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The Encyclopedia
of Middle Grades
Education
2nd edition
A volume in
The Handbook of Resources in Middle Level Education
Steven B. Mertens and Micki M. Caskey, Series Editors
THE HANDBOOK OF RESOURCES IN MIDDLE LEVEL EDUCATION
Clinical Preparation at the Middle Level: Practices and Possibilities (2016)

Edited by Penny B. Howell, Jan Carpenter, and Jeanneine Jones
Vincent A. Anfara, Jr. and Steven B. Mertens, Series Editors
The Legacy of Middle School Leaders: In Their Own Words (2011)

Edited by Tracy W. Smith and C. Kenneth McEwin
THE HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH IN MIDDLE LEVEL EDUCATION

Research on Teaching and Learning With the Literacies of Young Adolescents (2015)
Edited by Kathleen F. Malu and Mary Beth Schaefer
Vincent A. Anfara, Jr., Series Editors
Common Planning Time in Middle Level Schools: Research Studies From the MLER SIG’s National Project (2013)
Edited by Steven B. Mertens, Vincent A. Anfara, Jr., Micki M. Caskey, and Nancy Flowers
Voices From the Middle: Narrative Inquiry By, For, and About the Middle Level Community (2010)
Edited by Kathleen F. Malu
An International Look at Educating Young Adolescents (2009)
Edited by Steven B. Mertens, Vincent A. Anfara, Jr., and Kathleen Roney
The Young Adolescent and the Middle School (2007)
Edited by Steven B. Mertens, Vincent A. Anfara, Jr., and Micki M. Caskey
Making a Difference: Action Research in Middle Level Education (2005)
Edited by Micki M. Caskey
Reforming Middle Level Education: Considerations for Policymakers (2004)
Edited by Sue C. Thompson
Leaders for a Movement: Professional Preparation and Development of Middle Level Teachers and Administrators (2003)
Edited by P. Gayle Andrews and Vincent A. Anfara, Jr.
Middle School Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment (2002)
Edited by Vincent A. Anfara, Jr. and Sandra L. Stacki
The Handbook of Research in Middle Level Education (2001)
Edited by Vincent A. Anfara, Jr.
The Encyclopedia
of Middle Grades
Education
2nd edition
edited by
Steven B. Mertens
Illinois State University
Micki M. Caskey
Portland State University
Nancy Flowers
CPRD, University of Illinois
M
MIDDLE LEVEL EDUCATION RESEARCH
SPECIAL INTEREST GROUP
INFORMATION AGE PUBLISHING, INC.
Charlotte, NC • www.infoagepub.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
http://www.loc.gov
ISBN: 978-1-68123-569-1 (Paperback)

978-1-68123-570-7 (Hardcover)
978-1-68123-571-4 (ebook)
Copyright © 2016 Information Age Publishing Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America

This edition of The Encyclopedia of Middle Grades Education
is dedicated to our beloved middle grades leaders, mentors, colleagues, and friends:
Vincent A. Anfara, Jr. and Thomas O. Erb
MMIDDLE LEVEL EDUCATION RESEARCH
SPECIAL INTEREST GROUP
The Handbook of Research in Middle Level Education is endorsed

by the Middle Level Education Research Special Interest Group,
an affiliate of the American Educational Research Association.
As stated in the organization’s bylaws, the purpose of MLER

is to improve, promote, and disseminate educational research
reflecting early adolescence and middle-level education.
Contents
List of Entries ........................................................................................ix
About the Editors ................................................................................xiii

List of Contributors.............................................................................. xv
Foreword ..............................................................................................xix
John H. Lounsbury
Introduction to the Second Edition...................................................xxi
Micki M. Caskey, Steven B. Mertens, and Nancy Flowers
Entries .....................................................................................................1
Index ................................................................................................... 441
vii
This page intentionally left blank.
List of Entries
A Brain Development................................................................. 67
Brain Growth Periodization .................................................. 70
A Curriculum for the Middle School Years .................................... 1 Breaking Ranks Framework ..................................................... 72
A Middle School Curriculum: From Rhetoric to Reality ................ 2 BRIDGES Project.................................................................... 73
Ability Grouping ....................................................................... 2 Briggs, Thomas ....................................................................... 74
Academic Achievement ............................................................ 5 Bullying ................................................................................... 75
Academic Excellence ................................................................ 9
Accelerated Schools................................................................ 12
Accountability ......................................................................... 12 C
Accreditation and Middle Level Teacher Preparation
Programs ....................................................................... 16 Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development ................... 79
Achievement Gap.................................................................... 19 Caught in the Middle ................................................................. 80
Achievement Tests .................................................................. 22 Center for Early Adolescence ................................................ 81
Adaptations, Accommodations, and Modifications ............ 25 Center for Prevention Research and Development ............. 81
Administrators: Middle Level Principals .............................. 28 Charter Schools ...................................................................... 82
Advisory Programs ................................................................. 31 Classroom Management ........................................................ 86
Affective Development ........................................................... 35 Cognitive Development.......................................................... 89
After School Programs........................................................... 38 Collaborative Decision Making ............................................. 92
Alexander, William M. ........................................................... 42 College and Career Readiness .............................................. 94
Alternative Middle Schools.................................................... 43 Collegiate Middle Level Association .................................... 97
American Educational Research Association ...................... 46
The Committee of Ten Report ..................................................... 97
American Federation of Teachers ......................................... 47
Common Planning Time ....................................................... 98
American Institutes for Research.......................................... 47
Community ........................................................................... 100
AMLE Magazine....................................................................... 48
Comprehensive School Reform ........................................... 103
Anfara, Vincent A., Jr. ............................................................ 49
Cooperative Learning .......................................................... 106
Arnold, John ........................................................................... 50
Council of Chief State School Officers ............................... 109
Arth, Alfred A. ....................................................................... 50
Counseling ............................................................................ 110
Arts Education ........................................................................ 51
Curriculum Alignment ........................................................ 112
As I See It .................................................................................. 55
Assessment: Formative Evaluation ........................................ 55 Curriculum: Core ................................................................. 116
Assessment: Summative Evaluation ...................................... 57 Curriculum Development .................................................... 119
Association for Middle Level Education............................... 59 Curriculum Integration ....................................................... 122
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Curriculum: Interdisciplinary Unit .................................... 125
Development ................................................................. 60
Authentic Assessment............................................................. 61
D
Democratic Classrooms ....................................................... 131

B
Developmental Responsiveness ........................................... 133
Beane, James A. ...................................................................... 65 Dewey, John ........................................................................... 137
Bergmann, Sherrel ................................................................. 66 Dickinson, Thomas S. .......................................................... 137
The Encyclopedia of Middle Grades Education, 2nd edition, pages ix–xi

Copyright © 2016 by Information Age Publishing
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. ix
x ◾ List of Entries
Doda, Nancy M. .................................................................... 138 Institute for Education Sciences.......................................... 207

Douglass, Harl R. .................................................................. 139 Instructional Methods: Differentiated Instruction ........... 207
Instructional Methods/Strategies ....................................... 211
Interdisciplinary Team Organization ................................. 213
E
Early Awareness .................................................................... 141
Early Indicator Systems ........................................................ 144 J
Edna McConnell Clark Foundation .................................... 148 Johnston, J. Howard ............................................................. 219
Effective Schools ................................................................... 148 Journal of Adolescent Research ................................................. 220
Eichhorn, Donald H............................................................. 152 Journal of Early Adolescence .................................................... 220
The Eight-Year Study ............................................................ 153 Junior High School............................................................... 220
The Eight-Year Study Revisited: Lessons from the Past
for the Present ................................................................ 153
Eliot, Charles W. ................................................................... 154 K
English Language Learners ................................................ 154
Kilpatrick, William H. .......................................................... 223
Erb, Thomas O...................................................................... 159
Koos, Leonard V. .................................................................. 224
Erikson, Erik ......................................................................... 160
The Exemplary Middle School .................................................. 161
Exploratory Curriculum ...................................................... 161
L
Leadership ............................................................................ 227
F Learning Forward ................................................................ 230
Learning Styles ..................................................................... 231
Family Involvement and Partnerships................................. 165
The Forgotten Middle: Ensuring that All Students Are on Lilly Endowment, Inc. .......................................................... 233
Target for College and Career Readiness ........................ 169 Limited English Proficiency ................................................ 235
Lipsitz, Joan S. ...................................................................... 238
Literacy .................................................................................. 238
G Looping ................................................................................. 242
Lounsbury, John H. .............................................................. 246
Gaining Ground in the Middle Grades: Why Some Schools
Do Better ....................................................................... 171
Garvin, James P. .................................................................... 172
M
Gatewood, Thomas E. .......................................................... 172
George, Paul S. ..................................................................... 173 McEwin, C. Kenneth ............................................................ 249
Gifted Students/Programs ...................................................174 Melton, George E. ................................................................ 250
Grade Configuration: K–8 Versus Middle Grades ............. 177 Mentoring and Induction .................................................... 250
Grade Configurations at the Middle Level ........................ 181 Middle Grades Research Journal .............................................. 253
Growing Up Forgotten: A Review of Research and Programs Middle Level Education—Origin of the Term .................. 254
Concerning Early Adolescence........................................ 185 Middle Level Education Research Special Interest Group.... 256
Gruhn, William T. ................................................................ 186 Middle Level Leadership Center......................................... 257
Middle Level Literature ....................................................... 258
Middle School Journal ............................................................. 260
H Mindset: The New Psychology of Success ................................... 261
Hall, G. Stanley ..................................................................... 187 Motivation ............................................................................. 262
The Handbook of Research in Middle Level Education ............. 188 Multicultural Education ...................................................... 266
The Handbook of Resources in Middle Level Education ........... 189 Multiple Intelligences........................................................... 268
Health: Comprehensive Health Programs ......................... 190
Health: Mental Health and Young Adolescents ................. 194
Historical and Influential Publications in Middle N
Level Education .......................................................... 195 National Adolescent Literacy Coalition.............................. 273
National Association of Elementary School Principals ..... 274
National Association of Professors of Middle Level
I Education .................................................................... 274
Identity Development ........................................................... 199 National Association of Secondary School Principals ...... 275
Inclusion ................................................................................ 202 NASSP National Middle Level Studies ............................... 276
Inclusion: Students with Disabilities ................................... 204 National Board for Professional Teaching Standards ....... 277
List of Entries ◾ xi
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Special Education in Middle Schools ................................. 358
Middle Level Studies .................................................. 278 Sports in Middle Schools ..................................................... 361
National Clearinghouse for Comprehensive School Standards .............................................................................. 365
Reform ........................................................................ 278 STEM—Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math..... 369
National Education Association .......................................... 279 Stevenson, Christopher ........................................................ 372
National Forum to Accelerate Middle-Grades Reform ..... 280 Student-Led Conferences .................................................... 373
National Middle Grades Research Project on Successful Schools for Young Adolescents .................................. 377
Common Planning Time ........................................... 280 Swaim, John H. ..................................................................... 377
New American Schools ........................................................ 282 Swaim, Sue ............................................................................ 378
New Literacies ....................................................................... 282
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 ...................................... 286
T
Taking Center Stage................................................................. 381
O
Teacher Certification ........................................................... 382
Online Learning................................................................... 291 Teacher Preservice Preparation .......................................... 385
Organizational Structures ................................................... 294 Teacher Professional Development ..................................... 388
Teaching Middle Years: Rethinking Curriculum, Pedagogy
and Assessment.............................................................. 390
P Technology Integration ....................................................... 391
Parents for Public Schools ................................................... 299 Testing ................................................................................... 394
Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College Testing: High Stakes ............................................................. 396
and Careers .................................................................300 Thematic Units .....................................................................400
Peer Tutoring ........................................................................ 301 Third International Mathematics and Science Study ....... 402
Piaget, Jean ........................................................................... 303 This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents ............. 403
Professional Learning Communities .................................. 304 Title I .....................................................................................404
Program of International Student Assessment .................. 307 Toepfer, Jr., Conrad F. ..........................................................406
Progressivism ........................................................................308 Transition Programs ............................................................ 407
Transitions ............................................................................ 411
Turning Points 2000: Educating Adolescents in the
R 21st Century .................................................................. 414
Turning Points: Preparing American Youth for the
Relationships......................................................................... 311
21st Century .................................................................. 415
Research and Resources in Support of This We Believe
21st Century Skills ................................................................ 416
(2nd edition) .............................................................. 314
Tyler, Ralph W. ...................................................................... 418
Research in Middle Level Education Online ............................ 314
Research to Guide Practice in Middle Grades Education .......... 315
R 3 = Research, Rhetoric, and Reality: A Study of Studies ......... 316 U
Response to Intervention ......................................................317
Rural Middle Schools ........................................................... 320 U.S. Department of Education ............................................ 421
Underachievement ............................................................... 422
Urban Middle School ........................................................... 426
S
Scheduling: Flexible Interdisciplinary Block Schedules ..... 325 V
School Culture ...................................................................... 331
School Size ............................................................................ 335 Vars, Gordon F. ..................................................................... 431
Schools to Watch .................................................................. 338 Vygotsky, Lev ......................................................................... 432
School-Within-School Organization ..................................340
Self-Concept/Self-Esteem .................................................... 343
W
Service Learning .................................................................. 346
Shadow Studies ..................................................................... 349 W. K. Kellogg Foundation .................................................... 433
Shooting for the Sun: The Message for Middle School Reform ... 351 We Gain More Than We Give: Teaming in Middle Schools....... 434
Smarter Balance Assessment Consortium.......................... 352 What Works Clearinghouse ................................................. 434
Social and Emotional Learning .......................................... 353
The Society for Research on Adolescence .......................... 356
Soundings: A Democratic Student-Centered Education............. 357
Y
Southern Regional Education Board ................................. 357 Young Adolescent Development .......................................... 437
About the Editors
Steven B. Mertens is associate professor of middle level education in the School of Teaching
and Learning at Illinois State University. He has authored or co-authored more than 60 pub-
lications and has presented papers at 80 international, national, and state conferences ad-
dressing varying aspects of middle level education and reform. Together with Micki Caskey, he
serves as co-editor of the book series: The Handbook of Research in Middle Level Education and The
Handbook of Resources in Middle Level Education. Steve is a former chair of AERA’s Middle Level
Education Research SIG, a former member of AMLE’s Research Advisory Board, and a mem-
ber of the National Forum to Accelerate Middle Grade’s Reform. Email: [email protected]
Micki M. Caskey is associate dean and professor in the Graduate School of Education at Port-
land State University. She serves as co-editor of the book series, The Handbook of Research in
Middle Level Education and The Handbook of Resources in Middle Level Education. She is the author
or co-author of more than 60 publications and 100 conference presentations. Micki is former
chair of AERA’s Middle Level Education Research SIG, former chair of Association for Middle
Level Education’s Research Advisory Board, and past editor of Research in Middle Level Educa-
tion Online. She is also a former public school teacher who taught young adolescents for more
than 20 years. E-mail: [email protected]
Nancy Flowers is Assistant Director of Research Programs at the Center for Prevention Re-
search and Development (CPRD) in the School of Social Work at the University of Illinois in
Urbana-Champaign. For 20 years, Nancy has served as a principal investigator and project di-
rector of research and evaluation projects related to middle grades education and reform. Her
work includes large-scale evaluations of comprehensive middle-grades reform efforts. Most
recently, she serves as lead evaluator for two U.S. Department of Education Investing in Inno-
vation (i3) grants which are focused on working with middle-grades schools. Nancy has nu-
merous publications, reports, and presentations on topics related to middle-grades research.
She has served on the board of the National Forum to Accelerate Middle-Grades Reform, as a
Council Member for AERA’s Middle Level Education Research SIG, and as a co-leader for the
AERA Middle Level Education Research SIG’s National Middle Grades Research Project on
Common Planning Time. Email: nfl[email protected]
The Encyclopedia of Middle Grades Education, 2nd edition, page xiii

