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Sustainable Bioprocessing
for a Clean and Green
Environment
Sustainable
Bioprocessing for
a Clean and Green
Environment
Concepts and Applications
Edited by M. Jerold, A. Santhiagu,

Rajulapati Sathish Babu and
Narasimhulu Korapatti
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
© 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
The right of M. Jerold and A. Santhiagu to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of
the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher
cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The
authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in
this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been
obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage
or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com
or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Jerold, M., editor.
Title: Sustainable bioprocessing for a clean and green environment : concepts and applications / edited
by M. Jerold, A. Santhiagu, Rajulapati Sathish Babu, and Narasimhulu Korapatti.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references
and index. | Summary: "This book highlights the importance of waste to health in which waste is
safely converted to value-added products via bioprocess technologies. Providing fundamental concepts
and applications, this book also offers readers the methodology behind the operation of a variety of
biological processes used in developing valuable products from waste. This interdisciplinary book
is essential for researchers in chemical, environmental, and bioprocess engineering"-- Provided by
publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020055297 (print) | LCCN 2020055298 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367459086 (hardback)
| ISBN 9781003035398 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Green chemistry. | Recycling (Waste, etc.) | Biochemical
engineering. | Fuel. | Chemicals.
Classification: LCC TP155.2.E58 S855 2021 (print) | LCC TP155.2.E58 (ebook) | DDC 660.6/3--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020055297
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020055298
ISBN: 978-0-367-45908-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-76236-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-03539-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003035398
Typeset in Times
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
Contents
Preface��vii
Editor Biographies��ix
Contributors��xiii
Chapter 1 Alternative Plastics from Wastes through Biomass

Valorization Approaches...................................................................... 1
Amisha Pani, Saloni Tripathy, Shreya Sadukha, Sunaina Nag
and Samuel Jacob
Chapter 2 Bioelectrochemical System: Waste/Wastewater to

Bioenergy Conversion Technology.................................................... 29
Samsudeen Naina Mohamed and K. M. Meera Sheriffa Begum
Chapter 3 Bioelectrochemical Reactors: Factors Governing Power

Production and Its Applications......................................................... 47
Subramaniapillai Niju, Elangovan Elakkiya and
Erudayadhas Lavanya
Chapter 4 Photosynthetic Microbial Fuel Cells: Advances, Challenges

and Applications................................................................................ 67
Subramaniapillai Niju, Karuppusamy Priyadharshini and
Elangovan Elakkiya
Chapter 5 Pretreatment of Paddy Straw for Sustainable Bioethanol

Production.......................................................................................... 93
Suchitra Rakesh, Karthikeyan Subburamu, Ramesh Desikan
and N. Arunkumar
Chapter 6 Bio-based Coagulants for the Remediation of Environmental

Pollutants......................................................................................... 103
Mansi Kikani, Chanchpara Amit, Doddabhimappa
Ramappa Gangapur, Muthulingam Seenuvasan, and Madhava
Anil Kumar
Chapter 7 The Role of Nanomaterials in Wastewater Treatment..................... 113

A. Thirunavukkarasu and R. Nithya
v
viContents
Chapter 8 Application of Biogenic Nanoparticles for a Clean

Environment..................................................................................... 147
Jishma Panichikkal and Radhakrishnan Edayileveetil
Krishnankutty
Chapter 9 Phycoremediation of Heavy Metals in Wastewater: Strategy

and Developments............................................................................ 163
Velusamy Priya, Sivakumar Vivek, Muthulingam Seenuvasan,
and Carlin Geor Malar
Chapter 10 An Economic Perspective of Bio-waste Valorization for

Extended Sustainability................................................................... 177
Suganya Subburaj and Madhava Anil Kumar
Chapter 11 Recovery of Energy from Plastic Wastes by Pyrolysis

Process for Sustainable Waste Management.................................... 191
Riasha Pal, Nilanjan Paul, Deep Bhattacharya, Rajupalepu S.
Monish, and Samuel Jacob
Chapter 12 Biosurfactant: A Sustainable Replacement for Chemical

Surfactants....................................................................................... 217
Tamil Elakkiya Vadivel, Theresa Veeranan, Krishnan Ravi
Shankar, Renganathan Sahadevan, Tholan Gajendran
Chapter 13 Nutraceutical Prospects of Green Algal Resources in

Sustainable Development................................................................ 235
Prasanthkumar Santhakumaran and Joseph George Ray
Chapter 14 Green Algae as a Bioenergy Resource with the Eco-

technological Potential for Sustainable Development..................... 261
Santhosh Kumar Kookal and Joseph George Ray
Chapter 15 Compilation of Characterization and Electrochemical

Behavior from Novel Biomass as Porous Electrode Materials
for Energy Storage Devices............................................................. 287
Divya Palaniswamy and Rajalakshmi Reguramnan
Index�� 309
Preface
Global sustainability is gearing up for the dynamic harmony of humans and nature,
societies and the ecosystem, as well as the earth and the world. The goal of sustain-
able development is an avenue for human development in the context of world cli-
mate change and earth resilience to support present and future generations.
One of the key areas of sustainability is waste management. Waste management is
a global challenge in maintaining a pollution-free environment. Due to the huge hur-
dles in waste management, it is essential to practice the concepts of “reuse and
resource recovery” from the waste generated by humans, plants, and animals for
prospective heath and wealth as well as for socio-economics. Bioprocessing is a
novel and advanced technique for the management of biowaste from various sources.
In particular, bioprocessing facilitates the efficient conversion of organic waste into
value added products using microorganisms as biocatalyst. Sustainable bioprocess-
ing is a key platform in addressing the valorization of biowaste and establishing cir-
cular bioeconomy. Biorefinery is an innovative and advanced concept in bioprocessing
explored in the field of biotechnology for bioremediation. Biowaste is used as the
renewable feedstock for the recovery of bioproducts, biochemicals, and bioenergy,
using sustainable bioprocessing techniques.
This book, Sustainable Bioprocessing for a Clean and Green Environment:
Concepts and Applications, is proposed with a goal of delivering all the up-to-date
concepts on bioprocessing related to bioremediation and bioconversion. The whole
book is a net outcome of eminent academicians and researchers working in multidis-
ciplinary areas on sustainable clean and green environments.
This book has 15 chapters on emerging concepts related to waste management
and sustainable development. Indeed, several researches are undertaken today for the
proper disposal of solid and liquid waste. Interestingly, resource is recovered from
the waste which is a successful milestone in waste management. This book gives
deep understanding about bioplastic from biomass, bioelectricity generation, bio-
ethanol from biomass waste, and so on. Further, importance is given to wastewater
treatment using biological methods. A couple of chapters discuss liquid waste man-
agement using nanomaterials. Today, algae are widely explored in various ways for
sustainable development. Therefore, we have included a few chapters on algal tech-
nology for the production of bioenergy and nutraceuticals. This book also gives
information about the development of biosurfactants and corrosion inhibitors from
biomass.
Essentially, the idea behind the writing of this book is to deliver information for
multidisciplinary researchers. So, we believe this book gives diversified information
related to pollution abatement. In a nutshell, this book is an interdisciplinary book
highly focused on a research-based solution for the concept of a green and clean
environment and will provide sparkling information for those readers working in the
cutting-edge research areas of sustainable bioremediation and pollution
vii
viiiPreface
management. Moreover, the chapters are written by highly esteemed researchers

from various technical universities utilizing their expertise and research outcomes.
Therefore, we earnestly believe this book will cater to the needs of the present gen-
eration of researchers and engineers striving to develop green technologies for sus-
tainable development.
Enjoy reading the book!
Best wishes
Dr. M. Jerold
Prof. A. Santhiagu
Dr. R. Rajulapati Sathish Babu
Dr. K. Narasimhulu Korapatti
Editor Biographies
Dr. Jerold is an academician and researcher in the field of biochemical engineering.
His areas of interest include biorefineries, waste valorization, and algal bioremediation.
He has embarked on his research potential for a clean and green environment. His
research is mainly focused on sustainable bioconversion; in particular, his idea is to
produce wealth from waste. He is a reviewer of many national and international jour-
nals. He has industrial, teaching and research experience. His research areas encom-
pass fermentation, phytoremediation, biological wastewater treatment, biosoprtion,
microbial fuel cells, nanotechnology, biosurfactants, biocataysts, biofuels, and adsorp-
tion of heavy metals, to list a few. His research is highly focused on problems related
to environmental issues, especially liquid and solid waste management. He was
awarded a seed grant to execute research on biodiesel production using enzymatic cata-
lysts by the National Institute of Technology, Warangal, India. He has identified mac-
roalgae as feedstock for the production of bioethanol at low cost. He has extensively
worked on dye removal using algae for the textile industry. He has developed a biocom-
posite for the removal of dye with maximum biosorption capacity. Being an interdisci-
plinary area researcher, he is working on hot topics related to sustainable energy
production from microbial fuel cells, algal lipid, biohydrogen from wastewater, and so
on. He is also involved in the extraction of various phytochemicals from algae.
In addition to his research, he is involved in teaching for undergraduate engineer-
ing students. He has handled various subjects related to biotechnology and biochemi-
cal engineering bioreactor design and analysis, downstream processing, protein
engineering, bioprocess heat transfer, biofuel technology and engineering, biopro-
cess instrumentation, environmental biotechnology, herbal biotechnology, introduc-
tion to life science, engineering biology, transport phenomena in the bioprocess
system, and biochemical thermodynamics. He has handled various laboratory courses
for Bachelor of Technology in Biotechnology students, such as bioprocess and bio-
reaction engineering, transport phenomena in the bioprocess system, heat and mass
transfer, instrumental methods of analysis, fluid mechanics, and environmental and
pollution control. He is a highly committed teacher and researcher who works enthu-
siastically on cutting-edge research areas of biotechnology. He has been with Dr.
D.G.S. Dhinakaran fellowship for his postgraduate education and the MHRD
Fellowship by Government of India for his doctoral studies. In addition, he has been
honored with gold medals for his higher academic credentials by the university of his
higher studies. He was the state rank holder during his Pre University level.
Jerold has published 24 research and review papers as well as reviewing articles
in international and national peer-reviewed journals. In addition, Jerold has authored
six book chapters and has guided 15 project students for their dissertation work. He
is currently guiding one doctoral student in the area of bioprocessing and biosepara-
tion. To his credit he has edited a couple of books and published by CRC Press/
Taylor & Francis and Springer Nature. He is a life member of the Biotech Research
Society of India (BRSI) and the International Society for Technical Education
(ISTE), India.
ix
x Editor Biographies
Dr. A. Santhiagu completed his Bachelor of Pharmacy (B.Pharm) from Tamil Nadu
Dr. M.G.R Medical University, Chennai in 1998. Later, he achieved his Master of
Technology in Biochemical Engineering from Banaras Hindu University (IIT-BHU),
Varanasi in 2001, then he completed his Doctor of Philosophy in Biochemical
Engineering at Banaras Hindu University (IT-BHU), Varanasi in 2006. Following
this, he joined as Assistant Professor at Kalasalingam Academy of Research and
Education, Sivakasi for two years, before moving to Ultra College of Pharmacy,
Madurai where he served as Head of Department for one year. He then joined NIT
Calicut, School of Biotechnology in the year of 2009 as Assistant Professor where he
is now Professor. In addition to teaching he has been deputed in various administra-
tive positions like HOD, Associate Dean, Deputy Registrar and Chief Warden.
He has published over 18 research papers in various peer-reviewed international
journals and around 25 research papers in various national and international confer-
ences. He has evidenced his subject knowledge in guiding five Ph.D. students, four
Master’s scholars and many project students in getting their degrees awarded. At
present, he has seven Ph.D. scholars pursuing their degrees under his guidance. He
has drawn various funded projects from government-funding agencies like DST,
DBT, and KSCSTE in the tune of 10 billion for various research projects. He has
organized one international and one national conference sponsored and supported by
DBT, DST, ICMR, and CSIR. His key research areas include bioprocessing, biore-
mediation and controlled drug delivery systems. He is a life member of the Biotech
Research Society of India. He and his team have worked in the field of bioprocessing
for the last decade and have attributed their research findings to the field of biopro-
cessing of various biological products. In their lab, students are working on different
products like gellan production, biofuel production, fibrinolytic enzyme production,
and so on. They are developing various strategies for commercializing the products.
They are still at the experimentation stage and most of the products are in pipeline.
The most interesting part of their research finding is on gellan gum production using
recombinant strains and they have isolated a novel strain from a marine source for the
production a novel block-buster enzyme.
Thus, he has proved his research on various perspectives on science and engineer-
ing. So, he is now interested in deliver his research finding and expertise via Books
and Journals. Perhaps, he has various publications in peer reviewed international
journals. He would like to step into authoring a book with the support of his col-
leagues who are working in the similar kind of discipline.
Dr. Rajulapati Sathish Babu is presently serving as Associate Professor and Head in
the Department of Biotechnology. He completed his B.Tech in Chemical Engineering
from NIT Warangal, M.Tech and his Ph.D. from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University, Hyderabad, India. His area of research includes bioprocess engineering,
environmental biotechnology modeling, and simulation of bioprocesses metabolic
engineering bioinformatics. He has more than 14 years’ teaching experience handling
various subjects like bioprocess engineering, biochemical engineering, biochemical
reaction engineering, downstream processing, bioinformatics, heat transfer in
bioprocess, mass transfer operations in bioprocess, transport phenomena in bio
process, p rocess engineering principles, microbial bioreactor design, and microbial
Editor Biographies xi
engineering. He has also handled various labs like bioprocess engineering, bioreac-
tion engineering, bioinformatics, and downstream processing for B.Tech students.
In addition to teaching he has been deputed in various administrative positions
like HOD, Warden, and Security officer. He has published over 26 research papers in
various peer-reviewed international journals and many research papers in various
national and international conferences. He has evidenced his subject knowledge in
guiding three Ph.D students, several Master’s scholars, and project students in get-
ting their degrees awarded. He has organized various workshops and national confer-
ences to deliver his expertise to academicians, researchers, and students. He received
funding for a project from the Council of Scientific and Industrial research (CSIR).
His research is in the development of low-cost methods to remove pollutants from
ground water. His research group is working on the isolation of novel enzymes and
its application cancer cells studies. They have developed a low-cost ultrafiltration
membrane for the removal of fluoride from ground water. For more than a decade, his
research group has done significant work for the benefit of the research community.
He has published a chapter in the book Chemical and Bioprocess Engineering:
Trends and Developments (2015), published by CRC Press, and he has one patent to
his credit (continuous solution phase production of beta peptide using spiral copper
channel microreactor, Application No.: 635/CHE/2015, Publication Date: 9/02/2015).
He received Best Poster award at the 3rd International Conference on Desalination
using Membrane Technology organized by Elsevier in Gran Canaria, Spain. He has
honored by the Venus International Society in 2016 for his outstanding performance
as Bioprocess Engineering Faculty. He is an academic fellow at Telangana Academy
of Sciences.
Dr. Narasimhulu Korapatti is currently at the National Institute of Technology

