2.

0 INTRODUTON

Water is a fundamental ingredient in concrete that reacts with cement to form the
hardened material we see in structures. The quality of water used in concrete
mixtures can significantly affect the properties and strength of the final product.

The quality of water used in concrete mixtures is a critical factor that affects the
chemical reactions within the concrete and, consequently, its strength and
durability. This review examines the current research on how different types of
water impact the strength of concrete.

A study by Moses et al. (2024) analyzed the strength of concrete mixed with water
of varying pH and hardness levels. They found that water with a higher pH resulted
in concrete with appreciable strength, while acidic water led to very low strength
values. The use of hard water for mixing concrete resulted in a strength value
lower than with soft water. The study concluded that water quality has a noticeable
effect on the strength of concrete, recommending the use of water with a high pH
value for mixing concrete. Most standards in the world specify that water used for
concrete shall be reasonably clean and free of oil, acid, alkali, organic matter or
other deleterious substances. Drinking water (tap water) is largely used as mixing
water for concrete. However, drinking water resources are more and more scarce in
developed countries and are quite expensive in developing countries. Underground
water has been used by some concrete producers in Taiwan as mixing water for
concrete to reduce production cost (Nan su. 2002)

Cayanan et al. (2023) reviewed how different water sources affected concrete’s
properties. They emphasized the need to carefully examine the elements in the
water used for mixing concrete, especially if it is not potable. The study found that
the quality of water used significantly affects the workability, setting time,
compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexure strength of the
concrete. Drinking water remains the optimal choice to meet standard slump
requirements.

The literature suggests that the quality of water used in concrete mixtures is crucial
for determining the strength and durability of the concrete. While higher pH and
soft water contribute to stronger concrete, the use of non-potable water requires
careful consideration of its contents to avoid compromising the concrete’s integrity.

2.2. THE IMPACT OF THE WATER QUALITY ON THE COMPRENSIVE

STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.

The strength of concrete is greatly influenced by the quality of water used in its
mixture. This is primarily because water plays a crucial role in the hydration
process of cement, the reaction that enables concrete to set and harden. The
presence of impurities such as organic materials, sulphates, chlorides, or other salts
in water can disrupt this process, potentially leading to chemical reactions that
weaken the structure over time. Additionally, the pH level of water is a key factor;
if the water is too acidic or too alkaline, it can negatively impact the curing process
and reduce the concrete’s final strength. Salinity is another concern, particularly
with seawater, as it can heighten the risk of corrosion in the steel reinforcements,
undermining the concrete’s structural integrity (Nsahlai 2024). Moreover, the
hardness of water, indicated by high levels of calcium and magnesium, can result
in deposits that obstruct the concrete’s pores, thereby reducing its strength.
Therefore, it is generally advised to use clean and potable water for mixing
concrete to achieve optimal strength and durability (Kumar 2020). Water is
regarded as an indispensable ingredient as the hydration of cement is possible only
in its presence. The quality of mixing water may affect the setting, hardening and
strength of concrete. Great control on properties of cement and aggregate is
exercised, but the control on the quality of water is often neglected (Iraqi Journal
of Civil Engineering, 2019).

The strength and serviceability of structures depend much on the properties of

concrete with which the structure is constructed. Concrete as a composite inert
material comprising of a binder course (e.g. cement), mineral filler (body) or
aggregates and water. Aggregates on the other hand are of two categories namely
fine aggregates (e.g. sand) and coarse aggregates (e.g. gravel or crushed stone).
The aggregates are usually graded from fine sand to stones of say 20mm in
diameter depending on the job to be executed (American concrete institute 2023).

Concrete is a composite material of cement, sand, coarse aggregate (gravel or

crushed stone) and water. It has good workability and allows it to be easily used in
any shape choices from bulky dam wall, foundation to very thin shell roof (Tiwari
et al 2014). The quality of concrete is considered as a cause that could be
responsible for the deterioration of concrete. In deterioration of concrete, the
salinity effect plays a significant role especially when water which used as
constituent is reach in salts. The chemical action of high salinity water on concrete
is mainly due to attack by magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) (Falah 2010). This may
be worsened if chloride present in the water which retards the swelling that usually
characterized by the attack of sulphates, and which becomes whitish in appearance.
More severe attack subjects the set concrete to expansion which leads to cracking.
Bryant (1964) stated in his paper that potassium and magnesium sulphates
(K2SO4, MgSO4) present in salt water can cause sulphate attack in concrete since
they readily react with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) present in the set cement
through the hydration of C3S and C2S.

This study will explore the worst scenario of concrete mix and determines the
consequent effect on reinforced concrete element. A mix ratio of 1:2:4 will be
adopted for the experiment. Reinforced concrete elements will be casted using
saline water with different concentration of salt while fresh water will be used as a
control experiment. Characteristics will be observed for a period of 28 days. Both
the fresh water and salty water samples will be tested for compressive strength.