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. xiii
List of Contributors
Maud Abeel Peter Boedeker

Contributor from 1st edition Texas A&M University
Patrick Akos Michelle E. Boyer-Pennington
The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Middle Tennessee State University
Gail Anderson Gena M. Bramlett
Canby School District Contributor from 1st edition
P. Gayle Andrews Kathleen Brinegar
The University of Georgia Johnson State College
Vincent A. Anfara, Jr. Thomas M. Brinthaupt
Contributor from 1st edition Middle Tennessee State University
Melissa Baker Dave F. Brown
The University of Georgia West Chester University
Meghan E. Barnes Alison Buehler
The University of Georgia Contributor from 1st edition
Dan Bauer Ann Bullock
Georgia Southern University East Carolina University
Candy Beal Mary Margaret Capraro
North Carolina State University Texas A&M University
James A. Beane Jan Carpenter
Marylhurst University
Stephanie M. Bennett Micki M. Caskey
Mississippi State University Portland State University
Dana L. Bickmore Donald C. Clark
University of Nevada, Las Vegas University of Arizona
Allison Reagan Bisel Sally N. Clark
The University of Georgia University of Arizona
Penny Bishop Chris M. Cook
University of Vermont Appalachian State University
The Encyclopedia of Middle Grades Education, 2nd edition, pages xv–xviii

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. xv
xvi ◾ List of Contributors
Sondra S. Cooney Casey D. Gilewski

Contributor from 1st edition University of Memphis
Stephanie Croneberg Sheila Rogers Gloer
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Baylor University
Larry G. Daniel Elsa Andreasen Glover
The Citadel Kaneland Harter Middle School
Kaneland Community Unit School District 302
Erika Daniels
California State University, San Marcos Carol Goldfus
Levinsky College of Education
Trina J. Davis
Texas A&M University Dianne Goldsby
Texas A&M University
Robin Dever
Kent State University–Geauga Matthew D. Goodman
Contributor from 1st edition
Kevin Duquette
Phillips Middle School Jennifer S. Goodwin
Chapel Hill-Carrboro City Schools Contributor from 1st edition
Cheryl R. Ellerbrock Tammy J. Graham
University of South Florida The Citadel
Kristina Falbe Melanie Greene
Georgia College & State University Contributor from 1st edition
Francine Falk-Ross Shannon Grey
Pace University West Windsor-Plainsboro Regional School District
Shawn A. Faulkner Linda Haling
Northern Kentucky University Illinois State University
L. Mickey Fenzel Lisa M. Harrison
Loyola University Maryland Ohio University
Carolyn Grim Fidelman Sara Hartman
National Center for Education Statistics Ohio University
U.S. Department of Education
Heather Rogers Haverback
Christine Finnan Towson University
Kristina K. Hill
Janis D. Flint-Ferguson Texas A&M University
Gordon College
Linda Hopping
Nancy Flowers National Forum to Accelerate
CPRD, University of Illinois Middle-Grades Reform
Sejal Parikh Foxx Brittany L. Hott
University of North Carolina, Charlotte Texas A&M University, Commerce
Dana Pomykal Franz David Hough
Mississippi State University Missouri State University
Daniel M. Frederking Penny B. Howell
Illinois State University University of Louisville
Adria Gallup-Black Gail Ingwalson
FHI 360 University of North Dakota
Pat George Virginia M. Jagla
Association for Middle Level Education National Louis University
Paul S. George Leah M. Jorgensen
University of Florida University of North Carolina, Wilmington
List of Contributors ◾ xvii
Janet Josephson Richard L. Mehrenberg

Millersville University Millersville University
Barbara A. Kalina Elliot Y. Merenbloom
Educational Consultant Educational Consultant
Anit Karni-Tagger Steven B. Mertens
Levinsky College of Education Illinois State University
Deborah Kasak Carla K. Meyer
National Forum to Accelerate Middle-Grades Reform Duquesne University
Kriss Y. Kemp-Graham Jim Miller
Texas A&M University, Commerce Contributor from 1st edition
Brianna L. Kennedy-Lewis Nicole C. Miller
University of Florida Mississippi State University
Louise Kennelly Nancy B. Mizelle
Contributor from 1st edition Georgia College & State University
Shea N. Kerkhoff Clarice M. Moran
North Carolina State University North Carolina State University
Patti Kinney Matthew J. Moulton
Educational Consultant The University of Georgia
Mahati Kopparla Peter Mulhall
Texas A&M University CPRD, University of Illinois
James Lane P. Maureen Musser
University of Phoenix Contributor from 1st edition
Amanda Latimer William J. Rodriguez Nieves
The University of Georgia Illinois State University
Mark L’Esperance Alyssa D. Nucaro
East Carolina University University of Memphis
Courtney Lewis Nickolaus Ortiz
University of North Carolina, Wilmington Texas A&M University
Emily S. Lin Nita A. Paris
University of Nevada, Las Vegas Kennesaw State University
Richard P. Lipka Donna Pendergast
St. Bonaventure University Griffith University, Australia
John H. Lounsbury Sara Davis Powell
Georgia College & State University Contributor from 1st edition
Diana B. Lys Joanne L. Previts
East Carolina University Georgia College & State University
Katherine Main Donna Davenport Price
Griffith University, Australia Contributor from 1st edition
Monica Martinez Laurie A. Ramirez
Contributor from 1st edition Appalachian State University
C. Kenneth McEwin Brandi R. Ray
Appalachian State University Baylor University
Molly Mee Cynthia C. Reyes
Towson University University of Vermont
xviii ◾ List of Contributors
Mary Rice April Tibbles

University of Kansas Association for Middle Level Education
Lourdes M. Rivera Carol Ann Tomlinson
Queens College, City University of New York Contributor from 1st edition
Sarah A. Rozny Jerry W. Valentine
Illinois State University University of Missouri
Besty Rymes David C. Virtue
University of South Carolina
Risa Sackman
Jennifer D. Walker
FHI 360
University of Mary Washington
Mary Beth Schaefer
St. John’s University Temple A. Walkowiak
North Carolina State University
Michelle Schwartze
Illinois State University Amanda Wall
Georgia Southern University
Nelly Shora
Texas A&M University, Commerce Hersh C. Waxman
Michele Jean Sims
Contributor from 1st edition Gary Weilbacher
Jennifer Smith Illinois State University
Monticello Middle School Christopher S. Weiler
Monticello Community Unit School District 25 Kutztown University
Tracy W. Smith Alicia Wenzel
Appalachian State University Western Oregon University
Frances R. Spielhagen Marcus Wenzel
Mount Saint Mary College Western Oregon University
Hiller A. Spires
Katie Wester-Neal
North Carolina State University
The University of Georgia
Sandra L. Stacki
Hofstra University Barbara L. Whinery
Cody Stephens
Contributor from 1st edition Allison M. Wilson
Appalachian State University
Mark Stevens
George Mason University Gretchen Wolfram
David Strahan
Contributor from 1st edition Brandi Wade Worsham
Janet K. Stramel The University of Georgia
Fort Hays State University Tabitha J. Wurster
John H. Swaim University of Virginia
University of Northern Colorado Carl A. Young
Shirley Theriot North Carolina State University
Contributor from 1st edition Bryan D. Zwemke
Nicole L. Thompson Rotolo Middle School
University Memphis Batavia Public School District 101
Foreword
T he middle school movement is now 53 years old. Yet,

in the long history of American education, “mid-
dle school” is a late entry on our education timeline
their books, they called for what we would now label a
developmentally responsive school. They advocated for
a varied and exploratory curriculum and pointed out
where it carries an asterisk followed by the words “in the need for teachers who were prepared for work at
progress.” The middle school movement, despite more this level. Unfortunately, the junior high school as it
than a half-century of existence marked by remarkable was being made operational was unable to escape the
growth, from a historical perspective, is still relatively domination of its parent, the high school. So it became
young. Though we speak of the middle school move- what its name implied, a junior version of the senior
ment as an entity that began in 1963, it is really just high school, featuring high school practices of depart-
the latest chapter in the Reorganization of Secondary mentalization and homogeneous grouping among oth-
Education initiated by the Commission of the Reorga- ers. However, even as its rapid growth numerically was
nization of Secondary Education, Cardinal Principals of on-going, criticism of the junior high began to appear,
Secondary Education (1918). thus, perhaps preparing the way for the middle school
In this landmark report, grades 7 and 8 were re- concept. The exclusive academic program, it appeared,
moved from elementary education and claimed as part was leaving little room for attention to other develop-
of secondary education where they could serve the col- mental needs. Thus, a climate was forming that would
lege preparation goal that was, initially, the sole motive be receptive to the coming middle school idea.
for reorganizing. The report also suggested that the six The term “middle school,” entered the arena in 1963
high school grades might now be divided into junior and the middle school grew at such a phenomenal rate
and senior periods. This suggestion was immediately that by 1983 the new 5–3–4 pattern had become the
followed, thus establishing the junior high school as dominate organizational plan in the United States, and
an independent entity. The subsequent growth of the is now almost universal. Further, it should be noted that
junior high school as an administrative unit of grades the concept of having an intermediate institution based
7–9 was remarkable. By 1946, just 37 years after it was on principles of human growth and development was
initiated, the junior high school was the centerpiece of unique to our country.
the 6–3–3 organization plan that had become the pre- However, without a history of its own, having gone
dominate organizational pattern in America, replacing through developments marked by conflicting views and
the traditional 8–4 plan. still being a work in progress, the middle school has
The college preparation motive was soon put on the been somewhat of a mystery to many and inadequately
back burner as public school leaders became involved understood by most educators and the general public.
in the movement. The new 7–9 unit might then become Fortunately, The Encyclopedia of Middle Grades Education
the means for advancing a more progressive, child-cen- was published in 2005 (Anfara, Andrews, & Mertens)
tered education, which was envisioned by two founders, and made available the authoritative information that
Leonard Koos and Thomas Briggs. Koos, a Professor of was needed to explain the middle school idea and its
Education at the University of Minnesota and Briggs of practices as well as guide its further development.
Teachers College, Columbia University, both published Encyclopedias, by their nature, are not designed to
books entitled simply, The Junior High School in 1920. In be read page by page, cover to cover. They are reference
The Encyclopedia of Middle Grades Education, 2nd edition, pages xix–xx

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. xix
xx ◾ Foreword
materials, sources that one goes to secure information you can conclude that The Encyclopedia of Middle Level
on a topic and are organized to facilitate a search for Education is, indeed, authoritative!
desired information. Now, a decade after the publica- The editors, Steven B. Mertens, Micki M. Caskey,
tion of The Encyclopedia of Middle Level Education comes and Nancy Flowers are to be commended for planning
a second edition, where the original entries have been and executing this major resource. Its development
reviewed and revised and new entries included, there- was, indeed, a daunting and often thankless task, but it
by bringing the whole field of middle school education resulted in a professional publication that is timely, of
up to date. The second edition offers brief, but ample genuine significance and lasting importance, and can
descriptions of over 210 middle level education topics, already be considered a classic.
including people, publications, organizations, and re-
search studies. The scope and coverage is, as young ad-
olescents might say, awesome. REFERENCES
A copy of this resource should be housed in the li-
brary of any institution that has a teacher preparation Anfara, V. A., Jr., Andrews, G., & Mertens, S. B. (Eds.). (2005).
program. In addition, copies must be available in the The encyclopedia of middle grades education. Greenwich,
CT: Information Age.
appropriate department or in the offices of middle level
Briggs, T. H. (1920). The junior high school. Boston, MA:
education faculty members where they can be consult-
Houghton Mifflin.
ed on a moment’s notice. While this resource will be
Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education.
used primarily to provide information on a particular (1918). Cardinal principles of secondary education. Bulletin
topic at a particular time, I believe every middle level 1918, No. 35. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the
educator would be well-advised to spend an hour or so Interior, Bureau of Education.
browsing through this volume, to get a feel for its cover- Koos, L. V. (1920). The junior high school. New York, NY: Har-
age, stopping to read entries that catch your attention, court, Brace, & Howe.
and perhaps critiquing the treatment given topics that
are of particular interest to you. Recognizing that all of —John H. Lounsbury
the 133 contributors are bona fide middle level experts; Georgia College and State University
Introduction to the
Second Edition
Micki M. Caskey
Portland State University
Steven B. Mertens
Illinois State University
Nancy Flowers
CPRD, University of Illinois
Middle grades education is schooling for students in (i.e., miniature high schools) and that they failed to
the “middle.” These students in the middle are young provide student-centered education. The attempt to of-
adolescents—10- to 15-year-olds—who are undergoing fer a richer curriculum than the elementary school and
a distinct period of human growth and development a more personal atmosphere than the high school had
between childhood and adolescence. They experience not materialized. Eventually, the call for reform of the
rapid and significant developmental changes, which junior high school model changed to a call for a new
in turn, require knowledgeable educators and respon- school model—the middle school. The middle school
sive schools. Regardless of the school (e.g., junior high would be “the school which stands academically be-
school, K–8 school, middle school) or grade configura- tween elementary and high school, is housed separately,
tion (e.g., grades 5–8, grades 6–8, grades 7–8), young ad- and offers at least three years of schooling beginning
olescents deserve education—schooling—designed for with either grade five or six” (National Educational As-
their unique developmental characteristics and needs. sociation, 1965, p. 5).
After all, young adolescents are still in the middle. In the 1980s, attention for a school in the middle ac-
The idea of education for young adolescents is not celerated. Alexander and George (1981) described the
new. At the beginning of the 20th century, the junior middle school in The Exemplary Middle School, advanc-
high school emerged as a model for educating young ing the middle school concept. National Middle School
adolescents. The junior high model arose in response Association (NMSA) offered a position statement, This
to societal pressures (i.e., immigration, industrializa- We Believe, (NMSA, 1982), articulating a focus on the
tion, college preparation) and frustration with the tra- distinct developmental needs of young adolescents and
ditional schooling model (i.e., irrelevant curriculum, describing programmatic components (e.g., interdisci-
low student retention rate). This new model was to in- plinary teams, flexible organizational structures, varied
clude disciplinary education, exploratory curriculum, instructional strategies, exploratory curriculum, adviso-
vocational education, recognition of students’ individ- ry programs) for middle schools. NMSA also highlight-
ual and socialization needs, and extra-curricular activ- ed the importance of educators who were knowledge-
ities as well as teachers and principals dedicated to the able and committed to teaching young adolescents.
junior high school. The middle school concept has had numerous cham-
Then, in the 1960s, dissatisfaction with the junior pions—associations, funders, and researchers—across
high school model grew. Critics lamented that junior the past five decades. Associations advocating for mid-
high schools were too much like senior high schools dle grades education included Association for Middle
The Encyclopedia of Middle Grades Education, 2nd edition, pages xxi–xxiii