Warangal as Associate Professor in the Department of Biotechnology. He has 20
years of teaching experience. He was Visiting Researcher at Rice University, USA in
the Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering has completed his
B.Tech in Chemical Engineering at NIT Warangal and his M.Tech at Jawaharlal
Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, India. Following this, Dr. Korapatti
completed his Doctor of Philosophy at NIT Warangal, and, in addition, he has his
Diploma in Sugar Technology.
His areas of research are environmental biotechnology, bioprocess engineering,
modeling and simulation of bioprocesses, biofuels, and systems biology. He is an
expert in teaching various subjects like biochemical thermodynamics, bioprocess
calculations, bioprocess engineering, bioreaction engineering, modeling and simula-
tion of bioprocesses, bionanaotechnology, and bioprocess plant design. He is actively
guiding Ph.D. research students and has successfully guided three Ph.D students in
the field of biotechnology. He has also guided several undergraduate and Master’s
students in their dissertation work. He has received various sponsored funded proj-
ects from DST, SERB, MHRD for conducting research works and other academic
activities. He has published 28 research papers in various peer-reviewed international
journals and many in various national and international conferences. In addition to
teaching and research, he has been deputed in various administrative positions for the
prospective of institute development. His research group studies the production of
xii Editor Biographies
biofuel from ligocellulosic feedstock using enzymatic hydrolysis, and his team is
working on the bioremediation of organic pollutants.
Dr. Korapatti has conducted various workshops, FDPs, and conferences to deliver
his expertise to the young students, researchers, and engineers. He is a senior mem-
ber of Asia Pacific Chemical, Biological & Environmental Engineering Society
(APCBEES) and life member of various professional bodies. He has visited the
USA, Thailand, Australia, and Dubai attending conferences and other academic
works and received the International travel award by the Department of Biotechnology
(DBT), Government of India, for attending the International Conference on Tissue
Science and Engineering. He has also been the recipient of the Young Faculty and
Young Scientist Award held by the Venus International Foundation, Chennai, India.
Contributors
Chanchpara Amit Radhakrishnan Edayileveetil
Analytical and Environmental Science Krishnankutty
Division & Centralized Instrument School of Biosciences
Facility Mahatma Gandhi University
CSIR-Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Kerala, India
Research Institute
Bhavnagar, India Tamil Elakkiya Vadivel
Department of Biotechnology
Madhava Anil Kumar Bharathidasan Institute of Technology
Analytical and Environmental Science Anna University
Division & Centralized Instrument Tiruchirappalli, India
Facility
CSIR-Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Elangovan Elakkiya
Research Institute Department of Biotechnology
Bhavnagar, India PSG College of Technology
and Coimbatore, India
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Tholan Gajendran

Research Department of Biotechnology
Ghaziabad, India Bharathidasan Institute of Technology
Anna University
N. Arunkumar Tiruchirappalli, India
Department of Microbiology
Central University of Tamil Nadu Carlin Geor Malar
Thiruvarur, India Department of Biotechnology
Rajalakshmi Engineering College
Deep Bhattacharya
Thandalam, India
School of Bioengineering
Samuel Jacob
SRM Institute of Science and
Technology
Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Chennai, India
K. M. Meera Sheriffa Begum College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering SRM Institute of Science and Technology
National Institute of Technology Chennai, India
Tiruchirappalli, India
Mansi Kikani
Ramesh Desikan Analytical and Environmental Science
Department of Vegetable Science Division & Centralized Instrument
Horticultural College and Research Facility
Institute for Women CSIR-Central Salt & Marine Chemicals
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Research Institute
Tiruchirappalli, India Bhavnagar, India
xiii
xivContributors
Santhosh Kumar Kookal Riasha Pal

International Centre for Genetic Department of Biotechnology
Engineering and Biotechnology School of Bioengineering
New Delhi, India SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, India
Erudayadhas Lavanya
Department of Biotechnology Divya Palaniswamy
PSG College of Technology Department of Chemistry
Coimbatore, India Avinashilingam Institute for Home
Science and Higher Education for
Sunaina Nag Women
Department of Biotechnology Coimbatore, India
Faculty of Engineering and
Technology
Jishma Panichikkal
School of Biosciences
College of Engineering and Technology
Mahatma Gandhi University
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Kerala, India
Chennai, India
Samsudeen Naina Mohamed Nilanjan Paul

Department of Chemical Engineering Department of Biotechnology
National Institute of Technology School of Bioengineering
Tiruchirappalli, India SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, India
Rajupalepu S. Monish
Velusamy Priya
Department of Civil Engineering
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
SNS College of Engineering
Chennai, India
Coimbatore, India
Subramaniapillai Niju
Department of Biotechnology Karuppusamy Priyadharshini
PSG College of Technology Department of Biotechnology
Coimbatore, India PSG College of Technology
Coimbatore, India
R. Nithya
Department of Industrial Biotechnology
Suchitra Rakesh
Government College of Technology
Department of Microbiology
Coimbatore, India
Central University of Tamil Nadu
Amisha Pani Thiruvarur, India
Faculty of Engineering and Technology Doddabhimappa Ramappa Gangapur
School of Bioengineering Plant Omics Division
College of Engineering and Technology CSIR-Central Salt & Marine Chemicals
SRM Institute of Science and Technology Research Institute
Chennai, India Bhavnagar, India
Contributors xv
and Suganya Subburaj

Analytical and Environmental Science
Academy of Scientific and Innovative
Division & Centralized Instrument
Research
Facility
Ghaziabad, India
CSIR - Central Salt & Marine Chemicals
Research Institute (CSMCRI)
Krishnan Ravi Shankar Bhavnagar, India
Bharathidasan Institute of Technology and
Anna University Academy of Scientific and Innovative
Tiruchirappalli, India Research
Ghaziabad, India
Joseph George Ray
School of Biosciences Karthikeyan Subburamu
Mahatma Gandhi University Department of Renewable Energy
Kerala, India Engineering
Agricultural Engineering College and
Rajalakshmi Reguramnan Research Institute
Department of Chemistry Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science Coimbatore, India
and Higher Education for Women
Coimbatore, India A. Thirunavukkarasu
Department of Industrial Biotechnology
Shreya Sadukha
Government College of Technology
Coimbatore, India
Faculty of Engineering and Technology
School of Bioengineering Saloni Tripathy
College of Engineering and Technology Department of Biotechnology
SRM Institute of Science and Technology Faculty of Engineering
Chennai, India and Technology
Renganathan Sahadevan
College of Engineering and Technology
SRM Institute of Science and
Anna University
Technology
Chennai, India
Chennai, India
Prasanthkumar Santhakumaran Theresa Veeranan

School of Biosciences Department of Biotechnology
Mahatma Gandhi University Anna University
Kerala, India Chennai, India
Muthulingam Seenuvasan Sivakumar Vivek

