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Proceedings in Adaptation, Learning and Optimization 11
Jiuwen Cao
Chi Man Vong
Yoan Miche
Amaury Lendasse Editors
Proceedings
of ELM 2018
Proceedings in Adaptation, Learning
and Optimization
Volume 11
Series Editors
Meng-Hiot Lim, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
Yew Soon Ong, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
The role of adaptation, learning and optimization are becoming increasingly
essential and intertwined. The capability of a system to adapt either through
modification of its physiological structure or via some revalidation process of
internal mechanisms that directly dictate the response or behavior is crucial in many
real world applications. Optimization lies at the heart of most machine learning
approaches while learning and optimization are two primary means to effect
adaptation in various forms. They usually involve computational processes
incorporated within the system that trigger parametric updating and knowledge
or model enhancement, giving rise to progressive improvement. This book series
serves as a channel to consolidate work related to topics linked to adaptation,
learning and optimization in systems and structures. Topics covered under this
series include:
• complex adaptive systems including evolutionary computation, memetic com-
puting, swarm intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy systems, tabu search, sim-
ulated annealing, etc.
• machine learning, data mining & mathematical programming
• hybridization of techniques that span across artificial intelligence and compu-
tational intelligence for synergistic alliance of strategies for problem-solving
• aspects of adaptation in robotics
• agent-based computing
• autonomic/pervasive computing
• dynamic optimization/learning in noisy and uncertain environment
• systemic alliance of stochastic and conventional search techniques
• all aspects of adaptations in man-machine systems.
This book series bridges the dichotomy of modern and conventional mathematical
and heuristic/meta-heuristics approaches to bring about effective adaptation,
learning and optimization. It propels the maxim that the old and the new can
come together and be combined synergistically to scale new heights in problem-
solving. To reach such a level, numerous research issues will emerge and
researchers will find the book series a convenient medium to track the progresses
made.
** Indexing: The books of this series are submitted to ISI Proceedings, DBLP,
Google Scholar and Springerlink **
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13543

Jiuwen Cao Chi Man Vong
• •
Yoan Miche Amaury Lendasse

•
Editors
Proceedings of ELM 2018
123
Editors
Jiuwen Cao Chi Man Vong
Institute of Information and Control Department of Computer and Information
Hangzhou Dianzi University Science
Xiasha, Hangzhou, China University of Macau
Taipa, Macao
Yoan Miche
Nokia Bell Labs Amaury Lendasse
Cybersecurity Research Department of Information and Logistics
Espoo, Finland Technology
University of Houston
Houston, TX, USA
ISSN 2363-6084 ISSN 2363-6092 (electronic)

Proceedings in Adaptation, Learning and Optimization
ISBN 978-3-030-23306-8 ISBN 978-3-030-23307-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23307-5
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
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Contents
Random Orthogonal Projection Based Enhanced Bidirectional

Extreme Learning Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Weipeng Cao, Jinzhu Gao, Xizhao Wang, Zhong Ming, and Shubin Cai
A Novel Feature Specificity Enhancement for Taste Recognition
by Electronic Tongue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Yanbing Chen, Tao Liu, Jianjun Chen, Dongqi Li, and Mengya Wu
Comparison of Classification Methods for Very High-Dimensional
Data in Sparse Random Projection Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Anton Akusok and Emil Eirola
A Robust and Dynamically Enhanced Neural Predictive Model
for Foreign Exchange Rate Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Lingkai Xing, Zhihong Man, Jinchuan Zheng, Tony Cricenti,
and Mengqiu Tao
Alzheimer’s Disease Computer Aided Diagnosis Based on Hierarchical
Zhongyang Wang, Junchang Xin, Yue Zhao, and Qiyong Guo
Key Variables Soft Measurement of Wastewater Treatment Process
Based on Hierarchical Extreme Learning Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Feixiang Zhao, Mingzhe Liu, Binyang Jia, Xin Jiang, and Jun Ren
A Fast Algorithm for Sparse Extreme Learning Machine . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Zhihong Miao and Qing He
Extreme Latent Representation Learning for Visual Classification . . . . 65
Tan Guo, Lei Zhang, and Xiaoheng Tan
An Optimized Data Distribution Model for ElasticChain to Support
Blockchain Scalable Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Dayu Jia, Junchang Xin, Zhiqiong Wang, Wei Guo, and Guoren Wang
v
vi Contents
An Algorithm of Sina Microblog User’s Sentimental Influence

