xvi Contents

India 405
PROFILE 405
Introduction 405
Historical Development 407
Regime and Political Institutions 410
Political Culture 411
Political Economy 411
CASE STUDIES 412
What Explains India’s Recent Growth? (Chapter 5) 412
India in the 21st Century: Domestic Politics, Identity,
and Security (Chapter 16) 413
Research Prompts 413

Iran 415
PROFILE 415
Introduction 415
Historical Development 417
Regime and Political Institutions 420
Political Economy 420
CASE STUDIES 421
Gender in Post-revolutionary Iranian Politics (Chapter 5) 421
Democratic Features of Authoritarian Systems?
The Case of Iran (Chapter 7) 422
Iran and the Politics of Nuclear Proliferation (Chapter 16) 422
Research Prompts 423

Japan 424
PROFILE 424
Introduction 424
Historical Development 426
Regime and Political Institutions 429
Political Culture 429
Political Economy 430
CASE STUDIES 431
Gender Empowerment in Japan? (Chapter 5) 431
The Hybrid Electoral System of the Japanese
Diet (Chapter 9) 432
Research Prompts 432
 Contents xvii

Mexico 434
PROFILE 434
Introduction 434
Historical Development 436
Regime and Political Institutions 439
Political Economy 440
CASE STUDIES 441
Why Aren’t There Major Ethnic Parties in Mexico? (Chapter 3) 441
The Mexican State and Rule of Law (Chapter 7) 442
Research Prompts 443

Nigeria 444
PROFILE 444
Introduction 444
Historical Development 446
Regime and Political Institutions 448
Political Culture 448
Political Economy 449
CASE STUDIES 450
Federalism and the States in Nigeria: Holding Together or Tearing Apart?
(Chapter 10) 450
Are Natural Resources Sometimes a Curse? The Nigerian Case
(Chapter 13) 451
Research Prompts 452

Russia 453
PROFILE 453
Introduction 453
Historical Development 455
Regime and Political Institutions 458
Political Culture 459
Political Economy 459
CASE STUDIES 460
Oligarchy, Democracy, and Authoritarianism in Russia
(Chapter 10) 460
Personalism and the Party System in Russia (Chapter 11) 461
The Russian Revolution (Chapter 12) 461
Research Prompts 462
xviii Contents

Saudi Arabia 463

PROFILE 463
Introduction 463
Historical Development 465
Regime and Political Institutions 467
Political Culture 468
Political Economy 469
CASE STUDIES 470
The Rise of Mohammed bin Salman (MBS): Reform or Repression?
(Chapter 5) 470
Why Has Saudi Arabia Made Such Little Progress on Women’s Rights?
(Chapter 14) 471
Yemen’s Civil War: What Is the Saudi Role? (Chapter 15) 472
Research Prompts 473

United Kingdom 474

PROFILE 474
Introduction 474
Historical Development 476
Regime and Political Institutions 479
Political Culture 480
Political Economy 480
CASE STUDIES 481
No Constitution? No Supreme Court? Constitutionality in the United Kingdom
(Chapter 3) 481
The United Kingdom and the Westminster Model (Chapter 9) 482
Research Prompts 483

United States 484

PROFILE 484
Introduction 485
Historical Development 485
Regime and Political Institutions 489
Political Culture 490
Political Economy 490
CASE STUDIES 491
Is American Democracy in Trouble? (Chapter 6) 491
The United States Congress: Dysfunctional or Functioning by Design?
(Chapter 9) 492
 Contents xix

The United States and the World: A Love–Hate Relationship?

(Chapter 16) 493
Research Prompts 493

Glossary 495
Notes 507
References and Further Reading 519
Index 543
BOXES

INSIGHT

Chapter 3 Chapter 12
Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States 53 Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A
Hendrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors 56 Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China 263

Chapter 4 Chapter 13
Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare David Laitin, Nations, States, and Violence 282
Capitalism 79 Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict 283

Chapter 5 Chapter 14
Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson, Frances Henry, Enakshi Dua, Carl E. James, Audrey
The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development 98 Kobayashi, Peter Li, Howard Ramos, and Malinda S.
Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System 101 Smith, The Equity Myth: Racialization and Indigeneity at
Canadian Universities 297
Chapter 6 Sheryl Lightfoot, Global Indigenous Politics: A Subtle
Guillermo O’Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Revolution 299
Whitehead, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects Mona Lena Krook, Quotas for Women in Politics: Gender
for Democracy 124 and Candidate Selection Reform Worldwide 303

Chapter 7 Chapter 15
Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship David Rayside, Jerald Sabin, and Paul E.J. Thomas, Religion
and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the and Canadian Party Politics 317
Modern World 144 Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, Sacred and Secular:
Timur Kuran, Now Out of Never: The Element of Surprise in Religion and Politics Worldwide 318
the East European Revolution of 1989 146 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man 321
Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the
Chapter 9 Remaking of World Order 322
Hannah Pitkin, The Concept of Representation 193 Shmuel N. Eisenstadt, Multiple Modernities 322

Chapter 10 Chapter 16
Juan Linz, The Perils of Presidentialism and the Virtues of Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons 341
Parliamentarism 218 Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics 345
Arend Lijphart, Consociational Democracy 220 Michael Doyle, Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign
Affairs 347
Chapter 11 Alexander Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics 348
Maurice Duverger, Les Partis politiques [Political Parties] 238
Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods
and the Theory of Groups and The Rise and Decline
of Nations: Economic Growth, Stagflation, and Social
Rigidities 242
 Boxes xxi