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. xxi
xxii ◾ Introduction to the Second Edition
Level Education (AMLE, formerly National Middle beneficial to teacher preparation programs, graduate
School Association), the Association for Supervision level programs, higher education in general, advocates,
and Curriculum Development (ASCD), the National practitioners, and others.
Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP), Ten years following the publication of the first edi-
the National Association of Secondary School Principals tion, the editors decided to update and expand the en-
(NASSP), and the National Forum to Accelerate Mid- tries in The Encyclopedia of Middle Grades Education. This
dle-Grades Reform. Foundations supporting middle led to the development of the second edition, which
grades education have been Carnegie Corporation of builds on the foundation of the inaugural edition. We
New York, the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, the engaged in a deliberate process to update and expand
W. K. Kellogg Foundation, and the Lilly Endowment, the Encyclopedia. To begin, we examined the content of
Inc. Researchers studying middle grades education the first edition of the Encyclopedia to identify which en-
have included members of the Middle Level Education tries were current and still relevant to the field. Then,
Research Special Interest Group (MLER SIG) of the we developed a list of new topics for entries that should
American Educational Research Association (AERA), be added to expand the Encyclopedia. We decided to
the Center for Prevention Research and Development forego the inclusion of anchor essays in the second edi-
(CPRD), and an array of independent researchers. Nu- tion of the Encyclopedia as these appeared as reprints or
merous publications have documented the importance updated versions in Research to Guide Practice in Middle
of the middle grades including The Middle School We Need Grades Education (Andrews, 2013). Prior to sending out
(ASCD, 1975), This We Believe (NMSA, 1982, 1995, 2003, a general call for submissions, the authors of first edition
2010), An Agenda for Excellence in Middle Level Education entries were contacted and invited to revise their entry
(NASSP, 1985), Turning Points: Preparing American Youth for the second edition. Using a systematic approach of
for the 21st Century (Carnegie Council on Adolescent soliciting entries on the identified topics, we collected
Development, 1989), Turning Points 2000: Educating Ad- and edited nearly 200 entries on middle grades topics.
olescents in the 21st Century (Jackson & Davis, 2000) and The result is a second edition of The Encyclopedia of Mid-
the Vision Statement of the National Forum to Accelerate dle Grades Education with 212 entries (a 26% increase).
Middle-Grades Reform (2014). Notably, these distinc- A number of entries in the first edition of the Encyclo-
tive publications share common principles—ones that pedia were not updated or revised for this edition. When
undergird middle grades education. Together, they de- the original authors were not available to revise their en-
scribe ongoing work to improve education for young try, we were unable to solicit revised submissions from
adolescents. them. Because these original entries were important for
The purpose of the second edition of The Encyclope- a complete and comprehensive volume, we decided to
dia of Middle Grades Education is not only to build on the include reprints of several first edition entries. Entries
aforementioned knowledge base, but also to update the reprinted from the first edition of the Encyclopedia are
first edition (Anfara, Andrews, & Mertens, 2005). These noted as such at the end of the entry.
encyclopedias respond to the need for clear and con- As the current editors, we want to recognize and
cise information about middle grades education. They thank the many individuals and groups who contribut-
provide a jumping off point, an introduction, or broad ed to this edition. First and foremost, we acknowledge
overview of a selected topic in middle grades education. Vincent A. Anfara, Jr. who identified the need for an
The first edition of The Encyclopedia of Middle Grades encyclopedia about middle grades education. Vince’s
Education was designed to be a comprehensive overview vision became reality with the publication of The Ency-
of the field. It included seven anchor essays (5000 words) clopedia of Middle Grades Education (Anfara et al., 2005).
that addressed a variety of broader topics (e.g., histo- He enlisted two co-editors, Gayle Andrews and Steve
ry of the middle school movement; developmental re- Mertens to collaborate on the development and pro-
sponsiveness and social equity in middle grades schools; duction of the first edition of The Encyclopedia of Middle
future directions in relation to the movement, practic- Grades Education. Second, we thank all of the authors
es, and policy). In addition to the anchor essays, the who contributed their entries—long and short—that
Encyclopedia contained 156 alphabetically organized provide the substantive content of the Encyclopedia.
entries (500 word short entries and 2000 word long en- Third, we applaud the members of Middle Level Ed-
tries) that addressed important concepts, ideas, terms, ucation Research Special Interest Group (MLER SIG)
people, organizations, and seminal publications related of the American Educational Research Association who
to middle level education. The entries were introduc- support this initiative. Last, we offer special thanks to
tory with an overview of the topic followed by more de- George Johnson and his company, Information Age
tailed information and references. Such an encyclope- Publishing, for their enduring support of middle grades
dia of middle grades education, the first in the field, was education.
Introduction to the Second Edition ◾ xxiii
REFERENCES National Association of Secondary School Principals Council

on Middle Level Education. (1985). An agenda for excel-
Alexander, W. M., & George, P. S. (1981). The exemplary middle lence at the middle level. Reston, VA: Author.
school. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. National Education Association. (1965). Middle schools. Wash-
Andrews, P. G. (Ed.) (2013). Research to guide practice in middle ington, DC: Author.
grades education. Westerville, OH: Association for Mid- National Forum to Accelerate Middle-Grades Reform. (2014).
dle Level Education. Vision and mission. Retrieved from http://middlegrades-
Anfara, V. A., Jr., Andrews, G., & Mertens, S. B. (Eds.). (2005). forum.org/vision-mission/
The encyclopedia of middle grades education. Greenwich, National Middle School Association. (1982). This we believe.
CT: Information Age. Columbus, OH: Author.
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. National Middle School Association. (1995). This we believe:
(1975). The middle school we need. Washington, DC: Author. Developmentally responsive middle level schools. Columbus,
Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (1989). Turn- OH: Author.
ing points: Preparing American youth for the 21st century. National Middle School Association. (2003). This we believe:
New York, NY: Carnegie Corporation of New York. Successful schools for young adolescents. Westerville, OH:
Jackson, A. W., & Davis, G. A. (2000). Turning points 2000: Author.
Educating adolescents in the 21st century. New York, NY: National Middle School Association. (2010). This we believe: Keys
Teachers College Press. to educating young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author.
A CURRICULUM FOR THE
MIDDLE SCHOOL YEARS
A domains—captured nicely by the quote: “A teacher
quite literally faces a different group of children each
time he meets a particular class” (p. 36). In addition
to these constant changes, Lounsbury and Vars point
Gary Weilbacher out the influence of the social and cultural milieu in
Illinois State University the lives of young adolescents. A considerable part of
the curriculum needs to assist students in their deci-
Published in 1978, A Curriculum for the Middle School Years sion-making as they are faced with social situations in-
is a collaborative effort written by John H. Lounsbury volving sex, drugs, violence, and additional issues that
and Gordon F. Vars, two founders of the modern mid- challenge their safety and value systems. Finally, the
dle school movement. While the almost “psychedelic” curriculum needs to provide students with an idea of
orange and blue cover is a function of its publication how knowledge is organized, but the authors shy away
date, the words inside provide a timeless framework for from a disciplinary organization, indicating “that [the]
planning the kind of curriculum that all young adoles- senior high school and college levels are quite early
cents deserve. enough to begin direct orientation to the scholarly dis-
Unlike recent versions of curricular reform that min- ciplines” (p. 39).
imize the influence and skills of the teacher, Lounsbury In subsequent chapters, Lounsbury and Vars provide
and Vars begin their book by emphasizing the impor- detailed descriptions for the three components that
tance of staffing middle schools with a “special breed of form their vision of a middle school curriculum: Core,
teacher” (1978, p. 1). From their perspective, teachers Continuous Progress, and Variable. The core is a prob-
need to not only be leaders in curriculum planning, but lem-centered time block program that takes seriously
they should genuinely like middle school students and the questions and concerns of young adolescents by us-
take the time to build a positive, caring environment ing those concerns as the organizing centers of units.
by forming authentic relationships with their students. Unlike more current definitions of core (math, lan-
This emphasis on the importance of the relationships guage arts, science, and social studies) the disciplines of
among the human inhabitants of the school is a con- language arts, social studies, and often science are used
sistent theme throughout the book, as Lounsbury and to help the students study their concerns. Continuous
Vars clearly describe the roles that teachers, adminis- progress involves individualized, non-graded instruc-
trators, students, and parents should play in creating a tion in the “skills and concepts that have a genuine se-
relevant curriculum. quential organization” (p. 47). The disciplines of read-
In order to build a relevant curriculum, teachers ing, math, science, and foreign languages are included
need to have an advanced understanding of how ado- in the continuous progress component. Finally, the vari-
lescents learn and where their interests lie. The third able component contains, but is not limited to fine arts,
chapter, “Curriculum Foundations,” details the impor- industrial arts, family consumer science, physical educa-
tance of recognizing the dynamic changes that contin- tion/health, and an array of options that are intended
ually occur within the intellectual, social, and physical to meet the individual interests of the students.
The Encyclopedia of Middle Grades Education, 2nd edition, pages 1–64