Analysis Based on CNN+ELM Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Donghong Han, Fulin Wei, Lin Bai, Xiang Tang, TingShao Zhu,
and Guoren Wang
Extreme Learning Machine Based Intelligent Condition Monitoring
System on Train Door . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Xin Sun, K. V. Ling, K. K. Sin, and Lawrence Tay
Character-Level Hybrid Convolutional and Recurrent Neural
Network for Fast Text Categorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Bing Liu, Yong Zhou, and Wei Sun
Feature Points Selection for Rectangle Panorama Stitching . . . . . . . . . . 118
Weiqing Yan, Shuigen Wang, Guanghui Yue, Jindong Xu,
Xiangrong Tong, and Laihua Wang
Point-of-Interest Group Recommendation with an Extreme
Learning Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Zhen Zhang, Guoren Wang, and Xiangguo Zhao
Research on Recognition of Multi-user Haptic Gestures . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Lu Fang, Huaping Liu, and Yanzhi Dong
Benchmarking Hardware Accelerating Techniques for Extreme
Liang Li, Guoren Wang, Gang Wu, and Qi Zhang
An Event Recommendation Model Using ELM in Event-Based
Social Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Boyang Li, Guoren Wang, Yurong Cheng, and Yongjiao Sun
Reconstructing Bifurcation Diagrams of a Chaotic Neuron Model
Using an Extreme Learning Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Yoshitaka Itoh and Masaharu Adachi
Extreme Learning Machine for Multi-label Classification . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Haigang Zhang, Jinfeng Yang, Guimin Jia, and Shaocheng Han
Accelerating ELM Training over Data Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Hangxu Ji, Gang Wu, and Guoren Wang
Predictive Modeling of Hospital Readmissions with Sparse Bayesian
Nan Liu, Lian Leng Low, Sean Shao Wei Lam, Julian Thumboo,
and Marcus Eng Hock Ong
Rising Star Classification Based on Extreme Learning Machine . . . . . . 197
Yuliang Ma, Ye Yuan, Guoren Wang, Xin Bi, Zhongqing Wang,
and Yishu Wang
Contents vii
Hand Gesture Recognition Using Clip Device Applicable to Smart

Watch Based on Flexible Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Sung-Woo Byun, Da-Kyeong Oh, MyoungJin Son, Ju Hee Kim,
Ye Jin Lee, and Seok-Pil Lee
Receding Horizon Optimal Control of Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using
ELM-Based Driver Acceleration Rate Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Jiangyan Zhang, Fuguo Xu, Yahui Zhang, and Tielong Shen
CO-LEELM: Continuous-Output Location Estimation Using Extreme
Felis Dwiyasa and Meng-Hiot Lim
Unsupervised Absent Multiple Kernel Extreme Learning Machine . . . . 236
Lingyun Xiang, Guohan Zhao, Qian Li, and Zijie Zhu
Intelligent Machine Tools Recognition Based on Hybrid CNNs
and ELMs Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Kun Zhang, Lu-Lu Tang, Zhi-Xin Yang, and Lu-Qing Luo
Scalable IP Core for Feed Forward Random Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Anurag Daram, Karan Paluru, Vedant Karia, and Dhireesha Kudithipudi
Multi-objective Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm with Information
Learning for Model Optimization of Extreme Learning Machine . . . . . 263
Hao Zhang, Dingyi Zhang, and Tao Ku
Short Term PV Power Forecasting Using ELM and Probabilistic
Prediction Interval Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Jatin Verma, Xu Yan, Junhua Zhao, and Zhao Xu
A Novel ELM Ensemble for Time Series Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Zhen Li, Karl Ratner, Edward Ratner, Kallin Khan, Kaj-Mikael Bjork,
and Amaury Lendasse
An ELM-Based Ensemble Strategy for POI Recommendation . . . . . . . . 292
Xue He, Tiancheng Zhang, Hengyu Liu, and Ge Yu
A Method Based on S-transform and Hybrid Kernel
Extreme Learning Machine for Complex Power Quality
Disturbances Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Chen Zhao, Kaicheng Li, and Xuebin Xu
Sparse Bayesian Learning for Extreme Learning
Machine Auto-encoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Guanghao Zhang, Dongshun Cui, Shangbo Mao, and Guang-Bin Huang
viii Contents
A Soft Computing-Based Daily Rainfall Forecasting Model Using

ELM and GEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Yuzhong Peng, Huasheng Zhao, Jie Li, Xiao Qin, Jianping Liao,
and Zhiping Liu
Comparing ELM with SVM in the Field of Sentiment Classification
of Social Media Text Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Zhihuan Chen, Zhaoxia Wang, Zhiping Lin, and Ting Yang
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Random Orthogonal Projection Based
Enhanced Bidirectional Extreme Learning
Machine
Weipeng Cao1, Jinzhu Gao2, Xizhao Wang1, Zhong Ming1(&),

and Shubin Cai1
1
College of Computer Science and Software Engineering, Shenzhen University,
Shenzhen 518060, China
[email protected], {xzwang,mingz,
shubin}@szu.edu.cn
2
School of Engineering and Computer Science, University of the Pacific,
Stockton 95211, CA, USA
[email protected]
Abstract. Bidirectional extreme learning machine (B-ELM) divides the

learning process into two parts: At odd learning step, the parameters of the new
hidden node are generated randomly, while at even learning step, the parameters
of the new hidden node are obtained analytically from the parameters of the
former node. However, some of the odd-hidden nodes play a minor role, which
will have a negative impact on the even-hidden nodes, and result in a sharp rise
in the network complexity. To avoid this issue, we propose a random orthogonal
projection based enhanced bidirectional extreme learning machine algorithm
(OEB-ELM). In OEB-ELM, several orthogonal candidate nodes are generated
randomly at each odd learning step, only the node with the largest residual error
reduction will be added to the existing network. Experiments on six real datasets
have shown that the OEB-ELM has better generalization performance and sta-
bility than B-ELM, EB-ELM, and EI-ELM algorithms.
Keywords: Extreme learning machine Bidirectional extreme learning machine