The effect of mixing water quality on concrete's compressive strength was

examined by (Alaneme 2020). Their research showed that the water's source has a
big impact on how strong concrete is. It was discovered that the greatest option for
producing concrete was potable water, which over time produced concrete with
noticeable strength. For the most part, water that is allowed for drinking is suitable
for making concrete. On the other hand, drinking water in some arid regions could
be salinized, with high levels of chloride and unwanted alkali carbonates and
bicarbonates. These contaminants may have an impact on the alkali-silica reaction,
which reduces the strength of concrete.

2.3 The Role of Aggregates in Concrete Strength

Cement, aggregates, and water are the main ingredients of concrete, a basic
building material. Among them, aggregates are essential in determining the
thermal characteristics, elasticity, and dimensional stability of concrete. In this
piece, we explore the importance of aggregate characteristics with a particular
emphasis on how they affect the strength of concrete.
2.3.1. Types of Aggregates

Aggregates are broadly classified into two categories:

Coarse Aggregates: These are typically larger than 4.75 mm (retained on a No. 4
sieve). Examples include gravel or crushed stone.

Fine Aggregates: These are smaller than 4.75 mm (passing the No. 4 sieve) and
often consist of sand.

2.3.2 Aggregate Properties and Concrete Strength

a. Shape and Texture

The shape and texture of aggregates significantly influence fresh concrete

properties. Rounded and smooth aggregates enhance workability, while rough,
angular, or elongated aggregates create a stronger bond between the paste and the
aggregate, resulting in higher strength.

b. Grading or Size Distribution

The grading of aggregates determines the paste requirement for workable concrete.
When particles are uniformly sized, void spaces are maximized. However, using a
range of aggregate sizes fills these voids, reducing the necessary paste content.
Well-graded mixtures improve interlocking between particles, leading to enhanced
strength and resistance to external stresses.
c. Surface Characteristics

Aggregate surface texture matters. A smoother surface improves workability, while

a rougher surface strengthens the bond between paste and aggregate, contributing
to overall strength (Bertrand 2024).

2.4 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS

The impact of water quality on concrete’s robustness has several environmental

and health consequences

• Compromised Concrete Integrity: Impurities in the mixing water can weaken the
key compound in concrete, calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), leading to structures
that are less durable and potentially hazardous. Abrams conducted experiments
with concrete cylinders made from various waters, including those not fit for
drinking, and tested their compressive strength over a period of up to twenty-eight
months. The results showed that despite the diverse water quality, the majority of
samples performed well. Abrams noted that while seawater, with its 3.5 percent
salinity, can enhance early strength, it may reduce long-term strength by up to
15%, which is generally acceptable.He then observed that, seawater marginally
quickens cement’s setting time. And also,seawater, can lead to prolonged
dampness and efflorescence on surfaces (Abrams 1918 )

 Effect of pH Levels: Elevated pH levels in water correlate with a notable

reduction in concrete’s strength, which can lead to environmental harm if
structures fail. The influence of the pH value of water on the strength
characteristics of concrete was examined. It was found that higher pH values
 significantly reduced the compressive strength of the concrete, potentially
compromising the structural integrity and posing environmental risks if the
concrete fails (Smith J, 2022)
 Strength Discrepancies: The quality of water used in concrete mix can cause
fluctuations in the final product’s strength, with different pH levels resulting
in varying strengths. Variations in the quality and pH levels of water used
for mixing concrete can lead to significant differences in the final
compressive strength of the concrete. This suggests that water quality is a
critical factor in ensuring the desired performance of concrete structures
(Lee k, 2023)

2.2.1 QUALITIES OF DIFFERENT WATER AFFECT THE CURING

PROCESS AND FINAL STRENGTH.

The impact of water quality on concrete is multifaceted, affecting both the curing
process and the final strength of the structure. Potable water is the gold standard
for concrete mixing, ensuring a stable curing process and leading to concrete with
optimal strength and durability. Seawater, while sometimes used, contains salts
that may accelerate the initial setting but can detrimentally affect long-term
strength due to the corrosive nature of the salts, especially on steel reinforcements.
Recycled water’s suitability hinges on its treatment; when properly treated, it can
match the concrete strength achieved with potable water, but if not, it may result in
weaker concrete. Hard water, characterized by high mineral content, can slow the
hydration process, and affect setting times, ultimately reducing the concrete’s
strength due to potential mineral deposits within the matrix. Therefore, while
alternatives to potable water exist, their use requires careful consideration and
adherence to quality standards to ensure the integrity and longevity of concrete
structures.

The goal of the study by (Dey et al. 2023) is to investigate how changes in water
quality affect the mechanical and microstructure characteristics of cement-based
materials like concrete and mortar. Their study investigates the connections
between mechanical and microstructure traits and water quality, which can
significantly affect the performance of structures.