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. 1
2 ◾ A MIDDLE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: FROM RHETORIC TO REALITY
REFERENCES middle level reform efforts need to begin with and re-
turn to, as curriculum is written and delivered. As such
Lounsbury, J. H., & Vars, G. F. (1978). A curriculum for the mid- they stand up in discussions on curriculum reform. In
dle school years. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
Beane’s model the curriculum is organized around the-
matic units “drawn from the intersecting concerns of
early adolescents and issues in the larger world” (p. 68).
He does not set the specific concerns that need to be
A MIDDLE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: addressed but holds to the developmental concerns and
FROM RHETORIC TO REALITY issues of the young adolescent, recognizing that those
issues, subjects, skills, and concepts may be different for
Janis D. Flint-Ferguson different groups of students. Although written 25 years
Gordon College ago, Beane’s proposal advocates for responsive teach-
ing; curriculum planning that aligns with young adoles-
In the 1993 second edition of James Beane’s ground- cents themselves, their unique needs and development.
breaking book on middle school curriculum, he re- So it is that Beane’s call for a middle level curriculum
minds readers that real reform in the middle level has remains as timely as ever. With standards and new, na-
yet to address reformation of the curriculum and that tional, standardized tests, the central focus on the devel-
it should: “After all, it is the curriculum, rather than opmental needs of young adolescents remains the heart
the grade level reorganization or teaming that defines of the middle level and good education. Beane’s epi-
the value of schools for early adolescents” (Beane, 1993,
logue still rings true; it is always best practice “to put our
p. 107). He is right, of course, and Turning Points 2000:
efforts squarely where our rhetoric has been” (p. 107).
Educating Adolescents in the 21st Century (Jackson & Da-
vis, 2000) picks up where he and Turning Points: Prepar-
ing American Youth for the 21st Century (Carnegie Council REFERENCES
on Adolescent Development, 1989) leave off, calling for
a middle level curriculum that is based on essential con- Beane, J. A. (1993). A middle school curriculum: From rhetoric
cepts, reflecting concerns of the young adolescent, and to reality (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: National Middle
linked to the ways in which student knowledge would School Association.
be assessed (Jackson & Davis, 2000, p. 43). Despite the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (1989). Turn-
changes since 1993, Beane’s discussion on curriculum ing points: Preparing American youth for the 21st century.
remains an essential aspect of middle level education. New York, NY: Carnegie Corporation of New York.
Jackson, A. W., & Davis, G. A. (2000). Turning points 2000:
The text begins with a discussion of the question of
Educating adolescents in the 21st century. New York, NY:
middle school curriculum and the various pressures
Teachers College Press.
that come to bear on curriculum development. Beane
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices &
lists and defines the guidelines that need to be used in Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common
addressing curriculum development. These guidelines Core State Standards. Washington, DC: Authors.
begin with a focus on general education, that which
is common for all students. Such a focus is in keeping
with education in the 21st century and the work to en-
sure success for all students through the Common Core
State Standards (National Governors Association Cen-
ABILITY GROUPING
ter for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School
Kevin Duquette
Officers, 2010).
Beane’s curriculum adheres to the philosophy that Phillips Middle School, Chapel Hill-Carrboro City Schools
middle school is not the “‘farm system’ for high school,”
but rather a time in adolescent lives that should be fo- Ability grouping is the practice of separating students
cused on what they need to understand about them- into homogenous learning groups based on real or
selves and others; he calls for the curriculum to “respect perceived academic ability. Students are commonly
[their] dignity” (Beane, 1993, p. 18). His guidelines go grouped by: classroom grades, standardized test scores,
on to call for curriculum that is “grounded in democra- locally or nationally developed achievement tests, and/
cy,” “honor[s] diversity,” “of personal and social signifi- or teacher recommendation. Supporters of ability
cance,” “lifelike and lively,” and finally “should enhance grouping believe that students learn best surrounded
knowledge and skills for all young people” (pp. 18–21). by students of similar academic ability, while opponents
His guidelines function as a mission statement, not of the practice believe that it creates and perpetuates
just middle school talk but truly those principles that achievement gaps.
ABILITY GROUPING ◾ 3
Grouping students can occur within-class or be- In the 1970s, the practice fell in popularity, a trend
tween-classes. Within-class grouping includes students that continued into the 1980s and 1990s and became
from a heterogeneous class separating into smaller known as the “de-tracking movement.” This movement
groups within the same classroom. Within-class group- was supported by studies criticizing the use of abili-
ing is most commonly used for reading and math in- ty groups as discriminatory, and the tendency for low
struction, and is generally found in elementary schools SES and minority students to be over-represented in
where one teacher covers all core subjects (Loveless, low-ability groups.
2013). Grouping allows the teacher to float around the In recent years, ability grouping has seen a surge in
room and deliver targeted instruction based on group popularity. This may be due in part to the increased fo-
need rather than providing whole class instruction. cus on standardized testing brought on by the No Child
Between-class grouping, also known as “tracking” sep- Left Behind Act of 2001 (2002). Recent data show that
arates students into homogenous classes based on abil- the use of ability grouping is at the highest it has been
ity. Between-class grouping is seen in middle and high since the 1960s, with 71% of elementary schools report-
schools, where students have multiple teachers, and may ing their use in 2009 (Loveless, 2013).
include students across different grade-levels. Separating
classes based on ability allows teachers more time to cre-
EFFECTIVENESS OF ABILITY GROUPING
ate curricula centered on the needs of each class: deliv-
ering remediation and additional practice for low-ability Though ability grouping has been utilized in the Amer-
level classes and providing enhancement and enrich- ican education system for over 100 years, the research
ment activities for students in higher ability classrooms. continues to paint a conflicting picture on whether it
Since its inception, ability grouping has been a point is effective for students. Some studies show grouping
of controversy and experienced an ebb and flow of pop- to be beneficial for all students (Kulik & Kulik, 1989;
ularity and support. The public attitude towards ability Moses, 1966; Provus, 1960; Puzio & Colby, 2010; Slavin
grouping has often shadowed the educational ideology & Karweit, 1984) while others show a negative effect of
of the time. ability grouping (Davis & Tracy, 1963). Perhaps most
controversially, some studies show a benefit for students
of high-ability and a detriment to students of low-ability
HISTORY
(Condron, 2008; Hoffer, 1992; Lleras & Rangel, 2008;
The earliest instances of tracking students were in the Lou et al., 1996).
late 19th and early 20th century. With the industrial The research results are further complicated be-
revolution in full swing, schools began funneling stu- cause many studies examined within-class grouping
dents into academic or vocational educational tracks only, which is often done at the elementary level and
(Rosenthal, 2008). Ability grouping rose in popularity typically isolated to reading and mathematics instruc-
in the first quarter of the 20th century alongside the tion. Additionally, many of studies are very old, so their
use of intelligence testing in public education. In the generalizability to today’s youth remains in question.
1930s and 1940s, the effectiveness and fairness of abil- The research on middle-school specific ability grouping
ity groups were called into question and they became found the practice to benefit advanced students while
less common. being detrimental to slower students, though research
In the mid-20th century, foreign and domestic fac- in this area is limited (Hoffer, 1992).
tors brought changes to public education. The civil
rights movement and Supreme Court decisions such ABILITY GROUPING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL
as Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) desegre-
gated schools, which led to some districts using ability There are limited studies that examine the effects of
grouping as a form of de facto segregation. Title VI of ability grouping on early adolescence. It is postulated
the Civil Rights Act (1964), and numerous court cases that being tracked will raise the self-esteem of high-abil-
throughout the 1950s and 1960s challenged the use of ity students while lowering the self-esteem of low-ability
ability grouping in this manner. In 1957, following the students. The research, though limited, shows the op-
launching of Sputnik, fear of the United States falling posite to be true, however the overall effects of ability
behind foreign countries’ technological achievements grouping on self-esteem are small (Kulik, 1993). In ad-
placed emphasis on science and math instruction, and dition, ability grouping in early adolescence is connect-
led to an increase in student grouping (Vergon, 2008). ed to a number of other factors including: peer group,
The prominence of grouping peaked in the 1960s parent and teacher expectations, and general school
during which roughly 80% of elementary schools re- anxiety—which make it more difficult to isolate and
ported using within-class grouping (Loveless, 2013). measure the effects of ability grouping.
4 ◾ ABILITY GROUPING
Ability grouping may also affect students’ social de- of minority backgrounds, have not yet mastered funda-
velopment. Unlike heterogeneous classes, students in mental math and reading skills. As a result, low-ability
tracked classes will be surrounded by students of sim- groups tend to have an overrepresentation of impover-
ilar academic ability. Noting the tendency for ability ished and minority students. The composition of ability
grouping to stratify along socioeconomic and racial groups is not revisited on a regular basis, so mobility
lines, students in a tracked class will also have a high- between groups is difficult, and becomes nearly impos-
er likelihood of being surrounded by students who are sible as students get older. Students who start off in a
similar to them demographically (Schofield, 2011). lower-track are typically stuck in that track for the re-
Middle school is a time in which friendships are most mainder of their school careers.
influential to students’ lives, and hold implications for The content of classes has also come under fire. De-
school adjustment and levels of emotional distress (Ber- spite being separated by ability, students in between-class
ndt, 1979; Wentzel, Barry, & Caldwell, 2004). The use groupings are commonly taught from the same curric-
of ability grouping may artificially narrow students’ so- ulum, meaning that teachers cannot truly differentiate
cial circles and social interactions, which affect other instruction based on student-need. When all students are
aspects of student well-being. required to use the same curriculum, but are split into
different ability groups, it leads to low-ability classes fo-
cusing on menial tasks and behavior management while
ATTITUDES TOWARDS ABILITY GROUPING high-ability classes move quickly through material and
work on enrichment activities (Education Trust, 2004).
Support for ability groups has often come from par-
ents of high achieving students who argue that being
in a heterogeneous learning environment negatively THE FUTURE OF ABILITY GROUPING
impacts their children’s education, and that the slow-
er pace leads to boredom and disinterest. There is also As the history of ability grouping shows, what is heav-
some research to suggest that high-ability students do ily practiced in one decade may become seldom used
benefit from being in separate “higher track” classes, es- in the next. The future of ability groupings is unclear,
pecially when the curriculum is better designed to meet but given the current emphasis on standardized testing
their needs (Kulik & Kulik, 1991). and data driven instruction, and with no viable systemic
Teachers in favor of ability grouping believe that alternative, it appears that they will continue to be an
“mixed ability” classes lead higher achieving students important part of the public school system. However,
to feel bored, and struggling students to feel lost (Bur- the recent adoption of the Common Core standards
ton-Szabo, 1996). Teachers have even gone as far as (National Governors Association Center for Best Prac-
stating that whole class instruction of heterogeneous tices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010),
classes is at times, “impossible” (Loveless, 2013, p. 20). and the movement towards standardizing curriculum
Admittedly, between-class grouping of students may nationwide may have an effect on the prominence of
make planning easier for teachers, as they can better ability grouping.
differentiate their lesson plans to meet the needs of Theoretically, if all students are held to the same
students in each class, rather than teaching across the standard and expected to meet the same expectations
ability spectrum in all classes. However, despite support with appropriate supports, the need for ability groups
from both teachers and parents, the practice of ability would diminish. In the mean time, it is important that
grouping is often criticized. teachers continue to differentiate instruction to meet
The main criticism of ability grouping is that it pro- student needs whether classes are grouped heteroge-
motes and maintains inequality between groups of stu- neously or homogeneously. Regardless of what schools
dents that only grow over time. Opponents cite the role decide, the use of ability groups holds implications for a
of teacher expectations on student achievement, argu- child’s school experience and should not be used hap-
ing that grouping students based on perceived ability hazardly. If they are to be used, they should be re-visited
changes student and teacher expectations, creating a regularly, and allow for flexibility between groups as to
self-fulfilling prophecy of low-achievement. Addition- not perpetuate a cycle of inequity that exists in our na-
al research has also shown that students in low-ability tion’s schools.
groups get taught by less qualified teachers than those
in high-ability groups (Education Trust, 2004).
REFERENCES
Other criticisms target the make-up of ability
groupings, calling them inequitable. Students may be Berndt, T. J. (1979). Developmental changes in conformity
grouped as early as the beginning elementary school to peers and parents. Developmental Psychology, 15(6),
years, a time at which many students, especially those 608–616.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT ◾ 5
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). Slavin, R. E., & Karweit, N. (1984, April). Within-class ability
Burton-Szabo, S. (1996). Special classes for gifted students? Ab- grouping and student achievement. Paper presented at the
solutely. Gifted Child Today Magazine, 19(1), 12–15, 50. annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Condron, D. (2008). An early start: Skill grouping and un- Association, New Orleans, LA.
equal reading gains in elementary years. The Sociological Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 42 U.S.C. § 794(a).
Quarterly, 49(2), 363–394. Vergon, C. (2008). Ability grouping. In C. Russo (Ed.), Ency-
Davis, O. L., & Tracy, N. H. (1963). Arithmetic achievement clopedia of education law (pp. 2–5). Thousand Oaks. CA:
and instructional grouping. Arithmetic Teacher, 10(1), SAGE.
12–17. Wentzel, K. R., Barry, C., & Caldwell, K. A. (2004). Friendships
Education Trust, The. (2004). The real value of teachers. Re- in middle school: Influences on motivation and school
trieved from http://www.cgp.upenn.edu/pdf/Ed%20 adjustment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2),
Trust.pdf 195–203.
Hoffer, T. B. (1992). Middle school ability grouping and stu-
dent achievement in science and mathematics. Educa-
tional Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 14(3), 205–227.
Loveless, T. (2013). How well are American students learning?
(2013). Brown Center Report on American Education, 3(2), ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
12–21.
Kulik, J. A. (1992). An analysis of the research on ability grouping: Mark L’Esperance
Historical and contemporary perspectives (RBDM 9204). East Carolina University
Storrs: University of Connecticut, The National Re-
search Center on the Gifted and Talented. (ERIC Docu-
Academic achievement may be the most sensitive of
ment Reproduction Service No. ED 367 095). Retrieved
from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED367095.pdf
all middle level topics. From the initial days of William
Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C. L. (1989). The effects of ability group- Alexander’s (1963) paper articulating the vision and
ing on student achievement. Equity and Excellence, 23(1– components of the “middle school of the future” that
2), 22–30. centered on meeting the developmental needs of early
Kulik, J. A., & Kulik C. L. (1991). Ability grouping and gifted adolescence, the movement has evolved into the four
students. In N. Colangelo & G. A. Davis (Eds.), Hand- essential attributes and 16 characteristics of a successful
book of gifted education (pp. 178–196). Boston, MA: Allyn middle level education outlined in This We Believe: Keys
& Bacon. to Educating Young Adolescents (National Middle School
Lleras, C., & Rangel C. (2008). Ability grouping practice in
Association, 2010). In his 1990 landmark book, A Middle
elementary school and African American/Hispanic
achievement. American Journal of Education, 115(2),
School Curriculum: From Rhetoric to Reality, Beane posited
279–204. the following question: “What ought to be the middle
Lou, Y., Abrami, P. C., Spence, J. C., Poulsen, C., Chambers, school curriculum?” (p. 1). Twenty-five years later as
B., & d’Apollonia, S. (1996). Within-class grouping: public schools navigate the Common Core curriculum
A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), era, the issue of P–12 accountability creates a new ques-
423–458. tion to consider. The question now becomes to what ex-
Moses, P. J. (1966). A study on the effects of inter-class group- tent, if any, are middle level students’ academic achieve-
ing on achievement in reading. Dissertation Abstracts 26, ment impacted by the curriculum and other middle
4342 (University Microfilms No. 66-741).
level components? The answer to this question will have
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices &
Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common
a major bearing on the future of the movement.
Core State Standards. Washington, DC: Authors.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-
110, § 115, Stat. 1425 (2002).