Random orthogonal projection
1 Introduction
The training mechanism of traditional single hidden layer feed-forward neural networks
(SLFN) is that the input weights and hidden bias are randomly assigned initial values
and then iteratively tuned with methods such as gradient descent until the residual error
reaches the expected value. This method has several notorious drawbacks such as slow
convergence rate and local minima problem.
Different from traditional SLFN, neural networks with random weights (NNRW)
train models in a non-iterative way [1, 2]. In NNRW, the input weights and hidden bias
are randomly generated from a given range and kept fixed throughout the training

J. Cao et al. (Eds.): ELM 2018, PALO 11, pp. 1–10, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23307-5_1
2 W. Cao et al.
process, while the output weights are obtained by solving a linear system of matrix
equations. Compared with traditional SLFN, NNRW can learn faster with acceptable
accuracy.
Extreme learning machine (ELM) is a typical NNRW, which was proposed by
Huang et al. in 2004 [3]. ELM inherits the advantages of NNRW and extends it to a
unified form. In recent years, many ELM based algorithms have been proposed [4–6]
and applied to various fields such as unsupervised learning [7] and traffic sign
recognition [8]. Although ELM and its variants have achieved many interesting results,
there are still several important problems that have not been solved thoroughly, one of
which is the determination of the number of hidden nodes [1, 9].
In recent years, many algorithms have been proposed to determine the number of
hidden nodes. We can group them into two categories: incremental and pruning
strategies. For incremental strategy, the model begins with a small initial network and
then gradually adds new hidden nodes until the desired accuracy is achieved. Some
notable incremental algorithms include I-ELM [10], EI-ELM [11], B-ELM [12],
EB-ELM [13], etc. For pruning strategy, the model begins with a larger than necessary
network and then cuts off the redundant or less effective hidden nodes. Some notable
destructive algorithms include P-ELM [14], OP-ELM [15], etc.
This paper focuses on optimizing the performance of the existing B-ELM algo-
rithm. In B-ELM [12], the authors divided the learning process into two parts: the odd
and the even learning steps. At the odd learning steps, the new hidden node is gen-
erated randomly at one time, while at the even learning steps, the new hidden node is
determined by a formula defined by the former added node parameters. Compared with
the fully random incremental algorithms such as I-ELM and EI-ELM, B-ELM shows a
much faster convergence rate.
From the above analysis, we can infer that the hidden nodes generated at the odd
learning steps (the odd-hidden nodes) play an important role in B-ELM models.
However, the quality of the odd-hidden nodes cannot be guaranteed. Actually, some of
them may play a minor role, which will cause a sharp rise in the network complexity.
The initial motivation of this study is to alleviate this issue.
Orthogonalization technique is one of the effective algorithms for parameter opti-
mization. Wang et al. [16] proved that the ELM model with the random orthogonal
projection has better capability of sample structure preserving (SSP). Kasun et al. [17]
stacked the ELM auto-encoders into a deep ELM architecture based on the orthogonal
weight matrix. Huang et al. [18] orthogonalized the input weights matrix when building
the local receptive fields based ELM model.
Inspired by the above works, in this study, we propose a novel random orthogonal
projection based enhanced bidirectional extreme learning machine algorithm (OEB-
ELM). In OEB-ELM, at each odd learning step, we first randomly generate K candidate
hidden nodes and orthogonalize them into orthogonal hidden nodes based on the Gram-
Schmidt orthogonalization method. Then we train it as an initial model for hidden
nodes selection. After obtaining the corresponding value of residual error reduction for
each candidate node, the one with the largest residual error reduction will be selected as
the final odd-hidden node and added to the existing network. The even-hidden nodes
are obtained in the same way as B-ELM and EB-ELM.
Random Orthogonal Projection 3
Our main contributions in this study are as follows.

(1) The odd learning steps in B-ELM are optimized and better hidden nodes can be
obtained. Compared with the B-ELM, the proposed algorithm achieves models
with better generalization performance and smaller network structure.
(2) The method to set the number of candidate hidden nodes in EB-ELM is improved.
In OEB-ELM, the number of candidate hidden nodes is automatically determined
according to data attributes, which can effectively improve the computational
efficiency and reduce the human intervention to the model.
(3) The random orthogonal projection technique is used to improve the capability of
SSP of the candidate hidden nodes selection model, and thus the quality of the
hidden nodes is further improved. Experiments on six UCI regression datasets have
demonstrated the efficiency of our method.
The organization of this paper is as follows: Sect. 2 briefly reviews the related
algorithms. The proposed OEB-ELM is described in Sect. 3. The details of the
experiment results and analysis are given in Sect. 4. Section 5 concludes the paper.
2 Review of ELM, I-ELM, B-ELM and EB-ELM
A typical network structure of ELM with single hidden layer is shown in Fig. 1. The
training mechanism of ELM is that the input weights x and hidden bias b are generated
randomly from a given range and kept fixed throughout the training process, while the
output weights b are obtained by solving a system of matrix equation.
Fig. 1. A basic ELM neural network structure

4 W. Cao et al.
The above ELM network can be modeled as
X
L
bi gðxi xj þ bi Þ ¼ tj ; xi 2 Rn ; bi 2 R; j ¼ 1; . . .; N ð1Þ
i¼1
where gðÞ denotes the activation function, tj denotes the actual value of each sample,
and N is the size of the dataset. Equation (1) can be rewritten as
Hb ¼ T ð2Þ
0 1 2 3 2 3
gðx1 x1 þ b1 Þ ... gðxL x1 þ bL Þ bT1 t1T
where H ¼ B
@
..
.
..
.
..
.
C
A , b¼6 7
4 ... 5
6 .. 7
, T¼4 . 5 .
gðx1 xN þ b1 Þ gðxL xN þ bL Þ NL bTL Lm
tNT Nm
In Eq. (2), H represents the hidden layer output matrix of ELM and the output
weight b can be obtained by
b ¼ HþT ð3Þ
where H þ is the Moore–Penrose generalized inverse of H.