Department of Chemical Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Hindusthan College of Engineering & Hindusthan College of Engineering and
Technology Technology
Coimbatore, India Coimbatore, India
1 Alternative Plastics from
Wastes through Biomass
Valorization Approaches
Amisha Pani, Saloni Tripathy, Shreya Sadukha,
Sunaina Nag and Samuel Jacob
SRM Institute of Science and Technology, India
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction�� 1
1.2 Classification of Bioplastic�� 3
1.2.1 Based on Biological Macromolecules�� 3
1.2.1.1 Starch��3
1.2.1.2 Chitosan��6
1.2.1.3 Proteins�� 8
1.3 Wastes as Source of Bioplastic��10
1.3.1 Sugar Refinery Waste (Cane Molasses)�� 10
1.3.2 Paper Mill Waste�� 11
1.3.3 Bioplastic from Waste Glycerol�� 12
1.3.4 Vegetable Waste�� 13
1.3.5 Food Waste Valorization�� 14
1.3.6 Palm Tree Biomass-based Processing Plants�� 15
1.3.7 Banana Waste�� 16
1.4 Cyano Bacteria and PHB�� 16
1.4.1 PHB Synthesize�� 16
1.4.2 Detection and Analysis of PHB�� 18
1.4.3 Biodegradability and Biological Considerations of Poly-β-
hydroxybutyrate�� 18
1.5 Conclusion��20
References�� 20
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Synthetic polymers, almost without exception, are non-biodegradable. Industries such as
packaging, healthcare, textiles, and so on are a few of the major consumers of the petro-
leum-derived synthetic polymers (polypropylene (PP), polyvinylchloride (PVC), high-
density polyethylene (HDPE), polystyrene (PS), etc.) (USA Energy Information
Administration, 2012). Plastics and polymers form an integrated part of our daily routine.
1
2 Sustainable Bioprocessing for a Clean and Green Environment
Also, food packaging is one of the most important requirements in food industries. The
major concern faced by them is how to preserve and protect all types of foods, and for
this petroleum-derived plastics are predominantly being used. On the other hand, these
plastics pose both health and serious environmental hazards.
The depletion of the finite petrochemical resources, supply security, and the nega-
tive effects on the environment has necessitated the development of eco-friendly
polymers. For the last decade, great effort has been incorporated into producing bio-
polymers and has attracted considerable attention because of their environmental
advantages. Industrial ecology, green chemistry, eco-efficiency, and sustainability
are guiding the next generations of materials, processes, and products. Polymers are
a chemical compound consisting of discrete building blocks linked together in a
long, repeating chain. Biopolymers are defined as the polymer formed under the
natural processes and hence is also known as a natural polymer.
The majority of the biopolymers are extracted from agricultural products such as
starch, cellulose, and protein. However, with comparison to thermoplastic based on
synthetic polymers, biopolymers pose difficulty when processed with conventional
technologies and show subservient performances in terms of functional and struc-
tural properties (Mensitieri et al., 2011, Bahram et al., 2020). The blending of differ-
ent biopolymers has been considered as an alternative to this problem. The most
familiar and potential biopolymers are starch, gelatin, chitosan, alginate, poly lactic
acids, poly hydroxy alkanoates (PHAs), poly hydroxy butyrates (PHBs), and so on.
Being extracted from nature they are biodegradable and hence can be consumed by
microorganisms and converted into simple, eco-friendly compounds. Biopolymers
are used to form biobased plastic which can be reusable and are biodegradable
(Elisabeta-Elena et al., 2014). The raw materials, chemical composition, and the
structure of the finally produced bioplastic, along with the environment under which
the bioplastic is expected to degrade, determines its biodegradability. Some of the
sources of polymers available in natural resources have been schematically repre-
sented in Figure 1.1.
Biodegradable polymers
Biomass Products From micro-organisms (obtained From biotechnology

(conventional synthesis
(agro-polymers) by extraction) from bio-derived
monomers)
Polysaccharides Proteins Poly hydroxy
alkanoates
(PHA)
Polylactides
(PLA)
Starches Animals
Lignocellulosic Plants
products
Others: chitosan,
glucan..
FIGURE 1.1 Sources of bio-polymers used for plastics synthesis.

Alternative Plastics from Wastes 3
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BIOPLASTIC
1.2.1 Based on Biological Macromolecules
1.2.1.1 Starch
Starch is the most commonly used raw material which is renewable and biodegrad-
able in nature. Starch can be obtained from potato, rice, wheat, and cassava (Whistler
and BeMiller, 2007). It is thermoplastic in nature. It can be plasticized by using spe-
cific amounts of plasticizers (sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol, glycerol) and heat and then
it is obtained. The main reason for using starch as a material for packaging is low
cost, easy availability, and biodegradable in nature.
The use of starch in the plastics industry reduces the use of synthetic polymers in
these industries. The structure of starch is made up of amylose and amylopectin.
Biodegradable forms of plastics are mostly made of amylopectin, but films made up
from pure starch showcase inferior physical properties (Akter et al., 2012). The main
reason why amylopectin is used for bioplastic preparation rather than amylose is
amylose constitutes only 20 percent of starch while amylopectin constitutes 80 per-
cent of starch, and amylopectin is more soluble in water and branched as compared
to amylose which has a linear chain structure.
The main limitation for using starch is that it has a poor mechanical property and
a resistance to moisture. In order to improve these properties, the starch is blended
with other varieties of biopolymers and certain additives (Yadav et al., 2018). Starch
can be blended with PLA composites and can also be mixed with polyvinyl alcohol
and chitosan (Wang et al., 2010).
1.2.1.1.1 Modifications of Starch
The native form of starch has unfavorable properties such as brittleness and is not
soluble in cold water. Therefore to overcome these limitations it can be modified
chemically as discussed in the subsequent section. The types of modification for
starch are represented in Figure 1.2.
1.2.1.1.2 Cross-linking
Cross-linking of the starch is the most significant modification followed. A study was
done by Kapelko et al. (2015) in which cross-linking weak hydrogen bonds are
replaced with strong covalent bonds. Choi and Lee (1999) and Franssen and Boeriu
FIGURE 1.2 Ways of modification of starch.

(2014). reported that the amount of C6H12O6 that exists in starch mainly consists of
two 2° and one 1° hydroxyl groups that can interact with other compounds. This can
lead to increase in cross-linking which causes it to be more amicable to the gelatini-
zation process and increases the stability by reducing the solubility as stated
(Ratnayake and Jackson 2008; Zhong et al., 2013). The cross-linked starch can be
utilized in textile, adhesive, and food industries (Phadnis and Jadhav, 1991).
Jyothi et al. (2006) reported cross-linking of cassava starch with epichlorohydrin
(an organo-chloride and epoxide) in three types of different media: water, water with
N,N- dimethylformamide, and water with phase contrast catalyst. Upon characteriza-
tion based on thermal, retrogradation, and physicochemical properties, the cross-
linking was very high when N,N- dimethylformamide was used. Also, there was a
subsequent decrease in the capacity of water-binding ability with an increase in the
extent of cross-linking.
1.2.1.1.3 Esterification
In esterification, hydroxyl groups are replaced with ester groups that enhance the
thermal stability (Grommers, 2009). Different types of starch esters are synthesized,
namely, starch sulfates, starch phosphates, and starches of fatty acid (Wischmann
et al., 2005; Vasiliadou et al., 2015).
Starch modified by esterification deciphered the disappearance of the crystalline
structure of starch composites after the reaction. This led to the enhancement in
physical properties and thermal stability of the native starch.
1.2.1.1.4 Stabilization
Stabilization is performed to improve the ability of the starch to tolerate the variation
in temperatures. This is also done to escalate the shelf life of the products made from
starch. The huge groups such as octenyl-succinate are replaced on to the starch in
order to prevent the straight scattered remains to re-associate or re-crystallize the
polysaccharides present in gelatinized starch (Murphy, 2007). The number of groups
added to it decides the effect of stabilization. It has been seen that when potato starch
was annealed with different amylose/amylopectin ratios with subsequent increases in
the temperature, there was an increase in stability which might be due to thickening
with amylase as observed from the X-ray crystallography results. The thickening of
the crystal mainly involves amylopectin and amylose to go through co-crystallization
while annealing (Gomand et al., 2012).
1.2.1.1.5 Pre-gelatinization
Pre-gelatinization is a method which was developed in order to eliminate the require-
ment of cooking the starch (Miyazaki et al., 2006). Two ways of acetone precipita-
tions were employed, that is, cold and hot form, and it has been observed that the
product exhibited good powder properties (Ohwoavworhua and Osinowo, 2010).
However, it takes a longer time to dry a pre-gelatinized starch preparation.
1.2.1.1.6 Thermoplastic Starch
Starch in its native form is fragile and tends to be water absorbent, hence hindering
its usage especially in food packaging. It is less thermally stable and has a high
melting point (Wang et al., 2003). Starch can be transformed into thermoplastic form
by inducing plasticizers like polyols in it. This thermoplastic starch can be mixed
with a variety of polymers each having their own properties and potentiality.
Thermoplastic starch can be blended with a wide range of polymers along with some
plasticizers. This enhances its water-resistant and mechanical properties (Murphy,
2007). Blending of biological components such as starch and PLA with other ther-
moplastic has been done in the recent past and which are discussed in the subsequent
sections.
1.2.1.1.6.1 Thermoplastic Starch-Polyethylene Blends Polyethylene (PE) is

tolerant to chemicals and is harmless when acids, bases, or the salts are used. Apart
from these advantages, other properties such as cheap, flexible, and toughness of PE
makes it suitable candidate as a blending agent. Hua et al. (2014) were able to prepare
thermoplastic-PE blends by using glycerol as a plasticizer. A vulcanized way was
chosen in which the thermoplastic starch-PE blends were compounded in one non-
stop course in a twin-screw extruder of co-rotating type which was delivered by a
single-screw extruder. In order to prevent the premature evaporation of water, high
pressure was maintained throughout the process. These blends demonstrated high
elongation properties, as high elongation property is very important for a plastic to be
used as a packaging material (van den Broek et al., 2015). A material which has
elevated elongation property will eventually soak up a huge quantity of energy before
it breaks.
1.2.1.1.6.2 Thermoplastic Starch-Polypropylene Blends Polypropylene (PP)

is an extremely superior insulator and even exhibits good electrical properties. Reddy
et al. (2003) stated that it is tolerant to varieties of chemicals such as alcohols,
glycerol, some bases, and so on, when exposed at elevated temperatures which are
commonly used in the wrapping of consumer goods (Imre and Pukanszky, 2013).
Kaseem et al. (2012) did research in which they blended PP with thermoplastic starch
by a melting and extrusion (single) process which was further shaped by using an
injection molding process. The change in rheological and mechanical properties of
blends was analyzed and it was observed that the firmness of thermoplastic starch
reduced as the glycerol content increased. In regard to the mechanical property
results, analysis indicated that the strain present at the break ends was found to be
less than PP, also the blends had a higher Young’s modulus than that of PP. This blend
has a high crystalline nature that improves its tensile strength and stiffness which are
the most significant factors required for food packaging.
1.2.1.1.6.3 Thermoplastic Starch-PLA Blends Polylactic acid (PLA) being a