ONLINE CASE STUDIES

In addition to the case studies that appear in this book, you Japan
can find the following case studies online at www.oup. • How Did Japan’s Dominant Party Win for So Long?
com/he/DickovickCe: • Importing National Identity in Japan?
• Resource Management in Japan
Brazil • State-Led Development in Japan
• Brazil’s Landless Movement
• Does the Global Economy Help or Hurt Developing Mexico
Nations Like Brazil? • Industrialization, Modernity, and National Identity in
• Electoral Rules and Party (In)Discipline in Brazil’s Mexico
Legislature • Mexico’s “Perfect Dictatorship” and Its End
• The PRI and Corporatism in Mexico
Canada
• Should the Senate Be Reformed to Be More Accountable Nigeria
and Democratic? • The Presidency in Nigeria: Powers and Limitations
• Why Does It Take So Long to Choose a Leader? • The Nigerian Civil War or Biafran War: Nationalism and
Ethno-national Conflict in a Post-colonial Society
China • What Is a Weak State, and Can It Be Changed? The Case
• How Did China Become a Global Economic Power? of Nigeria
• Is China Destined for Democracy?
• Who Governs China? Russia
• Communist Ideology in Practice: Russia and the Soviet
France Union
• Authoritarian Persistence in 19th-Century France • Executives in Russia: Formal and Informal Powers
• Religion and Secularism in France
• The State in France Saudi Arabia
• How Has Saudi Arabia’s Welfare State Saved the
Germany Regime?
• Consensus-Based Politics in Germany
• Ethnic Boundaries of the German Nation? United Kingdom
• The German State: Unification and Welfare • National Identity in the United Kingdom
• Political Economy of Britain
India • The State in the United Kingdom
• Democracy’s Success in India
• Ethnicity and Political Parties in India United States
• Federalism and Differences in Development in India • Did Free Markets Help the United States Get Rich? Will
They in the Future?
Iran • Is Judicial Activism in the United States a Problem?
• Constitutional Design: Theocracy in Iran • “The Most Powerful Person in the World”? Checks on
• Iran’s Islamic Revolution and “Green Revolution”? American Presidents
• Religion and Politics in Iran
PREFACE AND
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The field of comparative politics is changing, not only in how it’s studied but in how it’s
taught. This textbook reflects the need for a new approach—one that is truly comparative,
that goes beyond a litany of facts or abstract ideas. In the process, we had to rethink what a
book for this course should look like. We started with a central aim: to get students to think
like comparativists. Toward that end, we have integrated theories and methods with a range
of country case applications to address the big questions in comparative politics today.
In this new Canadian adaption, we have also sought to reflect content of interest to
Canadian students of comparative politics, most of whom are living through an era of recon-
ciliation between Indigenous and settler peoples, and during a time when multiculturalism
remains an important ideational force in Canada. This book updates the earlier US edition,
with new content throughout reflecting many of the changes that have taken place since
2015. This includes the rise of global populism in Europe, Asia, Latin America, the United
States, and Canada. It also includes many political changes, including the rise of Donald
Trump, the re-election of Justin Trudeau’s Liberal government in Canada, the machinations
of the Islamic State, and the outcome of the Brexit referendum in the United Kingdom.
Many undergraduates take a course in comparative politics because they are broadly
interested in world affairs. They want to understand issues such as democracy and democ-
ratization, economic and social development, transnational social movements, and the rela-
tionship between world religions and conflict around the globe. This book focuses squarely
on these big issues and offers a framework for understanding through comparison.
This new adaption shifts the focus from the US version of this book, which tended to
assume a certain level of knowledge of American history and politics. It also assumed a
certain American-centred standpoint that needed some adjusting for students outside of
the United States. Instead, this text now places Canadian students and their experiences
at the centre of the analysis. Throughout, Canadian examples and data have been added to
help make the concepts more accessible and engaging for students living and studying in
Canada. Reflecting David’s research interests, there is now considerable coverage given to
Indigenous politics and issues affecting Indigenous peoples around the world. There is also
additional content on pressing issues of race, gender, and sexual identities in Canada and
in comparative context. In Part VI: Country Profiles and Cases, we have also expanded the
number of featured countries to 14 (increased from 12), with the addition of Canada and
Saudi Arabia. We have also made additional case studies available online at www.oup.com/
he/DickovickCe.
Our goal is to enable students to think critically and apply these vital skills to analyze
the world around them. We want our students to do more than just memorize facts and
theories. Ultimately, we want them to learn how to do comparative politics. This course is
successful if students can use the comparative method to seek out their own answers. We
are successful as educators if we give them the analytical skills to do so.

An Integrative Approach
One of the distinctive features of this book is the way we have integrated theories, methods,
and cases. Rather than focusing on either country information or themes of comparative
politics, we have combined these approaches while emphasizing application and analysis.
By providing students with the tools to begin doing their own analyses, we hope to show
them how exciting this kind of work can be. These tools include theories (presented in an
accessible way), the basics of the comparative method, and manageable case materials for
practice, all in the context of the big questions.
 Preface and Acknowledgements xxiii