The residual error measures the closeness between the current network fn with n
hidden nodes and the target function f , which can be summarized as
en ¼ f n f ð4Þ
In the I-ELM algorithm [10], the random hidden nodes are added to the hidden
layer one by one and the parameters of the existing hidden nodes stay the same after a
new hidden node is added. The output function fn at the nth step can be expressed by
fn ðxÞ ¼ fn1 ðxÞ þ bn Gn ðxÞ ð5Þ
where bn denotes the output weights between the new added hidden node and the
output nodes, and Gn ðxÞ is the corresponding output of the hidden node.
The I-ELM can automatically generate the network structure; however, the network
structure is often very complex because some of the hidden nodes play a minor role in
the network. To alleviate this issue, the EI-ELM [11] and B-ELM [12] algorithms were
proposed. The core idea of the EI-ELM algorithm is to generate K candidate hidden
nodes at each learning step and only select the one with the smallest residual error.
Actually, the I-ELM is a special case of the EI-ELM when K ¼ 1.
Different from the EI-ELM, the B-ELM divides the training process into two parts:
the odd and the even learning steps. At each odd learning step (i.e., when the number of
hidden nodes L 2 f2n þ 1; n 2 Zg), the new hidden node is generated randomly as in
the I-ELM. At each even learning step (i.e., when the number of hidden nodes
L 2 f2n; n 2 Zg), the parameters of the new hidden node are obtained by
^ 2n ¼ g1 ðuðH2n ÞÞx1

x ð6Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
^b2n ¼ mseðg1 ðuðH2n ÞÞ x2n xÞ ð7Þ
^ 2n ¼ u1 ðg1 ðx2n x þ b2n ÞÞ

H ð8Þ
where g1 and u1 denote the inverse functions of g and u, respectively.
From the training mechanism of the B-ELM mentioned above, we can infer that the
hidden nodes generated at the odd learning steps have a significant impact on the model
performance. However, the B-ELM cannot guarantee the quality of these hidden nodes.
The odd-hidden nodes that play a minor role in the network will cause a sharp rise in
the network complexity.
To avoid this issue, we proposed the enhanced random search method to optimize
the odd learning steps of B-ELM, that is, the EB-ELM algorithm [13]. In EB-ELM, at
each odd learning step, K candidate hidden nodes are generated and only the one with
the largest residual error reduction will be selected. EB-ELM can achieve better gen-
eralization performance than B-ELM. However, the number of candidate nodes K in
EB-ELM is assigned based on experience, which makes it difficult to balance the
computational efficiency and model performance.
3 The Proposed Algorithm
In this section, we propose a random orthogonal projection based enhanced bidirec-

tional extreme learning machine (OEB-ELM) for regression problems.
Theorem 1. Suppose WKK is an orthogonal matrix, which satisfies W T W ¼ I, then
for any X 2 Rn , jWXjj2 ¼ jjXjj2 .
Proof. jWXjj2 ¼ X T W T WX ¼ X T IX ¼ jjXjj2 .
From Theorem 1 and its proof, we can infer that the orthogonal projection can
provide good capability of sample structure preserving for the initial model, which will
improve the performance of the model and ensure the good quality of the candidate
nodes. The proposed OEB-ELM can be summarized as follows:
6 W. Cao et al.
OEB-ELM Algorithm:
N n
Input: A training dataset D ={( xi , ti )}i =1 ⊂ R × R , the number of
hidden nodes L , an activation function G , a maximum num-
ber of hidden nodes Lmax and an expected error ε .
Output: The model structure and output weights matrix β .
Step 1 Initialization:
Let the number of hidden nodes L = 0 and the residual er-
ror be E = T . Set K = d , where K denotes the maximum num-
ber of trials of assigning candidate nodes at each odd
learning step, d denotes the number of data attributes.
Step 2 Learning step:
while L < Lmax and E > ε do
(a) Increase the number of hidden nodes L : L = L + 1 ;
(b) If L ∈ {2n + 1, n ∈ Z } then
Generate randomly the input weights matrix
Wrandom = [ω(1) , ω(2) , ⋅⋅⋅, ω( j ) ]K *K and the random hidden bias matrix
Brandom = [b(1) , b(2) , ⋅⋅⋅, b( j ) ]K *1 ;
Orthogonalize Wrandom and Brandom using the Gram-Schmidt or-
thogonalization method to obtain Worth and Borth , which sat-
T T
isfy Worth Worth = I and Borth Borth = 1 , respectively.
Calculate the temporal output weights β temp according to
β temp = H temp
+
T.
for j = 1 : K
Calculate the residual error E( j ) after pruning the
jth hidden node:
E( j ) = T − H residual ⋅ β residual
End for
*
(c) Let j = { j | max 1≤ j ≤ k || E ( j)
||} . Set ω L = ωorth ( j ) , and bL = b( j ) .
* *
Update H L for the new hidden node and calculate the re-
sidual error E after adding the new hidden node Lth :
E = E − H LβL .
End if
(d) if L ∈ {2n, n ∈ Z } then
Calculate the error feedback function sequence H L ac-
cording to the equation
−1
H 2 n = e2 n −1 ⋅ ( β 2 n −1 )
Calculate the parameter pair (ω L , bL ) and update H L based
on the equations (6), (7), and (8).
Calculate the output weight β L according to
〈 e2 n −1 , H 2 n 〉
β2n = 2
H 2n
Calculate E after adding the new hidden node Lth :
E = E − H LβL .
End if
End while
4 Experimental Results and Analysis
In this section, we present the details of our experiment settings and results. Our
experiments are conducted on six benchmark regression problems from UCI machine
learning repository [19] and the specification of these datasets is given in Table 1. We
chose the Sigmoid function (i.e., Gðx; x; bÞ ¼ 1=ð1 þ expððxx þ bÞÞÞ) as the acti-
vation function of B-ELM, EB-ELM, EI-ELM, and OEB-ELM. The input weights x
are randomly generated from the range of (−1, 1) and the hidden biases b are generated
randomly from the range of (0, 1) using a uniform sampling distribution. For each
regression problem, the average results over 50 trials are obtained for each algorithm.
In this study, we did our experiments in the MATLAB R2014a environment on the
same Windows 10 with Intel Core i5 2.3 GHz CPU and 8 GB RAM.
Table 1. Specification of six regression datasets