polymer of organic acid is biologically compatible and eco-friendly. It can be used
in the field of pharmacology and textile industries. Furthermore, its monomer
mixture using appropriate microorganisms and sustainable resources decreases
the implications in global warming to an extent. Therefore, researchers have
performed experiments to utilize natural sources to transform native PLA to
improve its functional properties (Bishai et al., 2014). PLA has a lot of
characteristics equivalent to those of PP and polystyrene, such as rigidity and
tensile strength. PLA has also been made up into a large range of customer
products, which includes degradable bags, paper covering and has also been spun
into cloth. Polyethene oxide mixed with PLA is used as blended plastic material
for secondary packaging material to improve the average shelf life of the products
due to its enhanced barrier property (Iotti et al., 2009). It has been concluded that
the Young’s modulus and tensile strength was more for sorbitol plasticized blends
as compared to other blends.
1.2.1.2 Chitosan
Chitosan is the most preferred polymer next to starch which is primarily ideal
because of the properties such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity,
antioxidant, anticancer, and antimicrobial properties. As chitosan is mainly
extracted from the aquatic waste resources like crustaceans (crab shells, prawn
exoskeleton, etc.) it renders cost-effectiveness (Abdou et al., 2008; Dayarian et al.,
2014; Vilela et al., 2017; Xie et al., 2017). Alkaline deacetylation of chitin pro-
duces chitosan which is a derivative of chitin. Chitin is present in the exoskeleton
of insects and crustaceans (Siripatrawan and Vitchayakitti, 2016; Darbasi et al.,
2017; Kalaycıoğlu et al., 2017; De et al., 2018). Chitosan is highly soluble in con-
trast to chitin (Elsabee and Abdou, 2013). Due to solubility, chitosan has a large
number of applications in industrial, medicine, and agriculture. The degree of
deacetylation, molecular weights, and functional properties of chitosan depends on
the source from which it has been obtained (Leceta et al., 2013; Akyuz et al., 2017).
The capability of chitosan to form an exceptional plastic property makes it an
appropriate polymer for a huge number of applications. The physical property, such
as the tensile strength of the bioplastic derived from chitosan, is directly propor-
tional to the MW (molecular weight) and extent of deacetylation of chitosan (Park
et al., 1999, 2002; Nunthanid et al., 2001; Ziani et al., 2008; Fernández-Pan et al.,
2010; Kerch, 2015).
It has been reported that an increase in tensile strength of films made from chito-
san was observed upon the addition of natural phenolic groups on the backbone of
chitosan (Liu et al., 2017). On incorporation of gallic acid into films made from
chitosan, increases in the tensile strength was observed (Rui et al., 2017). Bioplastics
of chitosan produced using acetic acid had tensile strength much higher as compared
to those prepared by using lactic, malic, or citric acid. The physical properties were
further enhanced by the addition of glycerol as a plasticizer. When silicon carbide
nano-composites are incorporated, there is an increase in the physical properties (like
tensile strength) of chitosan and silicon merged films (Pradhan et al., 2015; Giannakas
et al., 2016). Chitosan-based films are well known to have antimicrobial properties
and hence used to cover vegetables and fruits by applying antimicrobial substances
through using polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan blends, which are toughened with cellulose
nano-crystals and multifunctional nano-sized fillers (Kerch and Korkhov, 2011;
Azizi et al., 2014).
1.2.1.2.1 Chitosan Incorporation with Other Polymers

As chitosan comprises amine functional group, these polymers can go through
chemical alterations. Structural changes leading to significant changes in
biological and physicochemical properties are observed on interaction of chitosan

with other polymers. Presently, research is mostly done on blending the chitosan
with a wide range of other polymers. Deng et al. (2017) did a study to ensure com-
patibility of cellulose nano-fiber with methylcellulose, carboxy-methylcellulose,
and chitosan. The results showcased that this type of polymer can play a significant
role to alter the physicochemical properties of carboxy-methylcellulose films. A
decrease in hydrophilicity was observed when chitosan was added to these films,
which showed an enhanced compatibility with carboxy-methylcellulose in contrast
to other polymers used in the research. The carboxy-methylcellulose-chitosan-
based films can be utilized as an on-the-go, edible wrapping material by applying
to patties of fresh beef. These bioplastics showcased their accomplishment by pre-
venting wetness.
1.2.1.2.2 Chitosan-based Films
Chitosan-based films (Figure 1.3) are processed by physical interaction, solvent
evaporation, and chemical cross-linking with a wide range of co-mixtures.
Nevertheless, the very poor permissibility and mechanical properties of polymeric
films is obtained by using physical methods as compared to those films obtained by
adopting chemical reactions. The problem is that toxicity is induced when chemical
cross-linking agents are used, which affects the materials. Hence, enzymatic meth-
ods are being employed to improve the films (Kumar et al., 2000).
1.2.1.2.3 Chitosan/Whey Protein Conglomerated Films

Recent research fabricated whey protein containing chitosan films and casted the
polymeric solutions in the absence and presence of mTGase (mTGase stands for
Transglutaminase enzyme, that catalyzes the formation of isopeptide bond amid the
carboxamide group of glutamine and the amino group of lysine causing release of
ammonia) (Di Pierro et al., 2006). A good optical characteristic and edible properties
were observed for all those films obtained from chitosan and whey proteins in con-
trast to those fabricated in the presence of TGase. The results of the study concluded
that cross-linking of protein covalently, catalyzed by TGase, and was able to enhance
the mechanical resistance of the films.
CHITOSAN
BASED FILMS
CHITOSAN/WHEY CHITOSAN/SOYPRO-
PROTEINFILMS TEINFILMS
CHITOSAN/OVALBUMIN
FILMS
FIGURE 1.3 Types of chitosan-based films.

1.2.1.2.4 Chitosan/Ovalbumin Films
Di Pierro et al. (2006) obtained a slightly yellowish, smooth, flexible, and transparent
chitosan/ovalbumin films in the absence and presence of mTGase. These films which
were enzymatically cross-linked were insoluble even after incubating for 24 hours
which was done at 25°C and kept at a diverse range of pH values, but there was a
discharge of huge quantity of soluble proteins when they were treated for 20 hours
with trypsin at the same temperature. The research concluded that protein obtained
from these films has the capability to act as a protease substrate even when chitosan
is present.
1.2.1.2.5 Chitosan/Soy Protein Films

A new form of fit for human consumption film was procured containing a blend of
Konjac glucomannan (a water-soluble polysaccharide that is mainly well-thought-
out as a dietary fiber), soy protein, and chitosan (Brandenburg et al., 1993).The
weight ratio of soy protein, Konjac glucomannan, and chitosan was obtained as 1:1:1
and the film also displayed very low water vapor permeability.
Chitosan films are fairly high, but the utilization of chitosan films in industries is
restricted. The foremost cause is for this is that these chitosan blend films undergo
ruthless chemical processes which elevate the price of processing of the films.
Research can be done to take on new procedures of casting these chitosan films
which can be economical and using ingredients which cause its production to be low
cost. Also, another concern is less sources of chitosan, which confines its large-scale
manufacture. So, further research should be done to discover fresh or freely available
sources of chitosan.
1.2.1.3 Proteins
1.2.1.3.1 Plant-based Sources
1.2.1.3.1.1 Corn Zein The chemical properties and its applications have been
thoroughly studied (Shukla and Cheryan, 2001). The two units of corn zein are α-zein
and β-zein. The β-zein is formed by the group of α-zein connected by disulphide
bonds and has a relatively lower tendency for coagulation and precipitation as
compared to α-zein (Shukla and Cheryan, 2001). Zein has poor solubility in water
thus the drying of the alcoholic aqueous dispersions to fabricate the film are relatively
brilliant and grease resistant. The property for film formation of corn zein has been
thoroughly reviewed (Takenaka et al., 1967; Park and Chinnan, 1990; Aydt et al.,
1991; Herald et al., 1996). Hence the corn zein proteins have been used for packaging
materials, preservation of fresh food, retention of enriching vitamins and for
controlled delivery of medicinal drugs. Biodegradable plastic production and
manufacturing has benefited from mixtures of starch and zein. Plastics prepared by
injection molding portray high sensitivity to water, while plastics produced by cross-
linking have shown lower absorption of water and higher mechanical property (Jane
et al., 1994).
1.2.1.3.1.2 Wheat Gluten The gluten basically consists of two fractions of

protein which differ in structure and aqueous alcohol solubility as insoluble glutenins
and soluble gliadins (Wieser, 2007). Glutenins form the elastic component of the
wheat gluten while the gliandin forms the viscous component. Extensive study has
been conducted on the wheat gluten protein’s ability to form film (Park and Chinnan,
1990; Aydt et al., 1991; Gennadios et al., 1993; Gontard et al., 1996). The traditional
procedure to obtain the wheat gluten film involves casting of a thin layer and then
drying of aqueous alcoholic proteic solution (under acidic or basic condition) in the
presence of disruptive agents such as sulphite. Wheat gluten-based films are water
resistant and have similar properties and applications to those of zein films. They
have been used for encapsulation of additives, improving cereal product quality and
retention of antimicrobial and antioxidant additives on the surface of food. They also
exhibit remarkable gas barrier properties thus having a potential application in
preservation of fresh vegetables and fruits (Tanada-Palmu and Grosso, 2005; Xing
et al., 2016).
1.2.1.3.1.3 Soy Proteins The classification of soy protein is conducted on the

basis of their ultracentrifugation rate (Hernandez-Izquierdo and Krochta, 2008).
The fractions of the protein which are obtained vary in terms of molecular weight
such as 2S, 7S (conglycinin), 11S (glycinin), and 15S. They possess potential
film-forming properties and traditionally have been used in Asia by collecting the
lipoproteic skin of boiled soy milk to obtain edible films. These films not only
constitute protein, but also polysaccharides and lipids. The soy-based films
exhibit good mechanical strength and are generally hydrophobic in nature.
Synthesis of these films can be performed by casting thin layers and drying of
aqueous alcoholic solution (Gennadios et al., 1993; Stuchell and Krochta, 1994).
These films are commonly applied in the coating and preserving of food. Apart
from this, biodegradable plastic has also been prepared using soy isolate protein
(Jane et al., 1994).
1.2.1.3.1.4 Peanuts and Cotton Seed Protein collected from the lipoproteic
skin of peanuts is used for the formation of films and water-soluble bags (Aboagye
and Stanley, 1985). The cotton seed protein solution treated with various cross-
linking agents is used to prepare biodegradable bags (Marquié et al., 1997).
1.2.1.3.1.5 Milk Proteins The two major protein portions in milk are caseins
and whey protein. Caseins are low in cysteine and have 300–350 kDa molecular
weight whereas whey protein is significantly abundant in cysteine. Casein forms the
majority portion of milk protein (Wu and Bates, 1973). Both fractions possess film-
forming properties. Transparent and flexible films can be obtained. Films fabricated
on processing equipment surfaces and at air-water interfaces by heating non-fat milk
are used to obtain casein-based films. Whey protein is used to form the whey-based
films by the heating and boiling of whey dispersions and collecting the lipoproteic
skin. Transparent, odorless, colorless, and flexible film can be obtained. Network
stabilization provided by disulphide bonds partly cause whey protein-based films to
be insoluble in water. Casein-based films are capable of enhancing the appearance of
food, generating water-soluble bags, the manufacturing of identification labels used
for pre-cut cheese, and encapsulation of polyunsaturated lipids used for animal feed
(Guilbert 1988; Avena-Bustillos and Krochta 1993).
1.2.1.3.2 Animal-based Sources
1.2.1.3.2.1 Collagen and Gelatin Collagen and gelatin are both obtained from
animals. The most abundant protein found in animals is collagen and it comprises of
three cross-linked α-chains, whereas collagen’s denatured derivative is gelatin.
Collagen is high in amino acids like glycine and proline/hydroxyproline and low in
methionine. Collagen has various applications in the meat industry, the pharmaceutical
industry, and edible coatings (Tryhnew et al., 1973). Gelatin-derived films have been
found to be flexible, transparent, water insoluble, and impermeable to oxygen. The
gelatin-derived films also have several applications such as fabrication of tablets and
capsules, used as raw materials in photographic films, and encapsulation of vitamins,
aroma, and sweeteners (Balassa et al., 1971).
1.2.1.3.2.2 Keratin Keratin is known to contain approximately 20 proteins with

a 10kDa molecular weight. They are rich in amino acids which are hydrophobic in
nature and cysteine residues (Gomez-Guillen et al., 2009) and hence not soluble in
water. The presence of cysteine bonds provides stiffness to keratin. Prior to film
formation, solubilization is required through chemical modification (Tanabe et al.,
2004). Keratin-derived water-insoluble films were fabricated by casting and removing
moisture from alkaline dispersions.
1.3 WASTES AS SOURCE OF BIOPLASTIC