We thus take an integrative approach to the relationship between big themes and coun-
try case studies. This text is a hybrid, containing 16 thematic chapters plus linked materials
for 14 countries of significant interest to comparativists. This is supplemented by online
case study resources. The country materials following the thematic chapters include both
basic country information and a series of case studies dealing with specific thematic issues.
We link the country cases to the thematic chapters via short “call out” boxes—“Cases
in Context”—at relevant points in the chapters. For example, a “Case in Context” box in a
discussion of theory in Chapter 3, “The State,” points students to a full case study on dem-
ocratic consolidation in Brazil, included at the back of the text.
Using these short “linking” boxes has enabled us to integrate a complete set of case
materials without interrupting the narrative flow of the chapters. The kind of reading we
suggest with the structure of this text is similar to following hyperlinks in online text—
something students do easily. This flexible design feature also caters to the diversity of
teaching styles in today’s political science classroom. Instructors can choose to have stu-
dents follow these links to case studies as they go, using all or just some of them, or they can
choose to teach thematic chapters and country materials separately.
The text integrates theories, methods, and cases in other ways as well. “Insights” boxes
make connections by briefly summarizing important scholarly works representative of the
major schools of thought.
Each chapter after the introduction closes with a “Thinking Comparatively” feature,
which focuses on a case or set of cases to illustrate how students can apply the theories
discussed in the chapter.
In these features, we highlight important methodological tools or strategies, such as the
use of deviant cases and the most-similar-systems (mss) design. We then model for students
how to use these analytical tools in practice.

Organization
We have divided the 16 thematic chapters of this book into five parts:
• Part I (Chapters 1 and 2) focuses on basic methods in comparative politics, cover-
ing conceptualization, hypothesis testing, the formation of theories, and the use of
evidence. The goal in these first two chapters is not to focus on the details of meth-
odology, which can be taught in more specialized courses, but on the overarching
logic of comparative inquiry.
• Part II (Chapters 3 through 7) focuses on the state (Chapter 3), political economy
(Chapter 4), development (Chapter 5), democracy and democratization (Chapter 6),
and the various forms of authoritarian regimes (Chapter 7).
• Part III (Chapters 8 through 11) focuses on the analysis of political institutions,
giving students the tools to analyze institutional design in constitutional struc-
tures and judiciaries (Chapter 8), legislatures and elections (Chapter 9), executives
(Chapter 10), and political parties and interest groups (Chapter 11).
• Part IV (Chapters 12 through 15) focuses on issues that link comparative politics
to political sociology, such as the study of revolution and other forms of contention
(Chapter 12), national identities and nationalism (Chapter 13), race, gender, and
ethnicity (Chapter 14), and religion and ideology (Chapter 15).
• Part V consists of a single chapter, 16, which links comparative politics to interna-
tional relations, emphasizing how global politics has produced new sets of prob-
lems that both comparativists and international relations scholars must analyze.
As such, the book points to another kind of integration, pushing students to see
connections between comparative politics and other courses in political science.
xxiv Preface and Acknowledgements

After Chapter 2, the thematic chapters follow a common format. They are divided into
three main sections:
• Concepts: covers basic definitions and develops a working vocabulary.
• Types: discusses useful typologies, such as the major types of dramatic social change
that interest political scientists.
• Causes and Effects: walks students through the major theories that aim to explain
causes and effects, ending with the “Thinking Comparatively” feature to model analysis.
The final part of the book, Part VI, comprises country “profiles” and in-depth “case
studies.” We selected 14 countries after surveying instructors of comparative politics
to see which they considered most crucial for inclusion. The cases are Brazil, Canada,
China, France, Germany, India, Iran, Japan, Mexico, Nigeria, Russia, Saudi Arabia, the
United Kingdom, and the United States. This selection offers broad coverage of every
major world region, democratic and authoritarian polities, every major religious tra-
dition, highly varying levels of economic and social development, and quite different
institutional designs. In this Canadian adaption, we have added country materials on
Canada and on Saudi Arabia.
For each country, we first provide a “profile”: an introduction with a table of key fea-
tures, a map, and pie charts of demographics; a timeline and historical overview; and brief
descriptions of political institutions, political culture, and political economy.
Following each profile is a set of case studies (two or three for each country) that we
reference in the thematic chapters as described earlier (via the “Case in Context” boxes).
The case sets end with research prompts to help students get started as comparativ-
ists, and includes a list of the online case studies that you can find at www.oup.com/he/
DickovickCe.

Flexibility in Instruction:
Ways of Using This Text
The chapters are arranged in a logical order yet written in such a way that instructors might
easily rearrange them to custom-fit a course. Some instructors, for example, may wish to
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 Over your ankles
Lace on the white war-hose;
Over your bosoms
Link up the hard mail-nets;
Over your lips
Plait long tresses with cunning;—
So war beasts full-bearded
King Odin shall deem you,
When off the gray sea-beach
At sunrise ye greet him.”
The Longbeards’ Saga (Charles Kingsley).

These instructions were carried out with scrupulous exactness

by the Winiler women, and when Odin awoke and sat up in bed early
the next morning, his first conscious glance fell upon their armed
host, and he exclaimed in surprise, “What Longbeards are those?”
(In German the ancient word for long beards was Langobarden,
which was the name used to designate the Lombards.) Frigga, upon
hearing this exclamation, which she had foreseen, immediately cried
out in triumph that Allfather had given them a new name, and was in
honor bound to follow the usual Northern custom and give them also
a baptismal gift.

“‘A name thou hast given them,

Shames neither thee nor them,
Well can they wear it.
Give them the victory,
First have they greeted thee;
Give them the victory,
Yoke-fellow mine!’”
The Longbeards’ Saga (Charles Kingsley).