2.2.2 IMPROVING THE INTERACTION BETWEEN CONCRETE

STRENGTH AND WATER QUALITY.

To enhance the longevity of construction by improving the interaction between

concrete strength and water quality, several measures can be taken. Setting and
adhering to stringent water quality standards for concrete mixing is crucial,
ensuring the use of potable water with minimal impurities. For non-potable sources
like recycled or seawater, treatment processes to remove detrimental impurities are
essential. Regular quality control testing of water sources is necessary to maintain
standards. Developing concrete mix designs that can withstand water quality
variations and incorporating additives that counteract impurities can also be
beneficial. Employing corrosion inhibitors can protect steel reinforcements from
salt and chloride effects. Ongoing research to understand the long-term impacts of
water quality on concrete and the development of new materials to improve
concrete resilience is vital. Additionally, educating construction professionals on
water quality’s role in concrete durability and sharing industry best practices can
contribute to building structures that stand the test of time. (Cayanan et al., 2024).
Cement serves as a crucial binder that unites and forms a durable bond with other
elements of concrete, such as fine and coarse aggregates. This bonding capability
of cement is only unleashed with the addition of water, an essential component for
cement hydration. The quality of water used in mixing can influence concrete's
setting, hardening, and strength. While cement and aggregate properties are closely
monitored, water quality often receives less attention. According to Obi Lawrence
E., drinkable water is typically adequate for concrete production. However, in
certain dry regions, local potable water may be saline or contain high levels of
chloride, alkali carbonates, and bicarbonates that can trigger alkali silica reactions.
Conversely, some non-potable water may be appropriate for concrete production
(Portland Cement Association, 2005).

(Gupta et al. 2012) suggests that water with a pH between 6.0 and 8.0 is suitable
for concrete work. A water-cement ratio of 0.6 is advised for manual mixing, while
a ratio of 0.7 may be needed for pumped concrete. Caution is advised when using
water with high suspended solids; it's recommended to let it settle before use, with
a turbidity cap of 2000ppm as per the U.S Bureau of Reclamation (1975). While
slightly acidic natural waters are generally safe, waters containing humic or other
organic acids can negatively impact concrete hardening.

2.3 COMMON FINDINGS OF OTHER RESEARCHERS

When comparing and contrasting different studies on the impact of water quality
on concrete strength, it’s important to identify both common findings and
discrepancies to understand the broader implications for construction practices.
2.3.1 Common Findings

 Impact on Compressive Strength: Studies generally agree that the quality

of water used in concrete mix has a significant impact on its compressive
strength. For instance, a study by Ikpa et al. (2021) found that distilled water
produced the highest average compressive strength, while secondary
wastewater resulted in the lowest.
 Water Quality Assessment: There is a consensus that water fit for
consumption is typically suitable for concrete works. results. This study
looked into how different water sources affected the mechanical
characteristics of concrete. It assessed concrete made with drinkable tap
water, well water, and river water. ( NRMCA 2020)

At 28 days, the mean compressive strength of the concrete specimens made

using tap water was the highest, while the compressive strength of those
made using well water was the lowest. Despite being utilized in some
locations lacking tap water, the study found that well water was not
appropriate for concrete projects.

Concrete Mixing Water Quality

Water that is suitable for human consumption, or potable water, can often be
used to mix concrete. Non-potable water sources, however, may also be
utilized as long as they don't adversely affect the characteristics of concrete.
(Mosaku, 2024)

The characteristics of concrete can be affected by the use of non-potable

water substitutes, such as wastewater from car washes.Comparable water
 absorption rates were observed by concrete mixtures containing varying
percentages of non-potable water and control mixtures.

2.3.2 Discrepancies

 Extent of Impact: The degree to which water quality affects concrete

strength varies across studies. While Ikpa et al. (2021) observed a clear
difference in strength based on water source, other studies may report more
nuanced effects.
 Types of Impurities: Different studies focus on various impurities and their
effects on concrete strength. For example, research by (Olugbenga, 2024)
analyzed the effect of salts of sodium, manganese, tin, zinc, copper, and lead
on compressive strength.

2.3.3 Potential Reasons for Variations

 Methodology: Differences in sample preparation, curing conditions, and

testing methods can lead to variations in results. For example, the setting
time characteristics and compressive strength values might differ based on
the specific procedures followed in each study.
 Concrete Composition: The mix design, including the type and proportion
of cementitious materials and aggregates, can influence how concrete reacts
to different water qualities. Studies using varied mix designs may yield
different outcomes. (Omuh et al., 2024).
While there is a broad consensus that water quality is crucial for concrete strength,
specific outcomes and the extent of the impact can differ due to methodological,
compositional, and environmental factors. These variations highlight the need for
standardized testing procedures and consideration of local conditions when
assessing the suitability of water for concrete production.