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Provus, M. M. (1960). Ability grouping in mathematics. Ele-
In this “manifesto,” Lounsbury (2009) summarized mid-
mentary School Journal, 60(7), 391–398.
Puzio, K., & Colby, G. (2010). The effects of within class dle level research studies related to academic achieve-
grouping on reading achievement: A meta-analytic syn- ment. He stated:
thesis. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED
514 135). Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/full- Major research studies, including some involving net-
text/ED514135.pdf works of schools that have practiced the middle school
Rosenthal, J. (2008). Ability grouping. In V. Parillo (Ed.), En- tenets sufficiently, have made it possible to claim with
cyclopedia of social problems (pp. 1–3). Thousand Oaks, confidence: When the middle school concept is imple-
CA: Sage. mented substantially over time, student achievement,
Schofield, J. (2011). Ability grouping. In S. Goldstein & J. A. including measures by standardized tests, rises, and
Naglieri (Eds.), Encyclopedia of child behavior and develop- substantial improvement in fulfilling the other broader,
ment (pp. 3–5). New York, NY: Springer. more enduring goals of an education results. (p. 34)
6 ◾ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
The reality of the middle level movement is that specific These studies has become arguably the most cited that
studies that align with agreed upon components or char- supports the middle level movement in relation to aca-
acteristics of middle level education that impact academ- demic achievement. Additionally, Mertens and Anfara’s
ic achievement haven’t been conducted at a national lev- (2006) research summary, Student Achievement and the
el. Analyzing the 1964–1984 period related to research Middle School Concept (2006) and Trimble’s research
on middle level education, Johnston (1984) outlined summary, What Works to Improve Student Achievement?
nine conclusions in which effective schools share certain (2003), reports the research in relation to schools and
characteristics that may be replicated in other school set- achievement. Trimble (2003) stated:
tings, but with uncertain success. Johnston stated,
A prodigious amount of literature exists on middle level
Effective schools emerge from a complex set of cultural schools and practices, however, far less research exits
and social factors that focus attention on academic per- that documents improved student achievement and
formance, support academic growth in a manner con- school variables. No national study has been conducted
sistent with the developmental stage of the youngster, of the relationships between student achievement data
and build an intellectual community that rewards and and middle school factors. However, regional studies of
reinforces academic pursuits in its public rituals and whole-school reform initiatives that examined multiple
private interactions. (p. 152) school sites and achievement first appeared in 1997
(Backes, Ralston, & Ingwalson, 1999; DePascale, 1997;
Over the period of the next several years following Felner et al., 1997; Felner, Lipsitz, & Mertens, 1998, Mac
Johnston’s research, middle level researchers contin- Iver, et al., 2001; Mac Iver, Mac Iver, Balfanz, Blank, &
ued to examine components of the middle level mo- Ruby, 2000; Mertens, Flowers, & Mulhall, 1998). Oth-
ment that were published in Transforming Middle Level er types of studies included case studies of high-per-
Education: Perspectives and Possibilities (Irvin, 1992). The forming middle schools (Miles & Darling-Hammond,
20-chapter volume provided a synthesis of conceptual 1998; Trimble, 2002), and school-wide factors, such as
climate, as they related to math achievement and atten-
and research based discussions by leaders of the middle
dance (Phillips, 1997). (¶ 12)
level movement. The chapters ranged from the middle
level developing a sense of identity, responsiveness and
The historical research theme of the middle level has
relevance to support systems for continued improve-
centered on case studies of schools, districts, and/or
ment. David Strahan’s (1992) chapter, Turning Points
and Beyond: Coming of Age in Middle Level Research was networks that plan, implement and intentionally focus
developed to provide a research framework for the mid- on key components of middle level education. These
dle level movement to consider. Strahan proposed the case studies provide evidence that there is a variance of
following framework to improve middle level research academic achievement depending on the depth of im-
that included: plementation of a particular component (L’Esperance
et al., 2003; L’Esperance, Farrington, & Fryer, 2005;
1. We need to accelerate our efforts to develop an L’Esperance, Lenker, Bullock, Jackson, & Mason, 2013).
agenda for research to guide our agenda for By working with several schools and school districts in
action. North Carolina, L’Esperance and his colleagues have
2. We need to be more innovative in investigating created a framework that supports middle level schools
the “intangibles” of middle schooling. with a best practice implementation process that empha-
3. We need to continue to articulate more explicit sizes instructional leadership and collaboration at every
standards for conducting and reporting research. level. The descriptor used to define these cases of effec-
tive schools or districts became known as “Schools of Sig-
The quote above by Lounsbury (2009) makes reference nificance.” L’Esperance and colleagues, (2003) stated:
to the Felner et al. (1997) research that used the Turn-
ing Points: Preparing American Youth for the 21st Century They have been transformed and empowered by the
(Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989) collective vision of entire school communities. Their
cultures are rich with indicators of broad and deep re-
framework to study a network of schools in Illinois. Ad-
newal with data to support the focus on both academics
ditional studies were able to replicate many of these
and community. Schools of Significance have destina-
findings with larger samples of middle level schools tions in mind that are constantly articulated by school
in other states and regions (Flowers, Mertens, & Mul- leaders who have developed a model that serves as a
hall, 1999, 2000a, 2000b). The research studies found “road map” to bring the vision into more concrete and
that students attending schools that have made the understandable terms. Schools of Significance are in a
highest levels of structural changes consistent with the constant mode of reflection, and numerous data sourc-
Turning Points framework achieve at higher rates than es provide a check on the pulse of these schools. Schools
other schools with less structurally embedded changes. of Significance are data directed not data driven. These
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT ◾ 7
middle schools are driven by a clear purpose—to be- management organizations that oversee the schools.
come student-centered communities that provide aca- Several key findings and implications included:
demic achievement for all students! In Schools of Sig-
nificance, students are engaged in relevant learning • An intense school-wide focus on improving aca-
opportunities every day. Teachers collaborate to provide demic outcomes most distinguishes higher- from
integrated instruction with a variety of age-appropriate
lower-performing middle grades schools.
activities. They share in the school’s decision-making
process and involve parents in the school’s achievement
• Higher-performing schools use assessment and
efforts. Students in Schools of Significance take pride other student data extensively to improve stu-
in the concepts of respect, safety, and learning. (p. 5) dent learning and teacher practice.
• Higher-performing middle grades schools
emphasize early identification and proactive
CURRENT PUSH BACK ON THE MIDDLE LEVEL intervention for student academic needs.
• Every role in a professional community of edu-
Over the past 10 years, two federal initiatives, No Child cators is important to making gains in middle
Left Behind Act of 2001 (2002) and Race to The Top grades student outcomes.
(U.S. Department of Education, 2009) have accelerat- • Leadership of the superintendent and support
ed the culture of accountability on public school dis- from the district were strongly associated with
tricts. A number of studies focusing on the economic higher student outcomes.
viability of middle school (Goodman, 2012), or how to • The changing role of the principal in driving
determine the appropriate configuration to place fifth student outcome gains, orchestrating school
through eighth graders (Rockoff & Lockwood, 2010; improvement efforts, and serving as the linchpin
Schwerdt & West 2011), drew conclusions that question between district and teaching staff members was
middle schools ability to raise academic achievement documented in multiple ways in this study.
and act as an appropriate setting in the transition of • Teachers with strong competencies, substan-
students entering sixth grade or exiting eighth grade. tive evaluation of their practice, and adequate
The narrow focus of each of the above studies appears availability of support, time, and resources work
to directly align with what Andrews, Caskey, and Anfara collectively to improve student outcomes school-
(2007) warns researchers to examine the characteristics wide and individually to improve instruction.
of exemplary schools in that: • The school’s environment and organization of
time and instruction were not strongly associated
Two dangers are associated with any list purporting to with improved student outcomes, although some
include the characteristics of exemplary schools for practices were associated with higher-performing
young adolescents. One danger is a perception that schools. (Williams, Kirst, & Haertel, 2010).
the list is exhaustive—that it includes everything that
needs to be considered. In reality, a list cannot capture
Implications for districts and schools included:
the subtleties and complexities of schooling. A second
danger is that each component will be seen as somehow
self-contained, something that can be addressed in iso- • Superintendents and boards overseeing grades
lation. (p. 4) 6–8 students should discuss the priority they give
to academic improvements in the middle grades.
• The results of this study should encourage prin-
THE CONSIDERATION cipals to engage their staff members and their
teachers in conversations about their mission for
The question the middle level movement must ask itself the middle grades in their schools. Educators
is how can we as a movement balance the characteris- in the middle grades have long believed that re-
tics of This We Believe (NMSA, 2010) while addressing sponsiveness to young adolescent developmental
the critics of the middle level movement that argue that issues and strong adult-student relationships are
middle schools fail to raise academic achievement. A a central part of the middle grades imperative.
promising study that looks at academic achievement They are, but so is academic learning.
also provides some clear direction for future middle • Prioritize strategies for helping students make
level researchers (Williams, Kirst, & Haertel, 2010). gains on standards-based exams in the context of
Throughout the 2008–09 school year researchers con- the middle grades’ unique position in the K–12
ducted a large-scale study of middle grades schools in hierarchy to prepare all students to succeed in
California. The team surveyed 303 principals, 3,752 high school.
English language arts and math teachers in grades 6–8, • When hiring middle grades principals, districts
and 157 superintendents of the districts and charter should consider looking for the kind of skills
8 ◾ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
and competencies found in principals of the Felner, R., Jackson, A., Kasak, D., Mulhall, P., Brand. S., &
higher-performing schools in our study. Flowers, N. (1997). The impact of school reform for the
• When hiring middle grades teachers, districts and middle years: A longitudinal study of a network engaged
principals should consider looking for the kinds in Turning Points-based comprehensive school transfor-
of interests, skills, and competencies that princi- mation. Phi Delta Kappan, 78, 528–532, 541–550.
Felner, R. F, Lipsitz, J., & Mertens, S. B. (1998). The Middle
pals in higher-performing schools report about
Start Initiative, Phase I: A longitudinal analysis of Michigan
their teachers (Williams, Kirst, & Haertel, 2010).
middle-level schools. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois.
Flowers, N., Mertens, S. B., & Mulhall, P. (1999). The impact
of teaming: Five research-based outcomes of teaming.
THE FUTURE
Middle School Journal, 31(2), 57–60.
Revisiting Strahan’s (1985) framework for future mid- Flowers, N., Mertens, S. B., & Mulhall, P. F. (2000a). How
dle level research, as outlined above, may be the key teaming influences classroom practices. Middle School
Journal, 32(2), 52–59.
to supporting the middle level movement during the
Flowers, N., Mertens, S. B., & Mulhall, P. F. (2000b).What
new age of accountability. There needs to be a specific
makes interdisciplinary teams effective? Middle School
AMLE research agenda that addresses the area of aca- Journal, 31(4), 53–56.
demic achievement. The middle level movement needs Goodman, J. (2012). Gold standards?: State standards reform and
to develop a framework that establishes “a fidelity of student achievement. Program on Education Policy and
implementation” of the essential attributes and charac- Governance Working Papers Series 12-05. Cambridge,
teristics outlined in This We Believe (NMSA, 2010). The MA: Program on Education Policy and Governance.
framework would include the minimum context, con- Irvin, J. (1992). Transforming middle level education: Perspectives
tent, and competency of each attribute and character- and possibilities. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
istic that middle level schools and researchers can use Johnston, J. H. (1984). A synthesis of research findings on
to ensure appropriate implementation is taking place. middle level education. In J. Lounsbury (Ed.), Perspec-
Researchers can then begin to categorize networks, dis- tives: Middle school education 1964–1984 (pp. 134–156).
tricts, and/or schools that provide evidence of embed- Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association.
ding and begin to look at the “intangibles” or variance L’Esperance, M., Strahan, D., Farrington, V., & Anderson, P.
that exist amongst schools. Finally, in order to make (2003). Raising achievement: Project genesis, a significant
school model. Columbus, OH: National Middle School
the case that true middle level schools raise academic
Association.
achievement; we must as Strahan stated “continue to
L’Esperance, M., & Farrington, V. T. (2007). The search for
articulate more explicit standards for conducting and significance: Leadership lessons from the field. North
reporting research” (1985, p. 395). Carolina Middle School Journal, 22(1), 1–5. Retrieved
from http://www.ncmle.org/journal/archives.html
L’Esperance, M., Farrington, V. T., & Fryer, A. (2005). Creat-
REFERENCES ing significant middle schools in the age of accountabil-
Alexander, W. M. (1963). The junior high school: A changing ity. Middle Ground, 10(9), 35–39.
view. Paper presented at Tenth Annual Conference for L’Esperance, M., Lenker, E., Bullock, A., Jackson, B., & Ma-
School Administrators: A National Conference on the son, C. (2013). Creating a middle level environment
Junior High School, Nashville, TN. that significantly improves student achievement. Middle
Andrews, P. G., Caskey, M. M., & Anfara, V. A., Jr. (2007). School Journal, 44(5), 32–39.
Research summary: Characteristics of exemplary schools for Lounsbury, J. H. (2009). Deferred but not deterred: A middle
young adolescents. Retrieved from http://www.amle. school manifesto. Middle School Journal, 40(5), 31–36.
org/Portals/0/pdf/research_summaries/Exemplary_ Mac Iver, D., Mac Iver, M., Balfanz, R., Blank, S. B., & Ruby, A.
Schools.pdf (2000). Talent development middle schools: Blueprint
Backes, J., Ralston, A., & Ingwalson, G. (1999). Middle level and results for a comprehensive whole-school model.
reform: The impact on student achievement. Research in In W. M. Sanders (Ed.), Schooling students placed at risk:
Middle Level Education Quarterly, 22(3), 43–57. Research, policy, and practice in the education of poor and
Beane, J. A. (1993). A middle school curriculum: From rhetoric minority students (pp. 261–288). Mahwey, NJ: Erlbaum.
to reality (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: National Middle Mac Iver, D., Young, E., Balfanz, R., Shaw, A., Garriott, M., &
School Association. Cohen, A. (2001). High-quality learning opportunities
Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (1989). Turn- in high poverty middle schools: Moving from rhetoric
ing points: Preparing American youth for the 21st century. to reality. In T. Dickinson (Ed.), Reinventing the middle
New York, NY: Carnegie Corporation of New York. school (155–175). New York, NY: Routledge Falmer.
DePascale, C. A. (1997). Education reform restructuring network: Mertens, S. B., & Anfara, V. A., Jr. (2006). Research summa-
Impact documentation report. Data Analysis & Testing As- ry: Student achievement and the middle school concept. Re-
sociates, Inc. Boston, MA: Massachusetts Department of trieved from http://www.amle.org/Portals/0/pdf/re-
Education. search_summaries/Student_Achievement.pdf
ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE ◾ 9
Mertens, S. B., & Flowers, N., (2003, February). The impact of academic and developmental outcomes for all young
middle grades certification on student performance: The proof adolescents, the National Forum to Accelerate Mid-
is in the practices. Paper presented at the Symposium on dle-Grades Reform articulates best middle grades prac-
Middle Level Teacher Preparation, National Middle tices through this evaluation criteria. According to the
School Association, Charlotte, NC.
National Forum, “high performing schools with middle
Mertens, S. B., Flowers, N., & Mulhall, P. (1998). The Middle
Start Initiative, Phase I: A Longitudinal Analysis of Michi- grades are academically excellent. They challenge all
gan Middle-Level Schools. Champaign: Center for Preven- students to use their minds well” (National Forum to
tion Research and Development, University of Illinois. Accelerate Middle-Grades Reform, n.d.a). As its vision
Miles, K. H., & Darling-Hammond, L. (1998). Rethinking the emerged, the National Forum sought to impact class-
allocation of teaching resources: Some lessons from rooms with schools to model exceptional middle grades
high-performing schools. Educational Evaluation and instruction and structures. In 1999, a new initiative,
Policy Analysis, 20(1), 9–29. Schools to Watch, emerged leading to what is now a na-
National Middle School Association (2010). This we believe: Keys tionallyendorsed recognition system for middle schools
to educating young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author.
(National Forum, n.d.b).
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107–
110, § 115, Stat. 1425 (2002). To transport the vision into fruition, members of the
Phillips, M. (1997). What makes schools effective? A compar- National Forum further developed these four essential
ison of the relationships of communitarian climate and concepts: academic excellence, developmental respon-
academic climate to mathematics achievement and at- siveness, social equity, and effective organizational struc-
tendance during middle school. American Educational tures and processes. Through its Schools to Watch pro-