Odin, seeing he had been so cleverly outwitted, gave them the

victory, and in memory of this auspicious day the Winilers retained
the name given by the king of the gods, who ever after watched over
them with special care, and vouchsafed them many blessings,
among others a home in the sunny South, on the fruitful plains of
Lombardy.
Frigga had, as her own special attendants, a number of beautiful
Fulla. maidens, among whom were Fulla (Volla), her sister,
according to some authorities, to whom she intrusted
her jewel casket. Fulla always presided over her mistress’s toilet,
was privileged to put on her golden shoes, attended her everywhere,
was her confidante and adviser, and often told her how best to help
the mortals who implored her aid. Fulla was very beautiful indeed,
and had long golden hair, which she wore flowing loose over her
shoulders, restrained only by a golden circlet or snood. As her hair
was emblematic of the golden grain, this circlet represented the
binding of the sheaf. Fulla was also known as Abundia, or
Abundantia, in some parts of Germany, where she was considered
the symbol of the fullness of the earth.
Hlin, Frigga’s second attendant, was the goddess of consolation,
sent out to kiss away the tears of mourners and pour balm into
hearts wrung by grief. She also listened with ever-open ears to the
prayers of mortals, repeated them to her mistress, and advised her
at times how best to answer them and give the desired relief.
Gna was Frigga’s swift messenger, who, mounted upon her fleet
Gna. steed Hofvarpnir (hoof thrower), traveled with
marvelous rapidity through fire and air, over land and
sea, and was therefore considered the personification of the
refreshing breeze. Darting thus to and fro, Gna saw all that was
happening upon earth, and told her mistress all she knew. On one
occasion, as she was passing over Hunaland, she saw King Rerir, a
lineal descendant of Odin, sitting mournfully by the shore, bewailing
his childlessness. The queen of heaven, who was also goddess of
childbirth, upon hearing this took an apple (the emblem of
fruitfulness) from her private store, gave it to Gna, and bade her
carry it to the king. With the rapidity of the element she personified,
Gna darted away, passed over Rerir’s head, and dropped her apple
into his lap with a radiant smile.
 “‘What flies up there, so quickly driving past?’
Her answer from the clouds, as rushing by:
‘I fly not, nor do drive, but hurry fast,
Hoof flinger swift through cloud and mist and sky.’”
Asgard and the Gods (Wägner-Macdowall).

The king, after pondering for a moment upon the meaning of this
sudden apparition and gift, returned home, his heart beating high
with hope, gave the apple to his wife to eat, and to his intense joy
was soon no longer childless, for his wife bore him a son, Volsung,
the great Northern hero, who became so famous that he gave his
name to all his race.
Besides the three above-mentioned attendants, Frigga also had
Lofn. in her train the mild and gracious maiden Lofn (praise
or love), whose duty it was to remove all obstacles
from the path of lovers.

“My lily tall, from her saddle bearing,

I led then forth through the temple, faring
To th’ altar-circle where, priests among,
Lofn’s vows she took with unfalt’ring tongue.”
Viking Tales of the North (R. B. Anderson).

Vjofn’s duty was to incline obdurate hearts to love, to maintain

peace and concord among mankind, and to reconcile quarreling
husbands and wives. Syn (truth) guarded the door of Frigga’s
palace, refusing to open it to those who were not allowed to come in.
When she had once shut the door upon a would-be intruder there
was no appeal which would avail to change her decision. She
therefore presided over all tribunals and trials, and whenever a thing
was to be vetoed the usual formula was to declare that Syn was
against it.
Gefjon was also one of the maidens in Frigga’s palace, and to
Gefjon. her were intrusted all those who died virgins, whom
she received and made happy forever. According to
some mythologists, Gefjon did not always remain a virgin herself, but
married one of the giants, by whom she had four sons. This same
tradition goes on to declare that Odin sent her ahead of him to visit
Gylfi, King of Sweden, and beg for some land which she might call
her own. The king, amused at her request, promised her as much
land as she could plow around in one day and night. Gefjon, nothing
daunted, changed her four sons into oxen, harnessed them to a
plow, and began to cut a furrow so wide and deep that the king and
his courtiers were amazed. But Gefjon continued her work without
giving any signs of fatigue, and when she had plowed all around a
large piece of land forcibly wrenched it away, and made her oxen
drag it down into the sea, where she made it fast and called it
Seeland.

“Gefjun drew from Gylfi,

Rich in stored up treasure,
The land she joined to Denmark.
Four heads and eight eyes bearing,
While hot sweat trickled down them,
The oxen dragged the reft mass
That formed this winsome island.”
Norse Mythology (R. B. Anderson).

As for the hollow she left behind her, it was quickly filled with
water and formed a lake, at first called Logrum (the sea), but now
known as Mälar, whose every indentation corresponds with the
headlands of Seeland. Gefjon then married Skiold, one of Odin’s
sons, and became the ancestress of the royal Danish race of
Skioldungs, dwelling in the city of Hleidra or Lethra, which she
founded, and which became the principal place of sacrifice for the
heathen Danes.
Eira, also Frigga’s attendant, was considered a most skillful
Eira. physician. She gathered simples all over the earth to
cure both wounds and diseases, and it was her
province to teach her science to women, who were the only ones to
practice medicine among the ancient nations of the North.
 “Gaping wounds are bound by Eyra.”
Valhalla (J. C. Jones).