Name Training data Testing data Attributes
Airfoil Self-noise 750 753 5
Housing 250 256 13
Concrete compressive strength 500 530 8
White wine quality 2000 2898 11
Abalone 2000 2177 8
Red wine quality 800 799 11
Our experiments are conducted based on the following two questions:

(1) Under the same network structure, which algorithm can achieve the best gener-
alization performance and stability?
(2) With the increase of the number of hidden nodes, which algorithm has the fastest
convergence rate?
For Question (1), we set the same number of hidden nodes for the B-ELM,
EB-ELM, EI-ELM, and OEB-ELM algorithms. The Root-Mean-Square Error of
Testing (Testing RMSE), the Root-Mean-Square Error of Training (Training RMSE),
Standard Deviation of Testing RMSE (SD), and learning time are selected as the
indicators for performance testing. The smaller testing RMSE denotes the better gen-
eralization performance of the algorithm and the smaller SD indicates the better
stability of the algorithm. The performance comparison of the four algorithms is shown
in Table 2. It is noted that the close results are underlined and the best results are in
boldface.
From Table 2, we observe that the proposed OEB-ELM algorithm has smallest
testing RMSE and standard deviation when applied on six regression datasets, which
means that OEB-ELM can achieve better generalization performance and stability than
B-ELM, EB-ELM, and EI-ELM. It is noted that the EI-ELM algorithm runs the longest
time on all datasets, which shows that the OEB-ELM algorithm is more efficient than
the EI-ELM algorithm.
8 W. Cao et al.
Table 2. Performance comparison of the EB-ELM, B-ELM, EI-ELM, and OEB-ELM

Datasets Algorithm Learning Standard Training Testing
time (s) deviation RMSE RMSE
Airfoil self-noise EB-ELM 5.5403 0.0025 0.0709 0.0726
B-ELM 1.2950 0.0032 0.0729 0.0749
EI-ELM 25.3281 0.2230 0.0469 0.2567
OEB-ELM 5.7078 0.0025 0.0715 0.0723
Housing EB-ELM 12.6897 0.0012 0.0182 0.0196
B-ELM 2.9103 0.0060 0.0214 0.0236
EI-ELM 23.9253 0.1165 0.0043 0.2232
OEB-ELM 15.8434 0.0010 0.0182 0.0192
Concrete EB-ELM 13.1275 0.0033 0.0216 0.0232
compressive B-ELM 2.8516 0.0225 0.0229 0.0338
strength EI-ELM 24.5106 0.0323 0.0075 0.0439
OEB-ELM 13.3669 0.0012 0.0214 0.0222
White wine EB-ELM 13.1369 0.0015 0.0150 0.0167
B-ELM 3.1109 0.0071 0.0159 0.0181
EI-ELM 32.2019 75.0810 0.0107 44.2757
OEB-ELM 16.7169 0.0013 0.0146 0.0162
Abalone EB-ELM 12.7944 0.0079 0.0106 0.0143
B-ELM 3.0247 0.0149 0.0099 0.0206
EI-ELM 32.0638 0.0078 <0.0001 0.0164
OEB-ELM 11.1956 0.0071 0.0130 0.0136
Red wine EB-ELM 3.5128 0.0064 0.0608 0.0659
B-ELM 0.8991 0.0044 0.0625 0.0652
EI-ELM 7.1844 0.0060 0.0522 0.0657
OEB-ELM 4.1181 0.0020 0.0589 0.0620
From the above analysis, it can be seen that the proposed OEB-ELM algorithm
achieves models with better generalization performance and stability than the B-ELM
and EB-ELM algorithms. Compared with the EI-ELM algorithm, the OEB-ELM has
higher computational efficiency and can achieve better generalization performance and
stability in most cases.
For Question (2), we gradually increase the number of hidden nodes from 1 to 50
and record the corresponding testing RMSE in the process of adding the hidden nodes.
The performance comparison of each algorithm with the increase of hidden nodes is
shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 2 shows the changes of testing RMSE of the four algorithms with increasing
hidden nodes on Housing dataset. From Fig. 2, we can observe that the B-ELM,
EB-ELM, and OEB-ELM algorithms achieve high accuracy with a few hidden nodes,
which means that the three algorithms converge faster than the EI-ELM algorithm. We
also observe that the OEB-ELM algorithm has smaller testing RMSE and fluctuation
Fig. 2. The testing RMSE updating curves of the EB-ELM, B-ELM, EI-ELM, and OEB-ELM
than other algorithms, which means that the OEB-ELM algorithm achieves models
with better generalization performance and stability than the B-ELM, EB-ELM, and
EI-ELM algorithms. Similar results can be found in other cases.
5 Conclusions
In this study, we proposed a novel random orthogonal projection based enhanced