Research Journal, 34(4), 633–662. gram, the National Forum has determined the criteria
Rockoff, J. E., & Lockwood, B. B. (2010). Stuck in the middle: for identifying high-performing middle-grades schools,
Impacts of grade configuration in public schools. Jour- forged tools so that schools could utilize the criteria,
nal of Public Economics 94(11–12), 1051–1061.
selected and honored four high-performing schools
Schwerdt, G., & West, M. (2011). The impact of alternative grade
configuratons on student out-comes through middle and high
across the country, made on-line tours to showcase those
school. Working Paper 11-02. Cambridge, MA: Program schools’ successful practices, and then expanded the se-
on Policy and Governance. lection program to individual states (National Forum,
Strahan, D. (Ed.). (1985). Middle school research: Selected studies n.d.b). Therefore, numerous schools and educators
1985. Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association. have been able to seek recognition, to self-assess school
Strahan, D. (1992). Turning points and beyond: Coming of practices, and to pursue effective educational structures
age in middle level research. In J. Irvin (Ed.), Trans- to support young adolescents through the use of the cri-
forming middle level education: Perspectives and Possibilities teria. Ultimately, academically excellent schools aspire
(pp. 381–399). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
to lead all young adolescents to educational success.
Trimble, S. (2002). Common elements of high performing,
high poverty middle schools. Middle School Journal,
33(4), 7–16.
ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE
Trimble, S. (2003). Research summary: What works to improve
student achievement? Retrieved from http://www.ncmle.
AND SCHOOL CURRICULUM
org/research%20summaries/ressum20.html
A significant component of academic excellence is
Williams, T., Kirst, M., & Haertel, E. (2010). Gaining ground in
the middle grades: Why some schools do better: A large-scale the notion that all students are expected to meet high
study of middle grades practices and student outcomes. Moun- academic standards. Middle level education in the
tain View, CA: EdSource. 21st century warrants a careful understanding of local,
U.S. Department of Education. (2009). Race to the Top exec- state, and federal standards, yet high achievement for
utive summary. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/ all students supersedes mere standardized test scores.
programs/racetothetop/executive-summary.pdf According to This We Believe, Successful Schools for Young
Adolescents (2003), the National Middle School Associa-
tion (NMSA) advocates that if all members of a school
are expected to meet high standards—adults and young
ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE people alike—high achievement results. Schools that
meet the needs of young adolescents conscientiously
Gena M. Bramlett dedicate themselves to analyzing such standards and,
Contributor from 1st edition consequently, augmenting a meaningful curriculum.
For example, by providing students with exemplars of
The term “academic excellence” refers to one of the high quality work that meet the academic standard,
four essential components of high-performing middle teachers can guide students to achieving academic ex-
grades schools. In order to achieve its goal of improved cellence and provide them with clear expectations. In
10 ◾ ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE
such a way, educators translate expectations into tangi- occurs between the ages of 10 and 15 (NMSA, 2003).
ble products (NMSA, 2003). Teachers can also utilize Therefore, students are capable of being active partic-
scoring guides like rubrics and checklists for projects ipants in the learning process. An academically excel-
and activities. Likewise, high-performing schools en- lent classroom should encourage students’ abilities to
courage students to consistently revise their work based hypothesize, organize information, and analyze cause-
on teacher and peer feedback until they meet or exceed and-effect relationships. Teachers dedicated to academ-
the established performance standards. In such ways, ic excellence invite students to critically process their
educators inspire their students to perform well and own learning, so that they are able to explain learning
lead them to greater academic achievement. goals for all classroom projects and activities. Such au-
Academic excellence is highly reliant on a school’s thentic learning occurs when students are genuinely
curriculum, instruction, and assessment simultaneous- excited about learning and want to talk about it. Many
ly aligning with high standards. According to Turning times students may participate in activities that person-
Points 2000: Education Adolescents in the 21st Century, “cur- ally interest them, and their teachers allow them to de-
riculum defines the specifics of what students should sign their own projects. Using a variety of instructional
learn: the concepts and generalizations, the related top- approaches, teachers can incorporate the use of tech-
ics and facts, and the skills and habits of mind that will nology, the arts, the media, and group work. In fact,
enable learning” (Jackson & Davis, 2000, p. 40). As edu- many schools have embellished the notions of hands-
cators work to develop an academically excellent curric- on learning activities and embraced what is known as
ulum, assessments should determine what students real- “hands-joined” activities that promote the collaboration
ly know. With a developmentally appropriate rigor and of teachers and students (NMSA, 2003). Ownership and
an avoidance of repetition, a curriculum should propel choice motivate young adolescents, and they master
young adolescents through their middle school years. standards when teachers utilize a variety of methods to
Ideally, the level of student work should increase from capitalize on those classroom attributes.
the school year’s beginning to end and from one grade Academic excellence is also apparent in exemplary
to the next. Therefore, schools seeking academic excel- classrooms which utilize a variety of quality methods to
lence carefully align their curriculum, instruction, and assess student performance. According to This We Be-
assessment tools to ensure that their students’ learning lieve: Successful Schools for Young Adolescents, assessment
is intentionally and meaningfully developed. is “the process of estimating a students’ progress to-
An academically excellent curriculum emphasizes ward an objective and using that information to help
the deep understanding of important concepts, devel- students continue their learning” (NMSA, 2003, p. 27).
opment of essential skills, and the ability to apply new Although traditional quizzes or tests may be used fre-
knowledge to real-world problems. Concepts are those quently, they are not the sole means for assessing stu-
“big picture ideas” that are the foundation for a unit of dents’ critical thinking, independence, responsibility,
study and draw connections across the disciplines (Jack- or other life-long skills (Anfara et al., 2003). Teachers
son & Davis, 2000). Furthermore, by linking curriculum can assess student learning in the classroom on a daily
across the disciplines, such important concepts are re- basis with informal checks for understanding like oral
inforced; a relevant curriculum depends on an integra- questions, classroom discussions, and general observa-
tive approach. Likewise, students learn problem-solving tions. Additionally, projects and performance tasks pro-
skills in order to critically examine skills; they learn how vide students with meaningful opportunities to demon-
to perform research and analyze. For instance, students strate learning and offer their teachers greater insight
may use writing skills in math and science class to explain into both their own practice as well as students’ intel-
their approaches to problem solving. In high performing lectual growth. Portfolios, or accumulated collections
of student products and reflections, provide evidence
schools, both strategies and content evolve while class-
of a student’s academic accomplishments. In high-per-
rooms purposefully adapt to the ever-changing needs of
forming schools, students can explain their products
students. A relevant curriculum is a vehicle that moves
and compare them to performance standards. They can
students beyond mere memorization and isolated facts
use scoring to critique their own work as well as that of
into an analysis of overarching ideas (Anfara et al., 2003).
their classmates (Jackson & Davis, 2000). Many times,
students are invigorated by the opportunity to present
ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE IN THE CLASSROOM their learning to parents and community members, too.
As middle grades educators seek to balance between the
By employing both challenging and engaging instruc- demands of standardized tests and young adolescent
tional strategies, important concepts and skills can be needs, varied assessment methods must be designed to
taught more effectively. Although each young adoles- complement both curriculum and instruction in order
cent is developmentally unique, vast cognitive growth to promote academic achievement.
ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE ◾ 11
ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE SUPPORTED about their curriculum and refine their instructional
BY SCHOOL STRUCTURES practices. Academically excellent schools value observ-
ing one another’s classrooms and invest time reviewing
A school seeking academic excellence realizes the im- various forms of pertinent student data like student
portance of best utilizing its instructional minutes and al- work samples or state test scores. In order to yield high-
lows students time to meet those rigorous learning stan- er school performance, schools review their progress
dards. A flexible time arrangement, a characteristic of by closely examining these data forms and then create
middle grades schools, allows teams of teachers to sched- targeted staff learning programs accordingly. Mean-
ule instructional time in flexible time periods to better while, the building administrator serves as an informed
meet the academic as well as social needs of students. instructional leader and a resource for his/her staff
Team teachers can autonomously vary both the frequen- ’s professional growth. In a high-performing school,
cy and order of classes as well as lengthen or shorten school improvement and staff development are unend-
class periods. Extending the regular schedule can offer ing endeavors.
students more time for projects, hands-on activities, and
inquiry-based learning. Because time is such a precious
commodity in American middle schools, classroom min- CONCLUSION
utes should be devoted to teaching and learning instead
of classroom management issues or discipline problems. Academic excellence is a multifaceted criterion of the
As a result, students can feel empowered to learn, not National Forum’s vision statement and an essential com-
just do as their teachers tell them to do. ponent of its Schools to Watch program. For schools
High-performing schools recognize that young ado- on a trajectory toward exemplary performance, high
academic standards lead curriculum, instruction, and
lescents may need significant academic support systems
assessment efforts. Students should learn essential skills
in order to help students reach high academic stan-
and concepts as their teachers utilize a variety of instruc-
dards. With a keen awareness that middle grades learn-
tional and assessment methods to ensure quality learn-
ers bring with them numerous learning styles and—in
ing in the classroom. Furthermore, students should have
many cases—a variety of learning challenges, teachers
adequate time and multiple chances to be successful,
should understand their modalities and offer students
and they can receive academic assistance if they need it.
different ways to learn. In order to advance academic
High-performing schools should also seek to advance the
success for all learners, teachers should know students
knowledge and skills of staff members through focused
have or have not learned; they work to eliminate stu-
and meaningful professional development. In tandem
dents falling behind in class. In the event of academ-
with the other Schools to Watch criteria—developmental
ic difficulty, students can get the extra help they need
responsiveness, social equity, and effective organizational
in order to be successful. Many schools form support
structures and processes—schools have the opportunity
teams comprised of school personnel like the teachers,
to measure their progress and guide school improvement
administrators, school nurse, social worker, guidance
efforts. But ideally, these criteria exist to make middle
counselor, and sometime community health representa-
grades learning relevant and engaging for all students.
tives. The team regularly discusses concerns and offers
Educational authorities like the National Middle School
recommendations to bolster student achievement and
Association and the National Forum to Accelerate Mid-
solutions that involve the student, parents, and his/her
dle-Grades Reform contend that academic excellence
teachers (Jackson & Davis, 2000). If students have dif-
should be the “norm, not the exception” for the young
ficulties learning, academically excellent schools dedi-
adolescents in America’s schools.
cate themselves to offering students extra time for work
and the opportunity to revise the work. Furthermore,
many schools use advisory time to promote academic REFERENCES
skills and support academic difficulties. Academically
excellent schools offer students multiple opportunities Anfara, V. A., Jr., Andrews, P. G., Hough, D. L., Mertens, S.
to succeed and promote various structures like before B., Mizelle, N. B., & White, G. P. (2003). Research and
or after school tutoring programs when students need resources in support of This We Believe. Westerville, OH:
National Middle School Association.
extra help.
Jackson, A. W. & Davis, G. A. (2000). Turning points 2000: Edu-
In order to embed academic excellence, profession-
cating adolescents in the 21st century. New York, NY: Teach-
al development is a vital link to school-wide success. ers College Press.
High-performing schools esteem teacher collaboration National Forum to Accelerate Middle-Grades Reform. (n.d.a).
so that they may reflect on instruction, expand on their Schools to Watch selection criteria: Academic excellence. Re-
knowledge, and form supporting school structures. trieved from http://www.mgforum.org/Improving
By working with colleagues, educators make decisions schools/STW/STWcriteria.asp#academic
12 ◾ ACCELERATED SCHOOLS
National Forum to Accelerate Middle-Grades Reform. entire school staff participates in the change process
(n.d.b). Schools to Watch background and information. with each individual contributing to a specific cadre ad-
Retrieved from http://www.mgforum.org/Improving dressing issues impacting student learning. The instruc-
schools/STW/STWbackground.htm tional focus of Accelerated Schools PLUS is based on
National Forum to Accelerate Middle-Grades Reform. (n.d.c).
pedagogy most often implemented in gifted and talent-
Schools to Watch state program. Retrieved from http://
ed programs, thus providing opportunities for all young
www.schoolstowatch.org/state/state. htm
National Middle School Association. (2003). This we believe: adolescents to experience powerful learning.
Successful schools for young adolescents. Westerville, OH. This process-oriented reform model adapts to each
Author. school’s culture and goals requiring that they examine
data to determine a baseline on demographics, percep-
tions, student achievement, and existing programs/
processes. Based on this foundation, and consistent
ACCELERATED SCHOOLS with Accelerated Schools’ philosophy and commitment
to powerful learning, they form individual, classroom,
Sara Davis Powell and school visions. The visions and baseline data are
compared and priorities set to address gaps between the
vision and the data collected. Cadres conduct addition-
Christine Finnan al inquiry into why challenge areas exist and propose
Contributor from 1st edition solutions based on data. All of this is supported through
a collaborative decision-making process that involves all
Accelerated Schools PLUS originated in 1986 as the members of the school community.
Accelerated Schools Project when Dr. Henry Levin of Accelerated Schools has always supported and en-
Stanford University acted on his belief that all students, couraged research and evaluation. One of the earliest
especially those designated as at-risk, can thrive aca- studies, conducted in 1990–1991, was an ethnographic
demically when challenged and provided with engaging study of one of the first middle schools to embrace AS-
curriculum in an atmosphere of high expectations. As PLUS. The study found that school reform is best seen
founder of the Accelerated Schools Project, Dr. Levin as a process of school culture change and that reform
based his belief on the questions and challenges pre- is more likely to be successful when compatibility exists
sented in the 1983 report, A Nation at Risk. What start- between the existing school culture and the culture of
ed with two schools in Northern California has grown the reform (Finnan & Hopfenberg, 1997). Additional
into a vibrant, systemic vehicle for school reform which information is available at http:// web.uconn.edu/asp
has, as of 2005, served over 1,500 elementary, middle,
and high schools in almost every state in America (The
National Center for Accelerated Schools, 2005). In REFERENCES
2000 the national headquarters for ASPLUS moved to Finnan, C., & Hopfenberg, W. (1997). Accomplishing school:
the University of Connecticut to work more closely with The journey of an accelerated middle school. Journal for
the National Research Center on Gifted and Talented. a Just and Caring Education, 3(4), 480–493.
The Accelerated Schools Project became known as Ac- The National Center for Accelerated Schools. (2005). ASPLUS:
celerated Schools PLUS (ASPLUS) in 2003, an acronym Powerful learning unlimited success. Retrieved from
for Accelerated Schools: Powerful Learning Unlimited http://web.uconn.edu/asp
Success. In 2005, 90 schools were actively involved in National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A
Accelerated Schools PLUS, including 11 middle schools nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform. Wash-
(S. Choi, personal communication, May 23, 2005). ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
The vision of ASPLUS is to be “recognized as an ex-
emplary process for accelerating learning of all students
through data driven inquiry, reflective teaching, and
powerful learning” (The National Center for Acceler- ACCOUNTABILITY
ated Schools, 2005). According to two of the original
leaders, Finnan and Hopfenberg (1997), the Acceler- Brandi Wade Worsham
ated Schools model is “a comprehensive approach to The University of Georgia
school change that offers both a philosophy about ac-
ademic acceleration and a concrete process for achiev- Agreeing on the meaning and expectations of account-
ing it” (p. 482). Each school’s unique goals are deter- ability within the realm of education has proven difficult
mined by an analysis of its existing culture and are set for scholars, policymakers, and educators. In the sim-
by internal, rather than external, decision makers. The plest of notions, accountability is defined as “the quality
ACCOUNTABILITY ◾ 13
or state of being accountable; especially: an obligation HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