1.3.1 Sugar Refinery Waste (Cane Molasses)
Bioplastics that are produced from agricultural waste are not only biodegradable and
biocompatible, but have also mimicked conventional plastics. For the production of
PHAs (polyhydroxyalkonoates), various bacterial genera like Bacillus, Alcaligens,
Pseudomonas, and Azetobactor have been incorporated in studies (Schübert et al.,
1988; Anderson et al., 1990). Several studies have found that microorganisms pro-
duced maximum PHA. Soil bacterium such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa is seen to
produce a good concentration of PHA using substrate extracted from sugarcane
molasses. PHAs can be synthesized using bacterial species under minimal growth
conditions and these polymers provide an alternative source to petrochemical plas-
tics (Choi and Lee, 1999; Dias et al., 2006). There are various physical parameters
that affect the production of PHAs like temperature, pH, agitation speed, and so on.
From the study it was found that PHA production using Pseudomonas aeruginosa
under optimum growth and operating conditions gave the following values:
Sugarcane molasses 40g/L, urea 0.8g/L, temperature at 36°C, pH at 7.0 and agitation
speed at 175 rpm which had undergone fermentation in a 7.5L fermentor (Tripathi
and Srivastava, 2011). As nitrogen source was essential, urea was a better option
because it existed as a uncharged polar molecule and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
could assimilate it easily (Kulpreecha et al., 2009). It was analyzed that the
FIGURE 1.4 PHB production from sugarcane waste industry.
concentration of PHA and maximum biomass obtained when the nitrogen source
was urea, was 2.89 ± 0.08 g/L & 5.36 ± 0.08 g/L respectively. PHA that was obtained
from Pseudomonas aeruginosa resembled commercial PHA as at 1,244 cm−1 wave
number a strong band was observed that shows ester bond. Few other absorption
bands with alkenes, carbonyl, and hydroxyl groups were also studied from FTIR
analysis which were similar to that of commercial PHA (Nur et al., 2004). From a
comparison with prior research it was seen that Pseudomonas aeruginosa gave a
high yield in short fermentation periods (Saranya and Shenbagarathai, 2010). The
PHA production in a batch fermentation process using an inexpensive carbon and
nitrogen source from sugar refinery waste (Figure 1.4) has shown a reduction in
manufacturing cost, fermentation tome, and provides for an overall economic pro-
cess (Serafim et al., 2008).
1.3.2 Paper Mill Waste

Prior studies have shown that a huge group of bacterial species can synthesize com-
pounds in low nutrient environments (Chua et al., 2003). They have also shown com-
parable thermic properties to traditional plastics and one of them is PHA
(polyhydroxyalkanoate) (Steinbüchel and Füchtenbusch, 1998). PHA is biodegrad-
able and biocompatible in nature. Since the 1980s, many studies have shown the
production of PHA, but these mainly focused on industrial biotechnology using pure
culture techniques and genetic manipulation (Gao et al., 2012). Sterilization of the
equipment, as well as the batch process methods that were adopted, leads to the high
cost of PHA. Prior investigations have shown that agro-industrial waste can be a suit-
able substrate for PHA production as compared to artificial substrates (Albuquerque
et al., 2011). A dry weight of 55% of PHA content has been reported in a majority of
the studies and real wastewater gave a cell dry weight of 75% which accounts for the
best PHA storage capacity (Coats et al., 2007; Pijuan et al., 2009). The best produc-
tion result obtained from agro-industrial waste streams that the enriched microbial
FIGURE 1.5 PHA production from paper mill wastewater.
biomass could assemble was found to be 77% PHA dry cell weight in 5 hours. This
showed the efficiency of the specific biomass. There were several challenges in this
process. First was feedstock preparation. Batch mode was incorporated due to sim-
plicity but continuous mode would have been a better choice. Second, oxygen mass
transfer was a challenge due to the low solubility of oxygen which was a limiting step
in the process design of the reactor. The third challenge was the utilization of paper
mill waste water stream as a substrate. The formation of the bioplastic could be done
by the usage of inorganic precipitation but it deteriorates the accuracy of pH and DO
sensors. The main PHA producer in this enrichment of biomass was Plasticicumulans
acidivorans which also had another surrounding population that yielded low PHA.
The biomass proportion of P. acidivorans was dependent on the amount of total COD
and volatile fatty acids in the wastewater streams after undergoing the acidification
process. The flow process of PHA production from paper mill wastewater is repre-
sented in Figure 1.5.
1.3.3 Bioplastic from Waste Glycerol

The high production costs of PHAs is mainly due to the large amount of feedstock
required for the fermentation process. Feedstock for bacterial growth and biodegrad-
able polymer like sugars or fatty acids accounts for almost 50% of the entire produc-
tion cost (Choi and Lee, 1997). So, discovering alternative, inexpensive, and
renewable alternatives to feedstock can reduce the overall manufacturing cost of
polymers. One such alternative is waste glycerol that is obtained as a by-product dur-
ing biodiesel production. Glycerol has seen its utilization in food, cosmetics, and
pharma industries but it is quite an uneconomical process for the refinement and
recovery of pure glycerol for these commercial applications. Glycerol fermentation
has been investigated to give many value added products like ethanol, propionic acid,
1.3- propanediol, butanol, dihydroxyacetone, citric acid, glycerine, bio-surfactants,
and biopolymers like PHAs (Nakas et al., 1983). These value added products can be
used as monomers to chemically synthesize plastics like polyesters, polyurethanes,
and polyethers (Adkins et al., 2012). In comparison to these polymers, which are
chemically catalyzed and are of biological origin, PHAs are naturally occurring bio-
degradable plastics. Trans-esterification is a process through which biodiesel is pro-
duced from animal or vegetable fats along with methanol. During this process the
alkali or acid catalysts convert methanol and triacylglycerol into glycerol and fatty
acid methyl esters (biodiesel).
Crude glycerol produced during the transesterification process is approximately
around 10% of the final amount of biodiesel (Pachauri and He, 2006). As the produc-
tion of biodiesel has drastically increased, the manufacture of crude glycerol has also
been obtained in very large quantities (Zhu et al., 2010). The transformation of glyc-
erol in polymers like PHA depends highly on the concentration of the substrate in the
medium. Reports have shown that Zobellellade nitrificans MW1 gave the highest
yield which is 0.31g PHB/g from a glycerol concentration of 10g/L (Ibrahim and
Steinbüchel, 2010). It was also observed that glycerol concentrations that were usu-
ally higher range like 20 g/L–50 g/L gave a low yield of product that was found to be
0.03, 0.12, and 0.21 PHB/g glycerol accordingly. The product yield escalated from
0.10 to 0.25 PHB/g when this same process was optimized and incorporated in the
fed-batch system. Double-staged fermentation by Ralstonia eutropha using pure and
waste glycerol, gave a yield of 0.36 and 0.34 g PHB/g glycerol, respectively
(Cavalheiro et al., 2009). The activated sludge found in municipal waste water treat-
ment plant usually contains mixed group microbe communities which can systemati-
cally utilize crude or raw glycerol and reportedly gave a yield of 0.40g PHA/g
glycerol that was somewhat similar to the conversion rate of fatty acids which are
used as carbon sources (Liu et al., 2010; Motralejo-Garate et al., 2011; Malaviya
et al., 2012).
Thus, we can say that glycerol has a promising future as it can significantly reduce
the production costs of PHA and increase the supply of value added by-products. The
de novo synthesis of microbial PHA has been represented in Figure 1.6.
1.3.4 Vegetable Waste
Biodegradable plastic derived from renewable sources is a great substitution for syn-
thetic plastic (Kiser, 2016). Various food manufacturing plants trigger environmental
as well as economic issues by producing waste in each step, that is, from production
and supply, to its disposal. Food waste can be used as sources of raw materials for
bioplastic production which will lead to significant improvement of the economy as
well as effective waste utilization (Bayer et al., 2014; Perotto et al., 2018). For the
development of the biorefinery concept, vegetable waste can be used as an important
raw material (Clark et al., 2009). The most important macromolecule in the vegetable
is cellulose that can serve as a resource for many value added products. The vegeta-
ble waste powder was directly converted into bioplastic with the help of HCl by
water-based process. Precisely, the bioplastic was formed by blending cellulose crys-
tals which are present in vegetable waste, pectin that dissolutes using HCl (May,
1990), and sugars which act as a plasticizer. Homogenous bioplastic with matrix and
FIGURE 1.6 Fatty acid de novo synthesis.
crystalline cellulose was obtained by 85%–90% of the vegetable waste conversion.

The vegetable waste-based bioplastic showed mechanical properties which are simi-
lar to PP and starch-based bioplastic, thus they are possible to combine with func-
tional nanoparticles and hydrophobic macromolecules. These bioplastics are
biodegradable; also, a loss of a small part of their mass when interacted with water
makes them hydrophobic in nature which leads to remarkable depletion in mechani-
cal characteristics. Biofilms have antioxidant effects indistinguishable to vegetables
containing anthocyanins (known antioxidant), and acts as starch elastomeric (Tran
et al., 2017). In food wrapping, appearance and longevity are the most important fac-
tors which are hindered by normal packaging in some ways. Thus, it’s a good option
to wrap it with vegetable-based bioplastic rich in anti-oxidants which prevents it
from discoloration, thus positively improving shelf life ( Kanatt et al., 2012).
1.3.5 Food Waste Valorization

An enormous amount of food, around 1.3 billion tons, is wasted across the world. It
can be a threat to the environment with inappropriate disposal. A lot of factors affect
food waste (FW) generation, such as production of the crop, infrastructure, distribu-
tion chains, and consumer purchase/usage habits. According to Ravindran and
Jaiswal (2016), about 30% of food in the supply chain is discarded as waste. Processes
like land-filling, soil amendment, fermentation, and so on, are used widely employed
for safe disposal of food waste which otherwise results in groundwater contamina-
tion and greenhouse gas (GHG). Bioplastic production from food waste is an inex-
haustible feasible procedure, whereupon resources are orchestrated from carbon
FIGURE 1.7 PHA biosynthesis process.
impartial assets. Certain biodegradable plastics are compostable by mechanical pro-

cesses (Dietrich et al., 2017). Hence, usage of a biorefinery stage for food waste is a
perfect alternative to source, for example, the creation of significant valuable items
while diminishing the magnitude of waste. PHA has various uses, including bun-
dling, clinical trials, vitality, and fine synthetics. The properties of PHA are perceived
as better oxygen hindrance and high water vapor permeability. Microorganisms are
able to store PHA in cell cytoplasm under pressured conditions. The creation strategy
of PHA for the most part is experienced as substrate planning, PHA-aggregating
aging, and extraction. There are 250 sorts of regular PHA makers which have been
distinguished, and just a couple of microbes have been received for the business cre-
ation of PHA. These microbes, including Alcaligeneslatus, Bacillus megaterium,
Cupriavidusnecator, and Pseudomonas oleovorans, are found to change over differ-
ent carbon components to PHA. Specifically, C.necator is broadly used (Reddy et al.,
2003). There are different advancements for changing over food waste to ferment-
able substrates, for example, mechanical and thermal transformation, chemical trans-
formation and biological changes. Figure 1.7 shows a schematic outline of PHA
production.
1.3.6 Palm Tree Biomass-based Processing Plants