Vara heard all oaths and punished perjurers, while she rewarded
those who faithfully kept their word. Then there were also Vör (faith),
who knew all that was to occur throughout the world, and Snotra,
goddess of virtue, who had mastered every kind of study.
With such a band of followers it is no wonder that Frigga was
considered an influential goddess; but in spite of the prominent place
she occupied in Northern religion, she had no special temple or
shrine, and was but little worshiped except in company with Odin.
While Frigga was not known by this name in southern Germany,
Holda. there were other goddesses worshiped there, whose
attributes were so exactly like hers, that they were
evidently the same, although they bore very different names in the
various provinces. Among them was the fair goddess Holda (Hulda
or Frau Holle) who graciously dispensed many rich gifts, and as she
presided over the weather, the people were wont to declare when
the snowflakes fell that Frau Holle was shaking her bed, and when it
rained, that she was washing her clothes, often pointing to the white
clouds as her linen which she had put out to bleach. When long gray
strips of clouds drifted across the sky they said she was weaving, for
she too was supposed to be a very diligent weaver, spinner, and
housekeeper. It is said she gave flax to mankind and taught them
how to use it, and in Tyrol the following story is told about the way in
which she bestowed this invaluable gift:
There was once a peasant who daily left his wife and children
Discovery of down in the valley to take his sheep up the mountain
flax. to pasture; and as he watched his flock graze on the
mountain side, he often had the opportunity to use his
cross-bow and bring down a chamois, whose flesh furnished his
larder with food for many a day.
While pursuing some fine game one day he saw it disappear
behind a bowlder, and when he came to the spot, he was amazed to
see a doorway in the neighboring glacier, for in the excitement of the
pursuit he had climbed higher and higher until he was now on top of
the mountain, where glittered the everlasting snow.
The shepherd boldly passed through the open door, and soon
found himself in a wonderful jeweled and stalactite-hung cave, in the
center of which stood a beautiful woman, clad in silvery robes, and
attended by a host of lovely maidens crowned with Alpine roses. In
his surprise, the shepherd sank to his knees, and as in a dream
heard the queenly central figure bid him choose anything he saw to
carry away with him. Although dazzled by the glow of the precious
stones around him, the shepherd’s eyes constantly reverted to a little
nosegay of blue flowers which the gracious apparition held in her
hand, and he now timidly proffered a request that it might become
his. Smiling with pleasure, Holda, for it was she, gave it to him,
telling him he had chosen wisely and would live as long as the
flowers did not droop and fade. Then giving the shepherd a measure
of seed which she told him to sow in his field, the goddess bade him
begone; and as the thunder pealed and the earth shook, the poor
man found himself out upon the mountain side once more, and
slowly wended his way home to tell his adventure to his wife and
show her the lovely blue flowers and the measure of seed.
The woman reproached her husband bitterly for not having
brought some of the precious stones which he so glowingly
described, instead of the blossoms and seed; nevertheless the man
sowed the latter, and often lingered near the field at nightfall to see
his new crop grow, for to his surprise the measure had supplied seed
enough for several acres.
Soon the little green shoots began to appear, and one moonlight
night, while the peasant was gazing upon them, wondering what kind
of grain they would produce, he saw a mistlike form hover above the
field, with hands outstretched as if in blessing. At last the field
blossomed, and countless little blue flowers opened their calyxes to
the golden sun. When the flowers had withered and the seed was
ripe, Holda came once more to teach the peasant and his wife how
to harvest the flax stalks and spin, weave, and bleach the linen they
produced. Of course all the people of the neighborhood were
anxious to purchase both linen and flaxseed, and the peasant and
his wife soon grew very rich indeed, for while he plowed, sowed, and
harvested, she spun, wove, and bleached her linen. When the man
had lived to a good old age and seen his grandchildren and great
grandchildren grow up around him, he noticed that his carefully
treasured bouquet, whose flowers had remained fresh for many a
year, had wilted and died.
Knowing that his time had come and that he too must soon die,
the peasant climbed the mountain once more, came to the glacier,
and found the doorway which he had long vainly sought. He
vanished within, and was never seen or heard of again, for the
legend states that the goddess took him under her care, and bade
him live in her cave, where his every wish was gratified.
According to a mediæval tradition, Holda dwelt in a cave in the
Tannhäuser. Hörselberg, in Thuringia, where she was known as
Frau Venus, and was considered as an enchantress
who lured mortals into her realm, where she detained them forever,
steeping their senses in all manner of sensual pleasures. The most
famous of her victims is doubtless Tannhäuser, who, anxious to save
his soul, escaped from her power and hastened to Rome to confess
his sins and seek absolution. But the pope, hearing that he had been
in the company of one of the heathen goddesses, whom the priests
taught were nothing but demons, declared that the knight could no
more hope for pardon than to see his staff bear buds and bloom.

“Hast thou within the nets of Satan lain?

Hast thou thy soul to her perdition pledged?
Hast thou thy lip to Hell’s Enchantress lent,
To drain damnation from her reeking cup?
Then know that sooner from the withered staff
That in my hand I hold green leaves shall spring,
Than from the brand in hell-fire scorched rebloom
The blossoms of salvation.”
Tannhäuser (Owen Meredith).
 Crushed with grief at this sentence, Tannhäuser fled, and finding
no rest, returned to the Hörselberg, where he reëntered the cave in
spite of the entreaties of the German mentor, the faithful Eckhardt.
He had no sooner disappeared, however, than the pope’s
messengers arrived, proclaiming that he was pardoned, for the
withered staff had miraculously bloomed, proving to all that there
was no sin too heinous to be pardoned, providing repentance were
sincere.
 EASTRE or OSTARA.

“Dashed to the hip with travel, dewed with haste,

A flying post, and in his hand he bore
A withered staff o’erflourished with green leaves;
Who,—followed by a crowd of youth and eld,
That sang to stun with sound the lark in heaven,
‘A miracle! a miracle from Rome!
Glory to God that makes the bare bough green!’—
Sprang in the midst, and, hot for answer, asked
News of the Knight Tannhäuser.”
Tannhäuser (Owen Meredith).