or willingness to accept responsibility or to account for OF ACCOUNTABILITY
one’s actions” (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary,
2015). Accountability is concerned with defining who Historically, the first notions of accountability began to
should be accountable, for what one is accountable, emerge in the late 1960s with the Soviet Union’s launch
of Sputnik. To many Americans, the launch of the first
and to whom the account should be owed (Leithwood
man-made satellite into space called into question the
& Earl, 2000; Levitt, Janta, & Wegrich, 2008). Account-
nation’s lack of intellect, security, and defense (Marsh &
ability asks the following questions:
Willis, 2007). Consequently, those accusations targeted
schools as the primary reason for failure and in turn ini-
1. What level of accountability is called for? tiated the accountability of teachers and schools. Many
2. Who is expected to provide the account? policymakers, educators, and the general public began
3. To whom is the account owed? to question the quality and effectiveness of schools,
4. What is to be accounted for? which subsequently, led to questions about the profes-
5. What are the consequences for providing an sionalism of teachers and their ability to successfully
account? (Leithwood, 2005, p. 11) prepare students for the workplace.
In the late 1970s, the expectations of schools and
Similarly, Gariepy, Spencer, and Couture (2009) and teachers shifted to meet the demands of an industrial-
Harvey (2014) argued that accountability should entail ized nation interested in maintaining its position as a
responsibility to another person or the willingness to global leader. This era ushered in new accountability
share one’s progress as he or she works to address the measures that focused on assessing the basics—reading,
concerns, expectations, and perspectives of others. In writing, and math—as the general public became more
this instance, accountability results from the relation- skeptical of school performance (Marsh & Willis, 2007).
ship between two people and their ability to undertake However, this approach consequently narrowed the cur-
and share a required task. riculum, increased graduation requirements, and intro-
Specific to education, accountability refers to the un- duced a new level of accountability for schools to docu-
derstanding and implementation of effective policies ment student and teacher performance (Cuban, 1992;
Marsh & Willis, 2007; Tanner, 1986).
and best practices that increase student success. Conse-
During the 1980s, the accountability of teachers and
quently, this notion of accountability calls for the close
schools extended into new domains. Numerous reform
examination of teaching, learning, and leading practic-
reports served as catalysts in the debate, such as the Na-
es at all levels of education. For example, Darling-Ham- tional Commission on Excellence in Education’s pub-
mond (1993) stated: lication of A Nation at Risk report in 1983. A Nation at
Risk blamed schools for America’s inability to compete
An accountability system is a set of commitments, pol-
in the international marketplace. In response, schools
icies, and practices that are designed to: (1) heighten
reverted to the “back-to-basics” movement of the 1970s
the probability that schools will use good practices
by requiring schools to focus on the proficiency of basic
on behalf of students; (2) reduce the likelihood that
skills and worker productivity for a better and bigger
schools will engage in harmful practices; and (3) en-
America. In regards to accountability, this meant teach-
courage self-assessment on the parts of schools and
ers felt more pressure to increase student performance
educators to identify, diagnose, and change courses of
action that are harmful or ineffective. (p. 40)
on standardized testing.
The 1990s continued the trend of the 1980s with
such policy proposals as President George H. W. Bush’s
In her definition, Darling-Hammond provided a ratio-
America 2000: An Education Strategy (U.S. Department
nale for accountability and outlined why it is import-
of Education, 1991), and President Bill Clinton’s Goals
ant for education. However, the level and application
2000 (Goals 2000: Educate America Act, 1994). Collec-
of accountability for schools, teachers, and students has
tively, these proposals were crafted as not only a means
long been debated, historically, theoretically, and in for improving the basic academic proficiency of stu-
practice. Thus, it is important to unpack the modern dents through standardized curriculum and testing, but
origins of accountability from a historical perspective, also as a way to measure the efficiency and effectiveness
examine the influence of theory on the meaning of ac- of schools. Once again, the accountability delineated
countability, and discuss accountability in practice via in these reports required teachers to demonstrate and
standards-based accountability. A review of accountabil- document successful student performance.
ity practices specific to schools, teachers, and students The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (2002) con-
in the middle grades will follow. tinued the trend of basic proficiency; however, a new
14 ◾ ACCOUNTABILITY
level of high-stakes accountability was added for schools, schools are held accountable for what the public and
teachers, and students to document successes. Almost a policymakers value.
decade later, President Barack Obama’s A Blueprint for Each of these theories contributes to our knowledge
Reform (U.S. Department of Education, 2010) contin- of how teachers implement reform strategies and expe-
ued to advocate for increased accountability of schools, rience accountability. Thus, examination of account-
teachers, and students through performance indicators ability in practice, through the lens of standards-based
and evaluations. accountability, is warranted to understand what tasks
are expected of teachers, by whom, and by what means.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
OF ACCOUNTABILITY STANDARDS-BASED ACCOUNTABILITY
According to Supovitz (2009), accountability theory is Similar to accountability, determining the purpose and
supported by four underlying theories: motivational meaning of standards-based accountability, or what we
theory, theory of alignment, informational theory, and expect of teachers, has been challenging for schools
symbolism. First, motivational theory is based on the and policymakers. Irons, Carlson, Lowery-Moore, and
idea that one can be motivated to improve, intrinsically Farrow (2007) defined standards-based accountabili-
or extrinsically. Either way, motivational theory is often ty as a mechanism for ensuring that “educators would
“used to motivate school faculty members to improve change their behavior as a result of federal and state
performance” (Supovitz, 2009, p. 214). Motivation the- mandates focusing upon the requirements for estab-
ory ultimately serves accountability theory because it ex- lishing higher standards and greater accountability for
plains why and how teachers participate in school tasks. student achievement” (pp. 1–2). Standards-based ac-
Second, the theory of alignment suggests that align- countability intends to motivate teachers and schools to
ing educational reform efforts within schools will im- improve their practice through the implementation of
prove its effectiveness and the performance of teachers. common standards and teaching expectations.
Additionally, other scholars have argued that stan-
In particular, alignment is accomplished through the
dards-based accountability is meant to create incentives
act of reinforcing common beliefs and goals (Supovitz,
for teachers to change the way they think about curric-
2009). For example, initiatives that seek to align curric-
ulum and instruction so as to ensure all students are
ulum and assessment may improve the overall perfor-
given access to high expectations and standards (Pa-
mance of students and effectiveness of teachers. Thus,
jak, 2001; Palmer & Rangel, 2011). In this sense, stan-
explaining accountability by suggesting how schools can
dards-based accountability is as much about the process
utilize alignment and organization to improve teacher
of improvement for students and teachers rather than
effectiveness and student achievement.
the end result. Standards-based accountability is about
Third, informational theory contributes to account-
monitoring the process of improvement rather than the
ability theory by explaining how schools might use stu-
culminating event of standardized testing.
dent information to guide improvement. According
to Supovitz (2009), the underlying assumption behind
informational theory is that “by providing student per- Arguments for Standards-Based
formance information to local educators and giving Accountability
them incentives to improve it, the data will guide im- There are many arguments that support stan-
provements in both the classroom and organizational dards-based accountability. For example, research
decision making” (p. 215). Again, informational theory provides evidence that standards-based accountability
serves accountability since it defines who is responsible improves curriculum and instruction, collaboration
for what and how it will be accomplished through the among colleagues as well as stakeholders, and student
use of data. achievement. First, scholars agree that standards-based
Fourth, the idea of symbolism informs accountability accountability can result in better teaching practice
theory since it examines the values stakeholders give to (Donnelly & Sadler, 2009; Turner, 2009). For instance,
educational components (Supovitz, 2009). For instance, teachers devote more time to using standards to align
the emphasis the general public and policymakers place curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Specifically,
on standardized, high-stakes testing indicate what they teachers consider how their instruction might be al-
value and consider most important when accessing the tered to optimize student learning and performance
performance and effectiveness of teachers and schools. within a given time frame and context.
Accordingly, this emphasis highlights how symbolism Additionally, standards-based accountability im-
is connected to accountability theory. Teachers and proves and enhances collaboration among colleagues
ACCOUNTABILITY ◾ 15
and stakeholders (Donnelly & Sadler, 2009). Stan- Turning Points 2000: Educating Adolescents in the 21st
dards-based accountability seeks to overcome teacher Century (Jackson & Davis, 2000). For instance, middle
isolation by fostering conversations about what works schools should: regularly submit to school quality re-
in classrooms and how curriculum and instruction can views to evaluate the implementation and success of its
be improved for maximum student achievement. Fi- organizational structures, leadership, teacher quality,
nally, standards-based accountability improves student and student achievement; review assessment data from
achievement (Donnelly & Sadler, 2009; Louis, Febey, & locally administered tests, state-mandated tests, and na-
Schroeder, 2005). tional standardized tests to plan for continued teacher
and student growth; and establish a plan for sharing in-
Arguments Against Standards-Based dicators of accountability with the general public.
Accountability In summary, the notion of accountability is rooted
in the culture of education and requires all stakehold-
Conversely, there are many arguments against stan- ers to regularly examine their teaching and leader-
dards-based accountability. For instance, Donnelly and ship practices with the end goals of creating effective
Sadler (2009) argued that standards-based account- schools, increasing teacher quality, and raising student
ability narrows the curriculum, causes instruction to achievement at the forefront.
focus on test preparation, encourages a teacher-cen-
tered classroom, increases the achievement gap, and
decreases teacher professionalism. In support, one of REFERENCES
the most prevalent arguments against standards-based
accountability is concerned with the narrowing of cur- Clark, D. C., & Clark, S. N. (2000). Developmentally respon-
riculum. Clark and Clark (2000), Darling-Hammond sive curriculum and standards-based reform: Impli-
cations for middle level principals. NASSP Bulletin,
(2004), and Herman and Dietel (2005) asserted that
84(615), 1–13.
standards-based accountability ignores non-core sub-
Cuban, L. (1992). Curriculum stability and change. In P.
jects, such as art and music, and overemphasizes basic W. Jackson, (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum
skills within the core subjects of math, science, and lan- (pp. 216–247). New York, NY: Macmillan.
guage arts. Darling-Hammond, L. (1993). Creating standards of practice
Additionally, experts contend that standards-based and delivery for learner-centered schools. Stanford Policy
accountability leads to instruction that focuses on test and Law Review, 1(4), 37–52.
preparation and teacher-centered classrooms. For in- Darling-Hammond, L. (2004). Standards, accountability,
stance, Clark and Clark (2000) and Musoleno and and school reform. Teachers College Record, 106(6),
White (2010) have documented how test preparation 1047–1085.
overshadowed best practices in middle school. Further, Donnelly, L. A., & Sadler, T. D. (2009). High school science
Donnelly and Sadler (2009) argued that standards-based teachers’ views of standards and accountability. Science
accountability increases the achievement gap between Education, 93(6), 1050–1075. doi: 10.1002/sce.20347
students of minority and majority while Darling-Ham- Gariepy, K. D., Spencer, B. L., & Couture, J-C. (2009). Educa-
mond (2004) has noted how standards-based account- tional accountability: Professional voices from the field. Rot-
terdam, The Netherlands: Sense.
ability has decreased the professionalism of teachers as
Goals 2000: Educate America Act, Pub. L. No. 103-227. 103rd
opportunities to contribute to the creation and imple-
Cong., 2d sess. (1994).
mentation of curriculum is minimal. Harvey, L. (2014). Analytic quality glossary. Quality Research
International. Retrieved from http://www.qualityre-
searchinternational.com/glossary/
ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE MIDDLE GRADES
Herman, J. L., & Dietel, R. (2005). A primer on accountability.
A collective consideration of the meaning and expec- American School Board Journal, 192(12), 26–28.
Irons, E., Carlson, N. L., Lowery-Moore, H., & Farrow, V. R.
tations of accountability in education—historically, the-
(2007). Standards and accountability implementation,
oretically, and in practice via standards-based account-
why, how, where: Teachers’ perceptions. Journal of Edu-
ability—offers insight into the roles and responsibilities
cational Research & Policy Studies, 7(2), 1–19.
of educators. Specific to the middle school, account- Jackson, A., & Davis, G. A. (2000). Turning points 2000: Educat-
ability requires examination of the organizational struc- ing adolescents in the 21st century. New York, NY: Teachers
ture, culture, and practices of schools. Middle schools College Press.
are accountable to the public and should make every Leithwood, K. (2005). Educational accountability: Issues and
attempt to implement and support best practices out- alternatives. Saskatchewan School Boards Association,
lined in This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adoles- Research Report #5-01. Retrieved from http://www.
cents (National Middle School Association, 2010) and saskschoolboards.ca/research/governance/05-01.pdf
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palace, you may be sure, for already the wedding feast was being
made ready for the marriage of the Princess and her Prince.
The enchanted boat now was not needed, and that with the lake
disappeared, but when the Princess set out with her husband to go
to the castle she found that it was within her father’s kingdom that
the Prince had lived.
At the end of the castle garden where the Prince and the Princess
live is a long stone seat, and at one end grows a bush of golden
flowers, the like of which no one ever saw before, and at the other is
the figure of a big eagle made of gold and bronze, but only the
Princess and her husband know what these things mean.
NICKO AND THE OGRE
O
nce upon a time there lived on the banks of a deep, wide river
an ogre who ate all the fish in the river, never letting the people
who lived in the town come near the river to fish.
And this was not all the ogre did. He would make such a noise
when he slept that all the children were frightened so they could not
sleep at night, and the people decided at last that something must be
done.
One day a youth named Nicko said he would go to an old witch
who lived in the forest and ask her what could be done.
So to this witch the youth went. “There is only one way to get rid of
the ogre,” she told Nicko, “and that secret is known only to a
mermaid, who comes up from the river every night and sings to the
ogre.”
Of course the ogre would see Nicko if he went to the mermaid
when she was singing, so he decided to have a suit made of green
and silver that would make him look like a huge fish and dive into the
river, hoping in that way to find the home of the mermaid and learn
the secret she knew.
One night after the mermaid had finished her song to the ogre,
Nicko slipped from behind a rock where he was hidden, dressed in
his green-and-silver suit, and swam to the place he had seen the
mermaid go under the water.
Down, down he went, and just before he reached the bottom of the
river the mermaid turned around and saw him.
She had never seen such a beautiful big fish before and the silver
glistened and shone so in the moonlight that the mermaid was filled
with envy.
“Oh, beautiful fish, tell me where you got your shining coat! I must
have a dress like it at once,” she said, swimming along beside Nicko.
“I will tell you, beautiful mermaid, willingly, and I will bring you a
dress of wonderful brightness,” said Nicko, “if you will tell me how the
people who live in the river town can get rid of the ogre you sing to
every night.”
The mermaid no longer smiled when she heard this; her face
looked sad and unhappy.
“That can never be done; for the way to be rid of the ogre is
beyond my power, although I know the secret,” answered the
mermaid; “but you cannot help me.”
“Well, if I cannot help you, at least tell me how it could be brought
about that the river folk could be rid of their trouble.”
“A mortal must come to this river and live here,” said the mermaid.
“And he must marry me. Now you see how impossible it is for any
one to learn the rest of the secret, for who would marry a mermaid
and live at the bottom of the river?”
Nicko had fallen in love with the pretty mermaid at first sight, and
when he heard this he said: “Show me your home, pretty maid.
Perhaps I can help you, even if I am only a fish.”
To the very bottom of the river the mermaid took Nicko, and when
they stood on the white sand before her home of crystal Nicko said:
“Mermaid, I love you! Behold your mortal lover. Will you be my
wife?”
As he spoke he threw off the green-and-silver costume he wore,
and there stood the mortal who had come to woo her.
The pretty little mermaid blushed and hung her head. “I did not
know; I could never have guessed you were a mortal,” she
stammered.
“Of course you couldn’t,” said Nicko, almost forgetting why he was
there, he was so very much in love with the pretty creature. “Now
where shall I find your father?” he asked.
The little mermaid clapped her tiny hands, and from under the rock
came many little silver-colored fish, swimming all around her.
“Run quickly and tell the dolphin to find Father Neptune,” said the
mermaid.
Soon the water began to roll and tumble about, and Nicko saw
swimming toward them two sea-horses drawing a chariot in which
stood a man carrying in one hand a curious and big three-pronged
fork.
“He is Father Neptune,” said the mermaid. “Ask him for me if you
wish.”
“Well, young mortal, what do you wish here at the bottom of my
river?” asked Father Neptune.
At first Nicko did not know what to say, for Father Neptune was
very big and stern-looking; but when he saw the little mermaid swim
up to him and lean her head against his shoulder he took courage
and spoke.
“I wish to marry your daughter,” he said, “and live at the bottom of
the river.”
Father Neptune began to smile. “The spell is broken for you, my
dear,” he said to the little mermaid, “and I am glad. I would have
helped you before this if I could, but it was not in my power.
“She is yours, mortal youth,” said Neptune. “I pronounce you man
and wife. And now we will see what can be done to get rid of that
awful ogre on the bank of the river. He has bothered me so much, I
shall be glad to have him gone.”
“Now we are married,” said the mermaid to Nicko, “I can tell you I
am not a mermaid at all, but a king’s daughter who was changed into
a mermaid to sing for the ogre because my father did not invite the
dreadful ogre to a feast at his palace one night.
“The ogre cast a spell over me which could be broken only when a
mortal should come to the bottom of the river and ask me to marry
him, which the ogre thought never could happen.
“Now it is my turn to have the ogre changed into another form, and
if Father Neptune will consent I will ask the old forest witch to change
him into a big rock in the middle of the river.”
“Very well, my dear,” said Father Neptune, “a big rock will be an
addition to my river, and when I run in here to rest my sea-horses will
have a place to play and my dolphins a place to sit.”
“Good-by, Father Neptune,” said the mermaid. “I shall no longer
wear this form after to-night, for when I touch the land I shall be a
mortal again.”
“I will take you to the shore,” said Father Neptune; “jump in, both
of you.” It took only a minute for the sea-horses to dash to the top of
the river, and another for them to bring the chariot to the bank of the
river near the forest.
Nicko jumped out and lifted the little mermaid to the ground, which
she no sooner touched than before him stood a beautiful young girl
on two dainty feet.
When he looked around Father Neptune was gone and the
Princess (for we must call her so now) said: “We must hurry to the
witch and tell her before sunrise, or the ogre will have another day in
which to bother the river-town people.”
When the old witch saw the Princess she began to laugh. “Ha-ha!”
she said. “Now the ogre will be in my power. Leave him to me, my
dear. I will change him into any shape you wish.”
The Princess told her she wished him changed into a huge rock to
be placed in the middle of the river.
“Come along, my pretties; you shall see it done,” said the old
witch, clapping her hands as she spoke.
Up from behind the cave jumped a big broomstick, and on it
hopped the witch and the Princess and Nicko, and off they flew to
the place where the ogre sat fishing by the river.
When they were near enough for the old witch to touch him with
her crooked cane she leaned over and tapped him on the head and
said:
“In the middle of the river,