The availability of sources is the main consideration for the production of environ-
mentally friendly, cost-effective, and efficient bioplastic. Biorefinery should be built
in an area providing an adequate amount of resources from neighboring zones.
Plantations as well as palm oil production generates enormous amounts of biomass
(waste) which is 50–70 tons per 1ha. Hence, these can be a good raw material for
biofuel production.
Expenses can be additionally decreased by enhancing the area of the creation
industry and feedstock used (Shuit et al., 2009). A few activities were executed in
Malaysia, such as the use of renewable energy, bioethanol, and so on, production
from the waste generated to use biomass to discover savvy sustainable power
resources (Ludin et al., 2004; Ong et al., 2011).
Considering the amount of biomass generated, Indonesia could be a good option
for the ace generation of bioethanol and xylitol (Kresnowati et al., 2015). Based on
total expenses for the professional duction of xylitol, an overall benefit of 4.3USDkg−1
can be acknowledged as to whether biomass is utilized as a crude source. In a like
manner, non-food sugar created from oil palm frond can be utilized for the practical
creation of poly (3HB) (Zahari et al., 2015). It is evaluated that the creation cost of
poly (3HB) can be diminished to (Konopka and Schnur, 1981; Kaewbai-Ngam et al.,
2016) USD kg−1 by utilizing inexhaustible sugars created from a palm leaf. Aside
from poly (3HB) creation (Chiew and Shimada, 2013),the utilization of EFB can
prompt the creation of various products including biogas, electricity, and paper
(Sompong et al., 2012).
1.3.7 Banana Waste
Numerous amounts of banana leaf were dismissed and misused (in 2012) which was
26.46% and 6.67% separately (Quinaya and Alzate, 2014). Different products, such
as PHB and biofuel can be generated from these waste products. In different papers
it has been stated that 316 kg of glucose, 238 kg of ethanol, and 31.5 kg of PHB can
be generated from one ton of banana waste (Naranjo et al., 2014). Additionally,
banana strips are likewise significant feedstocks for the creation of differing items.
Around 100 kg of banana strips can be utilized to produce 57, 2, 25, and 5 kg of
glucose, acidic corrosive, and methane, separately (Quinaya and Alzate, 2014). In the
main setting, PHB was an exceptional item, while banana strips were taken as the
backup setting (Naranjo et al., 2014). PHB was produced from the hydrolyzed starch
of banana skins.
1.4 CYANO BACTERIA AND PHB

Poly-β- hydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a storage compound found in prokaryotic organ-
isms like cyanobacteria (Liebergesell et al., 1994; Ramaswamy et al., 2006; Mallick
et al., 2007).The properties of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate are that they are thermoplas-
tic, stable, completely biodegradable, and have absolute resistance to water, which
indicates that PHB could be a better substitute to ordinary plastics and it also fits with
waste management strategies.
1.4.1 PHB Synthesize
Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate is obtained from acetyl coenzyme A through three enzy-
matic reactions. In this, 3-Ketothiolase enzyme converts 2-acetyl-coA to 1-acetoce-
tyl-coA molecule, then NADPH dependentacetoacetyl-coAreductase converts
acetoacetyl-coA to D-3-hydroxybutyryl-coA, and the last enzyme PHB synthase
catalyzes linking of the D-3-hydroxybutyryl moiety to an existing PHB molecule via
an ester bond (Petrasovits et al., 2007).
Cyanobacteria can be chosen as a substitute host system for PHB production as

they require a minimum amount of nutrients and utilize photoautotrophic method for
the production of Poly-β- hydroxybutyrate. Cyanobacteria are known to collect the
homo-polymer form of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate under photoautotrophic conditions.
Cyanobacteria are a group of oxygen developing photosynthetic bacteria; having
a short generation time, they need inorganic nutrients like nitrate, phosphate, magne-
sium as macro nutrients and manganese, cobalt, and zinc as micronutrients for their
growth and multiplication (Campell et al., 1982; Rehm and Steinbüchel, 1999, Dias
et al., 2008; Fernandez-Nava et al., 2008; Jyotsana et al., 2010). The first cyanobacte-
rial species which showed the presence of PHB is Chlorogloeafritschii in 1966. At
present, a large number of cyanobacterial species demonstrate the presence of PHB
such as Spirulina sp., Gloethece sp, and so on (Campbell et al., 1982; Capon et al.,
1983, Arino et al., 1995; Vincenzini et al., 1990; Wu et al., 2001; Melnicki et al.,
2009).
They have oval structures which resemble PHB granules, which was detected by
using ultra–structural analysis in Trichodesmiumthiebautti and Microcystis aerugi-
nosa. Also, the PHB presence in Oscillatorialmosasppand Gloethecespp. were
detected by Gas-liquid chromatography (Stal, 1992; Stal, 1992; Stahl et al., 1998;
Miyake et al., 1996; Sabirova et al., 2006). These organisms can be easily cultured in
waste waters as they use inorganic nitrogen, phosphorous, and so on (Poirier et al.,
1995; Sudesh et al., 2000; Andreessen et al., 2010).
Cyanobacterium has low weight in contrast to other bacteria, due to its minute
size and mass. It was also reported that the ability to synthesize PHB by cyanobacte-
rium might be similar to most bacteria in nature. At times of large quantities of sun-
light, carbon dioxide, and when growth is limited by other compounds like
phosphorous and nitrogen, an excess of metabolic energy is synthesized by glycogen
(a poly glucose) (Kaewbai-Ngam et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2017). During the night,
an oxidative pentose phosphate pathway is used to oxidize glycogen and use it as an
energy source. Previous studies reported that glycogen has more capability to store
energy as compared to PHB, as cyanobacteria have an incomplete tricarboxylic acid
cycle (De et al., 1992). Present studies show that a tricarboxylic cycle in cyanobacte-
ria is still functional. Irrespective of this, the main use of PHB in the metabolism of
cyanobacteria is still not clear. Most microbes can generate either glucogen or PHB
but not both (Damrow et al., 2016). It is possible that PHB can be used as a carbon
storage compound in the cell.
Research done by Kucho et al. (2005) on cyanobacteria Synechocystis sp.
PCC6803, demonstrated that the circadian rhythm was found to be linked to the
expression of PHB synthesis-related genes. It was observed that during the transition
from light to dark cyclic expression of PHB synthesis-related genes peaked, along
with other types of genes which were related to respiration (Kucho et al., 2005)
(Figure 1.8). Based on this study they concluded that PHB can play an important role
in providing carbon and energy during night time.
The utilization of cyanobacteria as a PHB producer in industries has the advantage
that it can convert carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas to environmental-friendly
plastics by using sunlight. Many species of cyanobacteria can accumulate PHB in
large amounts. Those species of cyanobacteria which cannot accumulate PHB can
FIGURE 1.8 PHB production pathway in cyanobacteria.
now be engineered genetically by transformation with genes involved in PHB path-

way (Winfred and Robards, 1973; Brandl et al., 1990; Sharma and Mallick, 2005).
1.4.2 Detection and Analysis of PHB

When poly-β-hydroxybuty rate containing cyanobacteria are isolated from environ-
ment, it becomes very important to quickly screen a broad variety of cyanobacteria
in a very short interval of time. Stains which show specificity to the PHB involve the
detection of granules. In these techniques a viable colony gets stained. To test the
cyanobacterial fat stain, Sudan black B is used (Hartman, 1940; Burdon et al., 1942;
Ratledge, 2001; Haas et al., 2008). When Nile blue is used, a strong orange fluores-
cence is obtained in PHB granules. Nile blue stain shows more specificity for PHB
than Sudan black B (Kranz et al., 1997; Salehizadeh and Van, 2004).
1.4.3 Biodegradability and Biological Considerations of

Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate
The main characteristics of PHB that makes it preferred to petroleum-derived bio-
plastics is their biodegradable nature. PHB under aerobic conditions when it under-
goes biodegradation will release CO2 and H2O but under anaerobic conditions, the
product of degradation released are CO2 and CH4. It is compostable at variety of
temperatures, such as maximum temperature 60°C. Based on present studies, 85% of
PHB can get degraded within seven weeks. Research done on the biodegradability of
PHB concluded that PHB does not float in water. Hence, when it is discarded, the
plastic material made by using PHB gets degraded in the sediments of the surface by
biogeochemical mechanisms (Mergaert et al., 1994; Porier et al., 1995; Lee, 1996;
Lemos et al., 2006; Murphy, 2007).
PHB can be biodegraded in the environment. Microorganisms start to take over on
the polymer surface and start to produce enzymes which degrade the P(HB-HV) into
HB and HV units. These are later used by the cells as a source of carbon for the
growth of biomass (Figure 1.9). Surface area, temperature, moisture, and the pres-
ence of other nutrient materials are the factors on which the rate of degradation of a
polymer depends.
Cyanobacterial bioplastics manufactured using biopolymers can be obtained in
two forms such as biopolymer based or obtained from polymerizable molecules
(Hankermeyer and Tjeerdema, 1999; Kim and Lenz, 2001, Beccari et al., 2009). The
biopolymers used can be starch, cellulose, and soya-based protein. Bioplastics
obtained from cyanobacteria is the recent trend in the era of bioplastics compared to
traditional methods (Madison and Huisman, 1999; Chen and Li, 2008; Castilho et al.,
2009; Zhenggui et al., 2011). Cyanobacterial-based bioplastics have a lot of advan-
tages, such as high yield in a range of environments. The use of these bioplastics
neutralizes greenhouse gas emissions from power plants and factories, And hence
helps in the conversion of fossil resources and reduces carbon dioxide emissions,
thereafter helping sustainable development. Balaji et al. (2013) concluded that cya-
nobacteria has the capability to produce PHB by using CO2 as an only source of
carbon, but the technological methods for producing cyanobacterial-based bioplas-
tics is at the research stage and will take time to be commercialized. These bioplas-
tics are biodegradable and environmentally friendly and better than ordinary
bioplastics.
FIGURE 1.9 Biodegradabilty process of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate.