This same Holda was also considered the owner of a magic

fountain called Quickborn, which rivaled the famed fountain of youth,
and of a chariot in which she rode from place to place, inspecting her
domain. This wagon having once suffered damage, the goddess
bade a wheelwright repair it, and when he had finished told him to
keep the chips as his pay. The man, indignant at such a meager
reward, kept only a very few; but to his surprise found them on the
morrow changed to solid gold.

“Fricka, thy wife—

This way she reins her harness of rams.
Hey! how she whirls
The golden whip;
The luckless beasts
Unboundedly bleat;
Her wheels wildly she rattles;
Wrath is lit in her look.”
Wagner (Forman’s tr.).
 Eástre, the The Saxon goddess Eástre, or Ostara, goddess of
goddess of spring, whose name has survived in the English word
spring.
Easter, is also identical with Frigga, for she too is
considered goddess of the earth, or rather of Nature’s resurrection
after the long death of winter. This gracious goddess was so dearly
loved by the old Teutons, that even after Christianity had been
introduced they still retained a pleasant recollection of her, utterly
refused to have her degraded to the rank of a demon, like many of
their other divinities, and transferred her name to their great
Christian feast. It had long been customary to celebrate this day by
the exchange of presents of colored eggs, for the egg is the type of
the beginning of life; so the early Christians continued to observe this
rule, declaring, however, that the egg is also symbolical of the
resurrection. In various parts of Germany, stone altars can still be
seen, which are known as Easter-stones, because they were
dedicated to the fair goddess Ostara. They were crowned with
flowers by the young people, who danced gaily around them by the
light of great bonfires,—a species of popular games kept up until the
middle of the present century, in spite of the priests’ denunciations
and of the repeatedly published edicts against them.
In other parts of Germany, Frigga, Holda, or Ostara is known by
Bertha, the the name of Brechta, Bertha, or the White Lady. She
White Lady. is best known under this title in Thuringia, where she
was supposed to dwell in a hollow mountain, keeping
watch over the Heimchen, the souls of unborn children, and of those
who died unbaptized. Here Bertha watched over agriculture, caring
for the plants, which her infant troop watered carefully, for each babe
was supposed to carry a little jar for that express purpose. As long
as the goddess was duly respected and her retreat unmolested, she
remained where she was; but tradition relates that she once left the
country with her infant train dragging her plow, and settled elsewhere
to continue her kind ministrations. Bertha is the legendary
ancestress of several noble families, and she is supposed to be the
same as the industrious queen of the same name, the mythical
mother of Charlemagne, whose era has become proverbial, for in
speaking of the golden age in France and Germany it is customary
to say, “in the days when Bertha spun.”
 As this Bertha is supposed to have developed a very large and
flat foot, from continually pressing the treadle of her wheel, she is
often represented in mediæval art as a woman with a splay foot, and
hence known as la reine pédauque.
As ancestress of the imperial house of Germany, the White Lady
is supposed to appear in the palace before a death or misfortune in
the family, and this superstition is still so rife in Germany, that the
newspapers in 1884 contained the official report of a sentinel, who
declared that he had seen her flit past him in one of the palace
corridors.
As Bertha was so renowned for her spinning, she naturally was
regarded as the special patroness of that branch of female industry,
and was said to flit through the streets of every village, at nightfall,
during the twelve nights between Christmas and January 6th,
peering into every window to ascertain whether the work were all
done.
The maidens whose work had all been carefully performed were
rewarded by a present of one of her own golden threads or a distaff
full of extra-fine flax; but wherever a careless spinner was found, her
wheel was broken, her flax soiled, and if she had failed to honor the
goddess by eating plenty of the cakes baked at that epoch of the
year, she was cruelly punished.
In Mecklenburg, this same goddess is known as Frau Gode, or
Wode, the female form of Wuotan or Odin, and her appearance is
always considered the harbinger of great prosperity. She is also
supposed to be a great huntress, and to lead the Wild Hunt,
mounted upon a white horse, her attendants being changed into
hounds and all manner of wild beasts.
In Holland she was called Vrou-elde, and from her the Milky Way
is known by the Dutch as Vrou-elden-straat; while in parts of
northern Germany she was called Nerthus (Mother Earth). Her
sacred car was kept on an island, presumably Rügen, where the
priests guarded it carefully until she appeared to take a yearly
journey throughout her realm and bless the land. The goddess then
sat in this car, which was drawn by two cows, her face completely
hidden by a thick veil, respectfully escorted by her priests. The
people seeing her pass did her homage by ceasing all warfare, laid
aside their weapons, donned festive attire, and began no quarrel
until the goddess had again retired to her sanctuary. Then both car
and goddess were bathed in a secret lake (the Schwartze See in
Rügen), which swallowed up the slaves who had assisted at the
bathing, and once more the priests resumed their watch over the
sanctuary and grove of Nerthus or Hlodyn, to await her next
apparition.
In Scandinavia, this goddess was also known as Huldra, and
boasted of a train of attendant wood nymphs, who sometimes sought
the society of mortals, to enjoy a dance upon the village green. They
could always be detected, however, by the tip of a cow’s tail which
trailed from beneath their long snow-white garments. These Huldra
folk were the special protectors of the herds of cattle on the
mountain sides, and were said to surprise the lonely traveler, at
times, by the marvelous beauty of the melodies they sang to beguile
their labors.
 CHAPTER IV.
THOR.