bidirectional extreme learning machine algorithm (OEB-ELM) for regression prob-
lems. In OEB-ELM, the odd-hidden nodes are optimized using the random orthogonal
projection method and improved enhanced random search method. Compared with
B-ELM, OEB-ELM has better generalization performance and smaller network
structure. Compared with EB-ELM, the number of candidate hidden nodes in
OEB-ELM can be automatically determined from data attributes. Note that both
EB-ELM and B-ELM are the specific cases of OEB-ELM. Specifically, EB-ELM is the
non-automated and non-orthogonal OEB-ELM, while B-ELM is the non-orthogonal
OEB-ELM when the number of candidate nodes K ¼ 1.
Acknowledgment. This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (61672358).
10 W. Cao et al.
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A Novel Feature Specificity Enhancement
for Taste Recognition by Electronic Tongue
Yanbing Chen, Tao Liu(&), Jianjun Chen, Dongqi Li,

and Mengya Wu
School of Microelectronics and Communication Engineering,

No. 174 Shazheng Street, Shapingba District, Chongqing 400044, China
{yanbingchen,cquliutao,cjj,20161213071}@cqu.edu.cn,
[email protected]
Abstract. An electronic tongue (E-Tongue) is a bionic system that relies on an

array of electrode sensors to realize taste perception. Large pulse voltammetry
(LAPV) is an important E-Tongue type which generally generates a large
amount of response data. Considering that high common-mode characteristics
existing in sensor arrays largely depress the recognition performance, we pro-
pose an alternative feature extraction method for sensor specificity enhancement,
which is called feature specificity enhancement (FSE). Specifically, the pro-
posed FSE method measures sensor specificity on paired sensor responses and
utilizes kernel function for nonlinear projection. Meanwhile, kernel extreme
learning machine (KELM) is utilized to evaluate the overall performance of
recognition. In experimental evaluation, we introduce several feature extraction
methods and classifiers for comparison. The results indicate that the proposed
feature extraction combined with KELM shows the highest recognition accuracy
of 95% on our E-Tongue dataset, which is superior to other methods in both
effectiveness and efficiency.
Keywords: Electronic tongue Specificity enhancement Kernel function
1 Introduction
An electronic tongue (E-Tongue) is a common type of artificial-taste equipment for

liquid phase analysis [1–3]. It relies on an array of sensors with low selectivity and
proper pattern recognition methods to realize taste identifications like human beings
[4]. Many E-Tongue applications have been reported [5–13]. Among them, both tea
and wine are popular in recent E-Tongue academic works.
Current E-Tongues are mainly divided into two categories: potentiometric [14] and
voltammetric types [15]. Compared with the former type, the latter one attaches more
attention [16–18]. Among voltammetric E-Tongues, the large amplitude pulse
voltammetry (LAPV) type is popular. For feature extraction of LAPV, recent studies
handle the responses of single electrode directly. However, they ignore the common-
mode signals existed between different electrodes in a sensor array which may be
harmful to classification.

J. Cao et al. (Eds.): ELM 2018, PALO 11, pp. 11–16, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23307-5_2
12 Y. Chen et al.
In this paper, we propose a feature enhancement method using a nonlinear

specificity metric, which can alleviate the common-mode components in sensor
responses. Coupled with the kernel extreme learning machine (KELM), the proposed
method obtains the highest recognition rate in evaluation among several referenced
methods. It has been proved that the nonlinear specificity enhancement associates with
KELM helps the data analysis of LAPV based E-Tongue apparently.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces the proposed
method. The experimental results and analysis are presented in Sect. 3. Finally, con-
clusions are presented in the last section.
2 Methods
Notations. In this paper, X ¼ ½x1; x2 ; . . .; xm T 2 Rmd represents the raw data of certain
sample, where m represents the sample dimension equivalent to the number of sensors
and d represents the value number of each sensor response.
2.1 Feature Specificity Enhancement