1.5 CONCLUSION
The improper discarding of pre-owned or used plastic waste leads to contamination
of the environment. Long, drawn-out usage and exposure of plastics and plastic
goods to high temperatures can lead to the leaching of toxic chemical constituents
into food, drinks, and water. This can be a root of enormous health hazards, such as
birth deformities, skin disorders, harmful to the immune system, cancer, respira-
tory diseases. On the level of raw materials, use of recycled materials or use of
renewable resources as discussed in this chapter are two strategies to reduce CO2
emissions and the dependency on fossil resources. The production process is
another level where adjustments, for example towards a more energy-efficient pro-
cess, can be made. A final level where efforts can increase sustainability is waste
management.
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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Assistiu-lhe o piedoso bispo até o ultimo valle, e logo seu corpo foi
levado por homens principaes ao Hospicio de Nossa Senhora da
Penha dos Capuchinhos Francezes, o dia em que chegavam as
novas da restauração do famoso Palmar a Pernambuco, que havia
de ser o sexto da victoria, pois tanto gasta um caminheiro apressado
de um logar a outro. Mas é em vão busca-lo em Pitta, auctor
moderno que d’isto tracta como si não tractára. E mais me
escandalisa que passasse em sua mesma patria por um poeta de tal
nome seu contemporaneo, com quem devia gastar parte d’aquelles
elogios. Morreu finalmente no anno de 1696 com edade de setenta
e tres annos.
Este é o mais abreviado resumo que posso dar da vida do meu
suspirado, quão dilectissimo poeta lyrico; e oxalá podéra eu publicar
os prodigiosos fundamentos do meu amor, derramando entre as
gentes o manancial thesouro de suas graças! Singular foi a estrella
que dominou em seu engenho; porque a toda a circumferencia das
luzes apolineas brilhou com egualdade senhoril; e não menos
prodigioso aquelle não sei que de sua guarda, porque offendendo ás
claras muitas pessoas, de quem o menor movimento seria sem
duvida uma tyranna morte, sempre se atreveu, e nunca de seu motu
proprio cautelou perigos; morrendo intacto de tão prolongados
mezes.
Muitos eram os feridos do seu ferro que consultaram o remedio no
mesmo instrumento da chaga, beijando a Achilles a lança que os
traspassára. Raro testimunho d’esta fatalidade foi a resposta que
deu a um queixoso certo governador severamente resoluto: «Não
faça V. Mᶜᵉ. caso (disse), porque isso tambem passa por mim, sem
que por mim passe a minima tenção de o castigar.»
Testimunho d’esta fatalidade são as duas quartas de um soneto,
que se fez em sua morte; o qual não escrevo por inteiro em razão
de que si os seus principios professam a verdade pura, os fins
todavia contém temeraria petulancia:
Morreste emfim, Gregorio esclarecido,

Que sabendo tirar por varios modos
A fama, a honra, o credito de todos,
D’esses mesmos te viste applaudido.
Entendo que outro tal não tem nascido

Entre os Romanos, Gregos, Persas, Godos,
Que comtigo mereça ter apodos
Nos applausos, que assim has adquirido.
Muitas vezes quiz elle refrear o genio, que conhecia

prejudialmente peccaminoso, fazendo os actos de christão que em
seu logar veremos, mas debalde o intentava, porque o seu furor
intrepido imperava dominante na massa sanguinaria contra os
desacertos d’aquella edade, castigados por Deus com tão horrorosa
peste e tão repetidas fomes: como tambem veremos pelo decurso
d’estas obras. E não é de admirar que disparadas do throno da
divina justiça aquellas duas lanças de sua via, seguisse a terceira
com tão exquisito genero de guerra em um homem, que de sua mãe
unicamente tomou este appellido entre outros partos: ella o deu
appelidando-se—da Guerra—, e elle o foi sem aquella proposição
da, por ser a mesma guerra, e não o instrumento d’ella. Isto parece
que prophetizou corto inimigo seu, respondendo-lhe a uma satyra
com outra na seguinte fórma:
Porém si em nada és guerreiro,

Para que te chamas guerra,
E a fazes a toda a terra
Com a lingua, que é mor damno, &.
Deixou o dr. Gregorio de Mattos um filho de sua mulher Maria de

Povos, chamado Gonçalo de Mattos, cujo amor publica em várias
obras este livro, que em seus logares se verão sem enfadosas citas.
o quente da cama
Com Gonçalo, e com sua ama,
Dizendo estava comei-me, &.
Por vida do meu Gonçalo,
Custodia formosa e linda, &.
Madrasta do Gonçalinho,
Que é lindo enteado a fé, &.
Sim, por vida de Gonçalo, &.
Mas por vida de Gonçalo, &.
D’este moço, que com sua mãe ficou em summa pobreza e

desamparo, correm noticias muito geraes que totalmente
degenerára d’aquella massa scientifica de seus estupendos
progenitores. Bem pudera eu duvida-lo em uma terra, onde sempre
se hão de tomar os echos da fama pelo contrario; pois nunca vi nella
abonar um sujeito que não mereça ser desterrado por máu, nem
vituperar outro que ao contrario desmereça elogios de bom.
Mas para cumprir com os relativos d’esta historia consultei dous
sujeitos que se criaram com Gonçalo de Mattos, ambos de instincto
capaz para uma informação, e entre elles achei a contradicção, que
póde servir de exemplo a quem se informa: um affirma com
juramento que era poeta natural, o outro jurando nega que tal fosse,
dizendo que elle nem o Padre Nosso era capaz de repetir. A este
seguem muitos, e nenhum áquelle: mas o primeiro chamado
Christovão Rodrigues diz que em sua adolescencia lhe dera o
seguinte mote:
Com que, porque, para que.
Defendia-se o Gonçalo temeroso de uma maldição condicional de

sua mãe, em respeito da qual não queria pegar na penna para fazer
versos, posto que no animo lhe pulsavam as Musas (tal foi o
escarmento que deixaram ellas naquelles cadaveres da paciencia
lastimosa). Mas como a condição do preceito tinha sua clausula, em
que fundar-se uma heresia graciosa, respondeu importunado:
«Pegae vós na penna, porque a maldição de minha mãe parece que
não me prohibe fazer versos, mas sim pegar na penna para elles.»
Repetiu-me então esta decima, que tanto ella como a resposta, si
são verdadeiras, vem a ser uns relampagos da esphera do fogo:
GLOSA.
Disse Clori que me amava

Para o intento que tem,
O qual não disse a ninguem,
Nem o porque declarava:
Eu então lhe perguntava
Com que genero de fé!
Suspensa a dama se vê;
Como nada respondeu,
Não pude saber o seu
Com que, porque, para que.
Persuado a crer o caso pelas suas circumstancias, e muito mais

quando vejo aqui umas reliquias mais separadas d’aquelle humor,
ou ramas menos fortes do enxerto do doutor Pedro de Mattos seu
tio, onde não ha resposta sem equivoco sem substancia do genero
mais nobre.
Foi o doutor Gregorio de Mattos de boa estatura, secco do corpo,
membros delicados, poucos cabellos e crespos, testa espaçosa,
sobrancelhas arqueadas, olhos garços, nariz aguilenho, bocca
pequena e engraçada, barba sem demasia, e no tracto cortezão.
Trajava commummente seu collete de pelles de ambar, volta de fina
renda, e era finalmente um composto de perfeições como poeta
portuguez, que são Esopos os de outras nações. Tinha phantasia
natural no passeio, e quando algumas vezes por recreação sulcava
os quietos mares da Bahia a remo compassado, com tão bizarra
confiança interpunha os oculos, examinando as janellas da sua
cidade, que muitos curiosos iam de proposito a vê-lo.
Fiz tirar d’elle a presente cópia, por um antigo pintor, que foi seu
familiar, e conferindo-a com as memorias que d’elle têm algumas
pessoas antigas, tenho-a por mui conforme a seu original. Naquelle
tempo era pouco versado o uso das cabelleiras, e elle a trajava: mas
pareceu-me copia-lo sem ella, porque os homens de talento devem
patentear-nos as officinas capitaes que o produzem para informação
dos judiciosos.
SATYRICAS
OBRAS POETICAS
DE
GREGORIO DE MATTOS GUERRA
AOS VICIOS
TERCETOS
Eu sou aquelle que os passados annos

Cantei na minha lyra maldizente
Torpezas do Brazil, vicios e enganos.
E bem que os descantei bastantemente,

Canto segunda vez na mesma lyra
O mesmo assumpto em plectro differente.
Já sinto que me inflamma e que me inspira

Thalia, que anjo é da minha guarda
Des’ que Apollo mandou que me assistira.
Arda Bayona, e todo o mundo arda,

Que a quem de profissão falta á verdade
Nunca a dominga das verdades tarda.
Nenhum tempo exceptua a christandade

Ao pobre pegureiro do Parnaso
Para fallar em sua liberdade.
A narração ha de egualar ao caso,

E si talvez ao caso não eguala,
Não tenho por poeta o que é Pegaso.
De que póde servir calar quem cala?

Nunca se ha de fallar o que se sente?!
Sempre se ha de sentir o que se falla.
Qual homem póde haver tão paciente,
Que, vendo o triste estado da Bahia,
Não chore, não suspire e não lamente?
Isto faz a discreta phantasia:

Discorre em um e outro desconcerto,
Condemna o roubo, increpa a hypocrisia.
O nescio, o ignorante, o inexperto,

Que não elege o bom, nem mau reprova,
Por tudo passa deslumbrado e incerto.
E quando vê talvez na doce trova

Louvado o bem, e o mal vituperado,
A tudo faz focinho, e nada approva.
Diz logo prudentaço e repousado:

—Fulano é um satyrico, é um louco,
De lingua má, de coração damnado.
Nescio, si d’isso entendes nada ou pouco,

Como mofas com riso e algazarras
Musas, que estimo ter, quando as invoco.
Si souberas fallar, tambem falláras,

Tambem satyrisáras, si souberas,
E si fôras poeta, poetisáras.
A ignorancia dos homens d’estas eras

Sizudos faz ser uns, outros prudentes,
Que a mudez canoniza bestas feras.
Ha bons, por não poder ser insolentes,

Outros ha comedidos de medrosos,
Não mordem outros não—por não ter dentes.
Quantos ha que os telhados têm vidrosos,
E deixam de atirar sua pedrada,
De sua mesma telha receiosos?
Uma só natureza nos foi dada;

Não creou Deus os naturaes diversos;
Um só Adão creou, e esse de nada.
Todos somos ruins, todos perversos,

Só nos distingue o vicio e a virtude,
De que uns são comensaes, outros adversos.
Quem maior a tiver, do que eu ter pude,

Esse só me censure, esse me note,
Calem-se os mais, chiton, e haja saude.
BENZE-SE
O P. DE VARIAS ACÇÕES QUE OBSERVAVA NA SUA PATRIA
D’estes que campam no mundo

Sem ter engenho profundo,
E, entre gabos dos amigos,
Os vemos em papafigos
Sem tempestade, nem vento:
Anjo bento!
De quem com lettras secretas

Tudo o que alcança é por tretas,
Baculejando sem pejo,
Por matar o seu desejo,
Desde a manhãa té à tarde:
Deus me guarde!
Do que passeia farfante,

Muito presado de amante,
Por fóra luvas, galões,
Insignias, armas, bastões.
Por dentro pão bolorento:
Anjo bento!
D’estes beatos fingidos,

Cabisbaixos, encolhidos,
Por dentro fataes maganos,
Sendo nas caras uns Janos,
Que fazem do vicio alarde:
Deus me guarde!
Que vejamos teso andar
Quem mal sabe engatinhar,
Muito inteiro e presumido,
Ficando o outro abatido
Com maior merecimento:
Anjo bento!
D’estes avaros mofinos,

Que põem na meza pepinos,
De toda a iguaria isenta,
Com seu limão e pimenta,
Porque diz que queima e arde:
Deus me guarde!
Que pregue um douto sermão

Um alarve, um asneirão;
E que esgrima em demasia
Quem nunca lá na Sophia[1]
Soube pôr um argumento:
Anjo bento!
[1] Rua principal de Coimbra: allusão á Universidade.
D’esse sancto emmascarado,

Que falla do meu peccado,
E se tem por Sancto Antonio,
Mas em luctas com o demonio
Se mostra sempre cobarde:
Deus me guarde!
Que atropellando a justiça,
Só com virtude postiça,
Se premeie o delinquente,
Castigando o innocente
Por um leve pensamento:
Anjo bento!
REPROVAÇÕES
Si sois homem valoroso,