According to some mythologists, Thor, or Donar, is the son of

Jörd (Erda), and of Odin, but others state that his
Thor’s foster
parents. mother was Frigga, queen of the gods. This child was
very remarkable for his great size and strength, and
very soon after his birth amazed the assembled gods by playfully
lifting and throwing about ten loads of bear skins. Although generally
good tempered, Thor occasionally flew into a terrible rage, and as he
was very dangerous under these circumstances, his mother, unable to
control him, sent him away from home and intrusted him to the care of
Vingnir (the winged), and of Hlora (heat). These foster parents, who
are also considered as the personification of sheet lightning, soon
managed to control their troublesome charge, and brought him up so
wisely, that all the gods were duly grateful for their kind offices. Thor
himself, recognizing all he owed them, assumed the names of
Vingthor and Hlorridi, by which he is also known.

“Cry on, Vingi-Thor,

With the dancing of the ring-mail and the smitten shields of war.”
Sigurd the Volsung (William Morris)

Having attained his full growth and the age of reason, Thor was
admitted in Asgard among the other gods, where he occupied one of
the twelve seats in the great judgment hall. He was also given the
realm of Thrud-vang or Thrud-heim, where he built a wonderful palace
called Bilskirnir (lightning), the most spacious in all Asgard. It
contained five hundred and forty halls for the accommodation of the
thralls, who after death were welcomed to his home, where they were
treated as well as their masters in Valhalla, for Thor was the patron
god of the peasants and lower classes.

“Five hundred halls

And forty more,
Methinketh, hath
Bowed Bilskirnir.
Of houses roofed
There’s none I know
My son’s surpassing.”
Sæmund’s Edda (Percy’s tr.).

As he was god of thunder, Thor alone was never allowed to pass

over the wonderful bridge Bifröst, lest he should set it aflame by the
heat of his presence; and when he daily wished to join his fellow gods
by the Urdar fountain, under the shade of the sacred tree Yggdrasil,
he was forced to make his way thither on foot, wading through the
rivers Kormt and Ormt, and the two streams Kerlaug, to the trysting
place.
Thor, who was honored as the highest god in Norway, came
second in the trilogy of all the other countries, and was called “old
Thor,” because he is supposed by some mythologists to have
belonged to an older dynasty of gods, and not on account of his actual
age, for he was represented and described as a man in his prime, tall
and well formed, with muscular limbs and bristling red hair and beard,
from which, in moments of anger, the sparks fairly flew.

“First, Thor with the bent brow,

In red beard muttering low,
Darting fierce lightnings from eyeballs that glow,
Comes, while each chariot wheel
Echoes in thunder peal,
As his dread hammer shock
Makes Earth and Heaven rock,
Clouds rifting above, while Earth quakes below.”
Valhalla (J. C. Jones).
 The Northern races further adorned him with a crown, on each
point of which was either a glittering star, or a steadily burning flame,
so that his head was ever surrounded by a kind of halo of fire, his own
element.
Thor was the proud possessor of a magic hammer called Miölnir
Thor’s (the crusher) which he hurled at his enemies, the frost
hammer. giants, with destructive power, and which possessed
the wonderful property of always returning to his hand,
however far away he might hurl it.

“I am the Thunderer!
Here in my Northland,
My fastness and fortress,
Reign I forever!

“Here amid icebergs

Rule I the nations;
This is my hammer,
Miölnir the mighty;
Giants and sorcerers
Cannot withstand it!”
Saga of King Olaf (Longfellow).

As this huge hammer, the emblem of the thunderbolts, was

generally red hot, the god had an iron gauntlet called Iarn-greiper,
which enabled him to grasp it firmly and hurl it very far, his strength,
which was already remarkable, being always doubled when he wore
his magic belt called Megin-giörd.

“This is my girdle:
Whenever I brace it,
Strength is redoubled!”
Saga of King Olaf (Longfellow).
 Thor’s hammer was considered so very sacred by the ancient
Northern people, that they were wont to make the sign of the hammer,
as the Christians later taught them to make the sign of the cross, to
ward off all evil influences, and to secure many blessings. The same
sign was also made over the newly born infant when water was
poured over its head and a name given it. The hammer was used to
drive in boundary stakes, which it was considered sacrilegious to
remove, to hallow the threshold of a new house, to solemnize a
marriage, and, lastly, to consecrate the funeral pyre upon which the
bodies of heroes were burned, together with their weapons and
steeds, and, in some cases, with their wives and dependents.
In Sweden, Thor, like Odin, was supposed to wear a broad-
brimmed hat, and hence the storm clouds in that country are known
as Thor’s hat, a name also given to one of the principal mountains in
Norway. The rumble and roar of the thunder were called the roll of his
chariot, for he alone among the gods never rode on horseback, but
walked, or drove in a brazen chariot drawn by two goats, Tanngniostr
(tooth cracker), and Tanngrisnr (tooth gnasher), from whose teeth and
hoofs the sparks constantly flew.

“Thou camest near the next, O warrior Thor!

Shouldering thy hammer, in thy chariot drawn,
Swaying the long-hair’d goats with silver’d rein.”
Balder Dead (Matthew Arnold).