We propose feature specificity enhancement (FSE) scheme for the E-Tongues working
in LAPV manner and perform the feature extraction as follows:
Zijn ¼ jðxni ; xnj Þ; i 6¼ j ð1Þ
where xni represents the i-th sensor response to the n-th sample, Zijn indicates the n-th
sample feature between i-th and j-th sensor responses, jðÞ denotes a kernel function
projects original specificity component to a nonlinear space. Moreover, we introduce
kernel function to solve “dimension disaster” problem in space projection [19] as
follows:

x i x j 2
jðxi ; xj Þ ¼ expð 2
Þ ð2Þ
2r2
where expðÞ represents an exponential function, r is the width of the kernel function
and kk2 denotes the l2-norm.
In recognition stage, extreme learning machines (ELM) module [20] is a favorable
choice. It randomly initializes the input weights W ¼ ½w1 ; w2 ; . . .; wL T 2 RLD and bias
b ¼ ½b1 ; b2 ; . . .; bL 2 RL , and then the corresponding output weight matrix b 2 RLC
can be analytically calculated based on the output matrix of the hidden layer. The
output matrix H of hidden layer with L hidden neurons is computed as:
2 T 3
g w 1 x 1 þ b1 g wTL x1 þ bL
6 .. .. .. 7
H¼4 5 ð3Þ
T . . T .
g w 1 xN þ b 1 g wL xN þ bL
A Novel Feature Specificity Enhancement for Taste Recognition 13
where gðÞ is the activation function. If regularization is applied, the ELM learning
model can be expressed as follows:
1 1X N
min kbk2 þ l knk2
b 2 2 i¼1 ð4Þ
s:t hðxi Þb ¼ ti ni ; i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; N
where l is the regularization coefficient, n denotes the prediction error of ELM on

training set. The approximate solutions of output weight matrix b are calculated as:
8 1
>
< HT H þ ILL HT T; N L
l
b¼ 1 ð5Þ
>
: HT HT H þ INN T; N\L
l
where T ¼ ½t1 ; t2 ; . . .; tN T 2 RNC denotes the label matrix of training set, N is the
number of training samples. Therefore, the output of ELM can be computed as:
INN 1
f ð xÞ ¼ hð xÞHT ðHT H þ Þ T ð6Þ
l
The KELM additionally introduces a kernel function

when
calculating the output of
the network [21], which denotes Kij ¼ hðxi Þ h xj ¼ k xi ; xj . Thus, Eq. (6) can be
expressed as:
2 3
k ðx; x1 Þ
6 . 7 INN 1
f ð xÞ ¼ 4 .. 5 Kþ T ð7Þ
l
k ðx; xN Þ
3 Experiments
3.1 Experimental Data

The data acquisition was performed on our own developed E-Tongue system [22].
Seven kinds of drinks including red wine, white spirit, beer, oolong tea, black tea,
maofeng tea, and pu’er tea were selected as test objects. In the experiments, we for-
mulate nine tests for each kind of drinks. Thus, a total of 63 (7 kinds 9 tests) samples
were collected.
3.2 Experimental Results

In this section, we compare FSE method experimentally with three feature extraction
methods: Raw (No treatment), principle component analysis (PCA) and discrete
wavelet transform (DWT). After the original E-Tongue signals processed by different
14 Y. Chen et al.
feature extraction methods, support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF) and
KELM are implemented as recognition part for evaluation. In this section, we
use leave-one-out (LOO) strategy for cross validation. The average accuracies of cross
validation are reported in Table 1 and the total computation time for cross-validation
training and testing is presented in Table 2. From both Tables 1 and 2, we can have the
following observations:
(1) When SVM is used for classification, the proposed FSE with SVM performs
significantly better than other feature extraction methods. FSE with SVM can
achieve 90.48%. In the view of execution time, FSE reaches the shortest time
expense using SVM than other feature extraction methods.
(2) When RF is used for classification, both FSE and “raw” methods get the highest
average accuracy (82.54%) compared with other feature extraction methods. From
time consumption of computation, FSE is nearly 90 times faster than Raw.
(3) When KELM is adopted, FSE gets the highest accuracy 95.24%. Compared with
raw feature (22.22%), PCA (69.84%) and DWT (88.89%), it is obvious that
KELM shows better fitting and reasoning ability by using proposed FSE feature
extraction method. Moreover, the specificity metric with Hilbert projection is
more favorable to KELM than any other classifiers. As for time consumption, FSE
coupled with KELM cost the least time expense in all methods. It indicates that
KELM keeps the minimum amount of computation while providing excellent
classification results.
Table 1. Accuracy comparison

Feature extraction methods
Raw PCA DWT FSE
RF 82.54% 73.02% 77.78% 82.54%
SVM 84.13% 79.37% 77.78% 90.48%
KELM 22.22% 69.84% 88.89% 95.24%
Table 2. Time consumption comparison