Dizem que sois temerario,
Si valente—espadanchim,
E atrevido si esforçado.
Si resoluto—arrogante,
Si pacifico, sois fraco,
Si precatado—medroso,
E si o não sois—confiado.
Si usaes justiça, um Herodes,
Si favoravel, sois brando,
Si condemnaes, sois injusto,
Si absolveis, estaes peitado.
Si vos dão, sois um covarde,
E si daes sois deshumano,
Si vos rendeis, sois traidor,
Si rendeis—afortunado.
Si sois plebeu, sois humilde,
Soberbo, si sois fidalgo,
Si sois segundo sois pobre,
E tolo si sois morgado.
Si galeaes, sois fachada,
E si não—não sois bizarro,
Si vestis bem, sois gram moda,
Si mal vestis sois um trapo.
Si comeis muito, guloso,
E faminto, si sois parco,
Si comeis bem, regalão,
E si mal, nunca sois farto.
Si não soffreis, imprudente,
Si soffreis sois um coitado,
Si perdoaes, sois bom homem,
E si não sois—um tyranno.
Si brioso, tendes fumos,
E si não, sois homem baixo,
Si sois serio, descortez,
Si cortez, afidalgado.
Si defendeis, sois amigo,
Si o não fazeis sois contrario,
Si sois amigo, suspeito,
Si o não sois—affeiçoado.
Si obraes mal, sois ignorante,
Si bem obraes, foi acaso,
Si não servis, sois isento,
E si servis, sois criado.
Si virtuoso, fingido,
E hypocrita si beato,
Si zeloso, impertinente,
E si não, sois um patrano.
Si sois sisudo, intractavel,
Si sois devoto, sois falso,
Pertinaz, si deffendente,
Si arguinte, porfiado.
Si discreto, prevenido,
E si não, sois insensato,
Si sois modesto, sois simples,
E si o não sois, sois um diabo.
Si sois gracioso, sois fatuo,
E si não sois, um marmanjo,
Si sois agudo tresledes,
E si o não sois, sois um asno.
Si não compondes, sois nescio,
Si escreveis, sois censurado,
Si fazeis versos sois louco,
E si o não fazeis, sois parvo.
Si previsto, feiticeiro,
E si não, desmazelado,
Si verdadeiro, bom homem,
Muito humilde, si sois lhano.
Si robusto, sois grosseiro,
Si delicado, sois brando,
Si descansado, ocioso,
Si para pouco, sois tranco.
Si sois gordo, sois balôfo,
Sois phthisico, si sois magro,
Si pequeno, sois anão,
E gigante, si sois alto.
Si sois nobre, sois pelão,
E si official, sois baixo,
Si solteiro—extravagante,
Si noivo sois namorado.
Si corado, figadal,
Descorado, si sois alvo,
Si grande nariz—judeu,
Si trigueiro, sois mulato.
Si liberal sois perdido,
E si o não sois, sois escasso,
Si sois prodigo, vicioso,
E avarento, si poupado.
Si não despendeis—mesquinho,
Si despendeis, sois mui largo,
Si não gastaes—miseravel,
Si gastaes—esperdiçado.
Si honesto sois, não sois homem,
... si sois casto,
Si não namoraes, .....
Si o fazeis, sois estragado.
Si não luzis, não sois gente,
Si luzis, sois mui presado,
Si pedis, sois pobretão,
E si não, fazeis Calvarios.
Si andaes devagar—mimoso,
Si depressa sois cavallo,
Mal encarado, si feio,
Si gentil—affeminado.
Si fallaes muito, palreiro,
Si fallaes pouco, sois tardo,
Si em pé, não tendes assento,
Preguiçoso, si assentado.
E assim não póde viver
Neste Brazil infestado,
Segundo o que vos refiro
Quem não seja reprovado.
VERDADES
Ouve, ó amigo João,

Esta verdade que canto,
Si a verdade causa espanto
Esta causa admiração:
É certo, sem remissão,
E contra isto não ha nada,
Que a outra verdade usada
Com rebuços, mais enganos,
É verdade de maganos,
Mas esta é de gente honrada.
Domingos e dias sanctos

Nos manda a egreja guardar,
Nos mais dias trabalhar:
As mulheres trazem mantos:
Os doutos estão nos cantos,
Os ignorantes na praça,
Os cachorros vão á caça,
Os gatos furtam as ceias,
Os barbeiros rasgam veias
E as padeiras fazem massa.
Os homens fazem a guerra,

E as mulheres fazem renda,
Os tolos não têm emenda,
Os capos cavam a terra:
O bezerro sem mãe berra
Batem bandeiras alferes,
Os pobres buscam haveres,
Os peixes nadam no mar,
As purgas fazem purgar,
E os franciscanos colhéres.
Os cavallos comem herva,
Os despidos andam nús,
Come o Gentio cajús,
Os Tapuyas são caterva:
Não dorme de noite a cerva,
Os macacos fazem momos,
Os escripturarios tomos,
Os namorados passeiam,
As fragonas zombeteiam,
E as limas todas têm gomos.
Todos os ferrões têm ponta,

A agua do mar é salgada,
O hóspede logo enfada,
Todo o algarismo é conta:
A nau sem vela não monta,
O badalo dá no sino,
Chorar muito é desatino,
Muito comer enche a pança,
Bum-bum é agua em criança
E ter em pé, pino-pino.
Os caranguejos têm pernas,

Tocado o tambor faz bulha,
O arrelá desempulha,
O navio tem cavernas;
O fogo accende as lucernas
Os ... fedem á ..,
Quem degenera não herda,
O carvão todo é de lenha,
É só de lã a estamenha,
E a cabelleira tem cerda.
As hervas são todas folhas,
As larangeiras dão fructas,
Mulheres damas são .. ..,
Uma talha são dez polhas:
As botijas levam rolhas,
Toda a neve é branca e fria,
A irmãa de mãe é tia,
É o bronze todo duro,
Onde não ha luz, é escuro,
Quando não é noite é dia.
O sol e o fogo são quentes,

A chuva aonde cae molha,
Quem não tem vista não olha,
Ossos na boca são dentes:
É affronta dizer—mentes!
É ave grande a gallinha,
O cabello cae com tinha,
Quem é rouco tem catarrho,
Carregado canta o carro,
Mulher de rei é rainha.
Não ha barba sem cabello,

A arêa toda é de grãos,
Toca-se a harpa com as mãos,
É animal o camello:
Nenhuma calva tem pello,
Os ovos saem pelo ..
É marisco o sururú,
Todo o feijão é legume,
Coze-se o comer ao lume,
É abobora o gerumú.
Todo o unguento é mézinha
Não tem banha o bacalhau,
Papas ralas é mingau,
Trigo moido é farinha:
Couza alheia não é minha,
Não ha escada sem degraus,
Os picaros são maraus,
Tem aduellas a pipa,
Umbigo é ponto de tripa,
Sempre é loio o rei de paus.
Primeiro foi frango o gallo,

Palangana é prato fundo,
É redondo todo o mundo,
As luvas não fazem callo:
Tem quatro pés o cavallo,
Nunca mija o papagaio,
O chouriço grande é paio,
Não sabe ler a guariba,
Quem tem carcunda tem giba,
Antes de junho está maio.
Todo o chapeu é sombreiro,

As arvores são de pau,
Tudo o que não presta é mau,
E faz a barba o barbeiro:
O.. detraz é trazeiro,
É nervo a penna de pato,
Filho de parda, é mulato,
Mulheres todas são femeas,
Duas em um ventre são gemeas,
No pé se calça o sapato.

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Chapter 1 Alternative Plastics from Wastes through Biomass

Chapter 2 Bioelectrochemical System: Waste/Wastewater to

Chapter 3 Bioelectrochemical Reactors: Factors Governing Power

Chapter 4 Photosynthetic Microbial Fuel Cells: Advances, Challenges

Chapter 5 Pretreatment of Paddy Straw for Sustainable Bioethanol

Chapter 6 Bio-based Coagulants for the Remediation of Environmental

Chapter 7 The Role of Nanomaterials in Wastewater Treatment..................... 113

Chapter 8 Application of Biogenic Nanoparticles for a Clean

Chapter 9 Phycoremediation of Heavy Metals in Wastewater: Strategy

Chapter 10 An Economic Perspective of Bio-waste Valorization for

Chapter 11 Recovery of Energy from Plastic Wastes by Pyrolysis

Chapter 12 Biosurfactant: A Sustainable Replacement for Chemical

Chapter 13 Nutraceutical Prospects of Green Algal Resources in

Chapter 14 Green Algae as a Bioenergy Resource with the Eco-

Chapter 15 Compilation of Characterization and Electrochemical

management. Moreover, the chapters are written by highly esteemed researchers

Dr. Narasimhulu Korapatti is currently at the National Institute of Technology

Academy of Scientific and Innovative Tholan Gajendran

Santhosh Kumar Kookal Riasha Pal

Samsudeen Naina Mohamed Nilanjan Paul

and Suganya Subburaj

Prasanthkumar Santhakumaran Theresa Veeranan

Muthulingam Seenuvasan Sivakumar Vivek

Biomass Products From micro-organisms (obtained From biotechnology

FIGURE 1.1 Sources of bio-polymers used for plastics synthesis.

FIGURE 1.2 Ways of modification of starch.

1.2.1.1.6.1 Thermoplastic Starch-Polyethylene Blends Polyethylene (PE) is

1.2.1.1.6.2 Thermoplastic Starch-Polypropylene Blends Polypropylene (PP)

1.2.1.1.6.3 Thermoplastic Starch-PLA Blends Polylactic acid (PLA) being a

1.2.1.2.1 Chitosan Incorporation with Other Polymers

biological and physicochemical properties are observed on interaction of chitosan

1.2.1.2.3 Chitosan/Whey Protein Conglomerated Films

FIGURE 1.3 Types of chitosan-based films.

1.2.1.2.5 Chitosan/Soy Protein Films

1.2.1.3.1.2 Wheat Gluten The gluten basically consists of two fractions of

1.2.1.3.1.3 Soy Proteins The classification of soy protein is conducted on the

1.2.1.3.2.2 Keratin Keratin is known to contain approximately 20 proteins with

1.3 WASTES AS SOURCE OF BIOPLASTIC

FIGURE 1.4 PHB production from sugarcane waste industry.

1.3.2 Paper Mill Waste

FIGURE 1.5 PHA production from paper mill wastewater.

1.3.3 Bioplastic from Waste Glycerol

FIGURE 1.6 Fatty acid de novo synthesis.

crystalline cellulose was obtained by 85%–90% of the vegetable waste conversion.

1.3.5 Food Waste Valorization

FIGURE 1.7 PHA biosynthesis process.

1.2.1.2.1 Chitosan Incorporation with Other Polymers

1.2.1.2.3 Chitosan/Whey Protein Conglomerated Films

1.2.1.2.5 Chitosan/Soy Protein Films

1.3 WASTES AS SOURCE OF BIOPLASTIC

1.3.2 Paper Mill Waste

1.3.3 Bioplastic from Waste Glycerol

1.3.5 Food Waste Valorization

1.3.6 Palm Tree Biomass-based Processing Plants

1.4 CYANO BACTERIA AND PHB

1.4.2 Detection and Analysis of PHB

1.4.3 Biodegradability and Biological Considerations of