When the god thus drove about from place to place, he was called
Aku-thor, or Thor the charioteer, and in southern Germany the people,
fancying a brazen chariot alone inadequate to furnish all the noise
they heard, declared it was loaded with copper kettles, which rattled
and clashed, and therefore often called him, with disrespectful
familiarity, the kettle vender.
Thor was twice married; first to the giantess Iarnsaxa (iron stone),
Thor’s family. who bore him two sons, Magni (strength) and Modi
(courage), both destined to survive their father and
twilight of the gods, and rule over the new world which was to rise like
a phenix from the ashes of the first. His second wife was Sif, the
golden-haired, who also bore him two children, Lorride, and a
daughter named Thrud, a young giantess renowned for her size and
strength. By the well-known affinity of contrast, Thrud was wooed by
the dwarf Alvis, whom she rather favored; and one evening, when this
suitor, who, being a dwarf, could not face the light of day, presented
himself in Asgard to sue for her hand, the assembled gods did not
refuse their consent. They had scarcely signified their approbation,
however, when Thor, who had been absent, suddenly appeared, and
casting a glance of contempt upon the puny lover, declared he would
have to prove that his knowledge atoned for his small stature, before
he could win his bride.
To test Alvis’s mental powers, Thor then questioned him in the
language of the gods, Vanas, elves, and dwarfs, artfully prolonging his
examination until sunrise, when the first beam of light, falling upon the
unhappy dwarf, petrified him. There he stood, an enduring example of
the gods’ power, and served as a warning to all other dwarfs who
would fain have tested it.

“Ne’er in human bosom

Have I found so many
Words of the old time.
Thee with subtlest cunning
Have I yet befooled.
Above ground standeth thou, dwarf,
By day art overtaken,
Bright sunshine fills the hall.”
Sæmund’s Edda (Howitt’s version).

Sif, Thor’s wife, was very vain of a magnificent head of long

golden hair which covered her from head to foot like a
Sif, the
golden-haired. brilliant veil; and as she too was a symbol of the earth,
her hair was said to represent the long grass, or the
golden grain covering the Northern harvest fields. Thor was very
proud of his wife’s beautiful hair; imagine his dismay, therefore, upon
waking one morning, to find her all shorn, and as bald and denuded of
ornament as the earth when the grain has all been garnered, and
nothing but the stubble remains! In his anger, Thor sprang to his feet,
vowing he would punish the perpetrator of this outrage, whom he
immediately and rightly conjectured to be Loki, the arch plotter, ever
on the lookout for some evil deed to perform. Seizing his hammer,
Thor soon overtook Loki in spite of his attempting to evade him by
changing form, caught him by the throat, and almost strangled him ere
he yielded to his imploring signs, and slightly loosed his powerful
grasp. As soon as Loki could catch his breath, he implored
forgiveness, but all his entreaties were vain, until he promised to
procure for Sif a new head of hair, as beautiful as the first, and as
luxuriant in growth.

“And thence for Sif new tresses I’ll bring

Of gold, ere the daylight’s gone,
So that she shall liken a field in spring,
With its yellow-flowered garment on.”
The Dwarfs, Oehlenschläger (Pigott’s tr.).

Thor, hearing this, consented to let the traitor go; so Loki rapidly
crept down into the bowels of the earth, where Svart-alfa-heim was
situated, to beg the dwarf Dvalin to fashion not only the precious hair,
but a present for Odin and Frey, whose anger he wished to disarm.
The dwarf soon made the spear Gungnir, which never failed in its
aim, and the ship Skidbladnir, which, always wafted by favorable
winds, could sail through the air as well as on the water, and was so
elastic, that although it could contain the gods and all their steeds, it
could be folded up into the very smallest compass and thrust in one’s
pocket. Lastly, he spun the very finest golden thread, from which he
fashioned the required hair for Sif, declaring that as soon as it touched
her head it would grow fast there and become alive.

“Though they now seem dead, let them touch but her head,
Each hair shall the life-moisture fill;
Nor shall malice nor spell henceforward prevail
Sif’s tresses to work aught of ill.”
The Dwarfs, Oehlenschläger (Pigott’s tr.).
 Loki was so pleased with these proofs of the dwarfs’ skill that he
declared the son of Ivald was the most clever of smiths—words which
were overheard by Brock, another dwarf, who exclaimed that he was
sure his brother Sindri could produce three objects which would
surpass those which Loki held, not only in intrinsic value, but also in
magical properties. Loki immediately challenged the dwarf to show his
skill, wagering his head against Brock’s on the result of the
undertaking.
Sindri, apprised of the wager, accepted Brock’s offer to blow the
bellows, warning him, however, that he must work persistently if he
wished to succeed; then he threw some gold in the fire, and went out
to bespeak the favor of the hidden powers. During his absence Brock
diligently plied the bellows, while Loki, hoping to make him fail,
changed himself into a gadfly and cruelly stung his hand. In spite of
the pain, the dwarf did not let go, and when Sindri returned, he drew
out of the fire an enormous wild boar, called Gullin-bursti, on account
of its golden bristles, which had the power of radiating light as he
flitted across the sky, for he could travel through the air with
marvelous velocity.

“And now, strange to tell, from the roaring fire

Came the golden-haired Gullinbörst,
To serve as a charger the sun-god Frey,
Sure, of all wild boars this the first.”
The Dwarfs, Oehlenschläger (Pigott’s tr.).

This first piece of work successfully completed, Sindri flung some

more gold on the fire and bade his brother blow, ere he again went out
to secure magic assistance. This time Loki, still disguised as a gadfly,
stung the dwarf on his cheek; but in spite of the pain Brock worked on,
and when Sindri returned, he triumphantly drew out of the flames the
magic ring Draupnir, the emblem of fertility, from which eight similar
rings dropped every ninth night.

“They worked it and turned it with wondrous skill,

Till they gave it the virtue rare,