Feature extraction methods
Raw PCA DWT FSE
RF 344.70 s 43.12 s 56.88 s 4.24 s
SVM 48.69 s 37.32 s 52.88 s 2.56 s
KELM 5.63 s 34.40 s 49.73 s 0.06 s
4 Conclusion
In this article, we proposed a FSE method for nonlinear feature extraction in E-Tongue
data and achieves taste recognition by using several typical classifiers such as SVM, RF
and KELM. The proposed FSE coupled with KELM achieves the best results in both
accuracy and computational efficiency on our collected data set by a self-developed
A Novel Feature Specificity Enhancement for Taste Recognition 15
E-Tongue system. We should admit that FSE seems to be effective in dealing with
feature extraction from high dimensional data, especially LAPV signals. On the other
hand, KELM can greatly promote the overall performance in accuracy and speed in
recognition.
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I've been as bald as an onion."
"Sure," drawled McDowell. "The jury will decide." He turned to
O'Toole. "Are you a doctor?"
"I am not a licensed Doctor of Medicine."
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practicing with no license."
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"Yeah? Then what's this feather-business all about?"
"Simple. Evolution has caused every genus, every specimen of life
to pass upward from the sea. Hair is evolved from scales and
feathers evolved also from scales.
"Now," continued O'Toole, "baldness is attributed to lack of
nourishment for the hair on the scalp. It dies. The same thing often
occurs in agriculture—"
"What has farming to do with hair-growing?" demanded McDowell.
"I was coming to that. When wheat will grow no longer in a field, they
plant it with corn. It is called 'Rotation of Crops.' Similarly, I cause a
change in the growth-output of the scalp. It starts off with a light
covering of scales, evolves into feathers in a few days, and the
feathers evolve to completion. This takes seven weeks. After this
time, the feathers die because of the differences in evolutionary
ending of the host. Then, with the scalp renewed by the so-called
Rotation of Crops."
"Uh-huh. Well, we'll let the jury decide!"
Two months elapsed before O'Toole came to trial. But meantime, the
judge took a vacation and returned with a luxuriant growth of hair on
his head. The jury was not cited for contempt of court even though
most of them insisted on keeping their hats on during proceedings.
O'Toole had a good lawyer.
And Judge Murphy beamed down over the bench and said: "O'Toole,
you are guilty, but sentence is suspended indefinitely. Just don't get
into trouble again, that's all. And gentlemen, Lieutenant McDowell,
Dr. Muldoon, and Sergeant O'Leary, I commend all of your work and
will direct that you, Mr. McCarthy, be recompensed. As for you," he
said to the ex-featherhead. "Mr. William B. Windsor, we have no use
for foreigners—"
Mr. Windsor never got a chance to state that he was no foreigner; his
mother was a Clancy.
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Proceedings of ELM 2018 Jiuwen Cao

Proceedings of ELM2019 Jiuwen Cao

Elm in Action 1st Edition Richard Feldman

Proceedings of International Ethical Hacking Conference

Environmental Geotechnology Proceedings of EGRWSE 2018

Foundations of Average-Cost Nonhomogeneous Controlled

Proceedings of International Conference on

Data Analytics and Learning Proceedings of DAL 2018 P.

ICCCE 2018: Proceedings of the International Conference

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13543

Yoan Miche Amaury Lendasse

Proceedings of ELM 2018

ISSN 2363-6084 ISSN 2363-6092 (electronic)

Random Orthogonal Projection Based Enhanced Bidirectional

An Algorithm of Sina Microblog User’s Sentimental Inﬂuence

Hand Gesture Recognition Using Clip Device Applicable to Smart

A Soft Computing-Based Daily Rainfall Forecasting Model Using

Weipeng Cao1, Jinzhu Gao2, Xizhao Wang1, Zhong Ming1(&),

Abstract. Bidirectional extreme learning machine (B-ELM) divides the

Keywords: Extreme learning machine Bidirectional extreme learning machine

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

Our main contributions in this study are as follows.

2 Review of ELM, I-ELM, B-ELM and EB-ELM

Fig. 1. A basic ELM neural network structure

The above ELM network can be modeled as

where H þ is the Moore–Penrose generalized inverse of H.

fn ðxÞ ¼ fn1 ðxÞ þ bn Gn ðxÞ ð5Þ

^ 2n ¼ g1 ðuðH2n ÞÞx1

^ 2n ¼ u1 ðg1 ðx2n x þ b2n ÞÞ

3 The Proposed Algorithm

In this section, we propose a random orthogonal projection based enhanced bidirec-

4 Experimental Results and Analysis

Table 1. Speciﬁcation of six regression datasets

Our experiments are conducted based on the following two questions:

Table 2. Performance comparison of the EB-ELM, B-ELM, EI-ELM, and OEB-ELM

In this study, we proposed a novel random orthogonal projection based enhanced

Yanbing Chen, Tao Liu(&), Jianjun Chen, Dongqi Li,

School of Microelectronics and Communication Engineering,

Abstract. An electronic tongue (E-Tongue) is a bionic system that relies on an

Keywords: Electronic tongue Speciﬁcity enhancement Kernel function

An electronic tongue (E-Tongue) is a common type of artiﬁcial-taste equipment for

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

In this paper, we propose a feature enhancement method using a nonlinear

2.1 Feature Speciﬁcity Enhancement

Zijn ¼ jðxni ; xnj Þ; i 6¼ j ð1Þ

where l is the regularization coefﬁcient, n denotes the prediction error of ELM on

The KELM additionally introduces a kernel function

3.1 Experimental Data

3.2 Experimental Results

Table 1. Accuracy comparison

Table 2. Time consumption comparison

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