To dwell there forever,
A rock you shall be
So all folks may see.”
A peal of thunder that shook the woods around was heard, and
then a loud splash.
When the mist of the splashing water cleared Nicko and the
Princess saw a huge black rock in the middle of the river, and the
next thing they knew they were flying through the air with the old
witch again.
“Here is your home, Princess,” said the witch at last. “They will be
waiting for you and your husband, for I sent word you had been
rescued, and a feast is being made in honor of your marriage.”
Before Nicko or his bride could thank the witch she was far above
their heads and flying away.
The King and the Queen were overjoyed to have their daughter
again and gave Nicko such a welcome that he quite forgot his home
by the river and never returned.
But this did not matter, as he was an orphan, but no one thought of
him as being the cause of the ogre’s disappearance. The people in
the river town knew the ogre had gone, and they cared not who
brought it about.
Nicko and the Princess lived happily ever after, and one day
became the King and Queen in the country where they lived.
THE GINGERBREAD ROCK
nce there lived near a forest a little boy named Hans and his
O sister, whose name was Lisbeth.
Their parents had died when they were tiny and their uncle had
taken them because he thought they could do all the work and so
save the money he would have to pay for a servant.
But this uncle was a miser and gave Hans and Lisbeth very little to
eat, so very little that often they went to bed very hungry.
One night when they were more hungry than usual, for they had
worked hard all day, Hans whispered from his cot in one corner of
the room: “Lisbeth, let us get up and go into the woods. It is bright
moonlight and we may be able to find some berries. I am so hungry I
cannot go to sleep.”
So out of the house they went, making sure their uncle was sound
asleep, and soon they were running along the path through the
woods.
Suddenly Hans stopped and drew Lisbeth back of a tree. “Look!”
he said, in a whisper, “there is smoke coming from the side of that
great rock.”
Lisbeth looked and, sure enough, a tiny curling smoke was coming
from a little opening in the rock.
Very cautiously the children crept up to the rock and Hans stood
on tiptoe and sniffed at the smoke.
“It is a pipe,” he whispered into Lisbeth’s ear. “Some one is inside
the rock, smoking.”
“No one could live inside a rock,” said Lisbeth, creeping closer and
standing on a stone that she, too, might sniff at the curling smoke.
Lisbeth became curious when she discovered it was the smoke
from a pipe. “You could boost me, Hans,” she said, “and I could peep
in and see if some one is inside.”
Hans told her he did not think it was nice to peek, but Lisbeth told
him it was very different from peeking into a house, and so Hans
boosted her, for he was just as curious as his sister.
Lisbeth grasped the edge of the opening in the big rock with both
her little hands, when, to the surprise of both children, it crumbled
and Lisbeth lost her balance.
Over went both of them on the soft moss, and when they sat up
Lisbeth held something in both her little hands.
“It’s cake!” she said, with wide open eyes. “No; it is gingerbread!”
she corrected, as she tasted it.
And, sure enough, it was gingerbread; the rock, instead of being
stone, was all gingerbread.
Hans and Lisbeth forgot the smoke and their curiosity in the joy of
their discovery, and soon both of them were eating as fast as they
could big pieces of the Gingerbread Rock.
Hans and Lisbeth were not greedy children. So when they had
satisfied their hunger they ran off home without taking even a piece
of the gingerbread with them to eat the next day.
They were soon in bed and asleep, and if each had not told to the
other the same story the next morning they would have been sure
they had dreamed it all.
The next night they were hungry, as usual, and when the moon
was well up in the sky out they crept again and ran into the woods.
But this time there was no curling smoke to guide them, and they
tried several rocks before they found the gingerbread. For, strange to
say, the place they had broken away did not show at all and there
were so many rocks the children could not find it.
But at last Hans cried out with joy, “Here it is, Lisbeth!” and held up
a big piece of gingerbread he had broken off.
Lisbeth, in her hurry to get a piece, broke off much more than she
intended, and, to the surprise of both children, a big opening was
made, large enough for them to step through.
“Perhaps we may find out where the smoke came from,” said
Lisbeth, suddenly remembering the smoke they had seen the night
before.
Eating as they went, both of them stepped inside the rock and
walked into a big room where, by the table, sat an old man asleep.
His glasses had tumbled off his nose and the pipe he had been
smoking was on the floor beside him, where it had tumbled. His lamp
had gone out and his paper had slipped from his hand.
Lisbeth and Hans looked at him and then at the gingerbread they
held. “It is his house,” said Hans.
“And we are eating it up! What shall we do?” asked Lisbeth,
looking very much frightened.
“Better wake him up and tell him,” said Hans, “and perhaps he will
let us bake some more and mend the place we have broken.”
“I’ll pick up his paper and pipe and brush up the ashes,” said tidy
little Lisbeth, “and you light his lamp, and perhaps he will forgive us
when we tell him we did not know it was his house we were eating.”
But instead of being cross when he awoke, the old man smiled at
them and asked, “Did you eat all you wanted of the gingerbread?”
Hans told him they were very sorry and that they did not know any
one lived inside when they ate the gingerbread.
“We will bake you some more and patch the place we made,” said
Lisbeth.
“Right through that door you will find the kitchen,” said the old
man. “Run along, if you like, and bake it.”
And such a kitchen as Hans and Lisbeth found, for Hans went
along, you may be sure, to fix the fire for his sister!
The shelves and cupboards were filled with flour and butter and
eggs and milk and cream and meat and pies, cookies, puddings, but
no gingerbread.
“We will get breakfast first for the man,” said Lisbeth, “for I am sure
he must be hungry and it is growing light. Look out the window.”
To Hans’s surprise there was a window. Then he saw a door, and
when he looked out he found they were in a pretty white house with
green blinds and not a rock, as he had supposed.
Hans and Lisbeth became so interested in cooking they quite
forgot their own home or the unkind uncle who almost starved them,
and when the breakfast was ready they put it on the table beside the
old man.
“I thought you would like your breakfast,” explained Lisbeth, “and
now we will make the gingerbread and repair your house.”
“After breakfast you may, if you like,” said the old man, “but first
both of you must eat with me.”
My, how Hans and Lisbeth did eat, for while Lisbeth had cooked
only ham and eggs enough for the old man’s breakfast, there
seemed to be quite enough for them all.
And while they are eating we will see what the miser uncle was
doing, for he had called the children at break of day and they were
not to be found.
It happened that the ground was damp and the uncle saw the
prints of their feet from the door to the road and along the road to the
path in the woods, and then the soft leaves and moss did not show
where they went.
Thinking they had run away and gone into the woods, their uncle
hurried along, calling their names at the top of his voice.
As he came near the Gingerbread Rock the children heard him
and began to tremble. “It is uncle,” said Hans. “He will be very angry
because we have not done our work.”
“Sit still,” said the old man as the children started to leave the
table, and, taking his pipe, the old man sat down under a little
opening like a tiny window and began to smoke.
Soon the children could hear their uncle climbing up outside, and
they knew he had seen the smoke just as they had the night before,
and was trying to look in.
Then they heard him tumble just as Lisbeth had when the
Gingerbread Rock broke off in her hands, and they knew he had
discovered it was good to eat, for all was still for a few minutes.
Nothing was heard again for a long time, and then the sound of
some one breaking off big pieces was heard, and when Hans and
Lisbeth climbed up, as the old man told them to do, and looked out
of the opening they saw their uncle with a shovel and a wheelbarrow.
He was breaking off big pieces of gingerbread and filling the
barrow as fast as he could.
But when he had filled it he could not move it, for it was no longer
gingerbread, but stone he had to carry.
The old man motioned to the children to keep quiet, and he
opened a door they had not noticed and went out.
Just what he said the children never knew. But they soon found
out that instead of being poor, as they had thought, their miser uncle
had taken all the silver and gold their parents had left and hidden it in
his cellar under the stones.
The miser uncle disappeared and was never seen again, and the
old man, who was really a wizard, told them where to go and what to
do with their wealth. So they were happy ever after.
Of course, they never forgot the Gingerbread Rock or the kind old
man. But because he was a wizard they knew they would never see
him again, for fairies and witches and wizards are all enchanted and
disappear in a very strange manner.
“Our good fortune came to us because we tried to be kind to the
old man, I am sure,” said Hans one day, when they were talking
about the Gingerbread Rock.
“Yes, and because we wanted to repair the damage we had done
he knew we did not mean to do any harm,” said Lisbeth; “but I shall
never eat gingerbread again without thinking of him.”
“Nor I,” said Hans.
PRINCE ROUL’S BRIDE
O
nce upon a time in a far-off land there lived by an ocean an ogre
and his wife.
Their home was a cave in a big white rock which was so white it
shone like a light even in the darkest night, and many a ship had
thought it a harbor in a storm and been wrecked by the shore where
the ogre lived.
And this was the way he lived, because the ships carried rich
cargoes and the ogre lost no time in helping himself to all that he
could find, while the sailors were glad to escape in lifeboats when
they saw the dreadful-looking ogre, who was so big and strong he
could lift a ship.
In the same country, miles and miles away from the ogre’s cave,
lived a rich king, who had a son named Roul, and one day while the
Prince was out hunting he passed in the woods a cabin where lived
a poor girl named Leta.
But while Leta was very poor she was also very pretty, and as the
Prince rode past he saw her at the window and raised his plumed
hat and smiled.
The next day Prince Roul again rode to the woods and this time he
did not pass Leta’s cabin. He stopped his horse in front of her door
and asked for a drink of water.
He had thought Leta pretty through the window, but when he
beheld her this time he completely lost his heart, and day after day
he went to the cottage and talked to pretty Leta.
After a while the King told his son it was time he was looking for a
wife, as he wanted to see him married before he died and know that
his wife was worthy to be a queen.
So the King gave a feast which lasted for weeks, and princesses
from far and near were asked that Prince Roul might choose for
himself a wife, for, as I said before, the King was very rich and all the
kings in the other countries were anxious, of course, to have Prince
Roul for a son-in-law.
But Prince Roul did not choose a wife from among the beautiful
princesses, for he was already in love with pretty Leta, and while he
knew full well his father would never give his consent to their
marriage, he was determined he would wed no one else.
On the last day of the feast the King told him he would have to
choose. “You have before you the beautiful women of the land,” said
the King. “Make your choice at once, and the wedding shall take
place this night.”
“Father, you have not brought to me the most beautiful woman in
the world,” replied Prince Roul. “If you had I should have asked her
to be my wife before this.”
“What do you mean?” asked the King. “All the princesses in the
land are here.”
“Ah yes, that is true,” replied the Prince, “but the most beautiful
woman in the world is not a princess, as you think of them, but she is
a Princess for all that. Father, she is the Princess of my heart and I
cannot marry any other woman.”
Then the King made the Prince tell him who she was that he loved
so dearly, and when he learned Leta was a poor girl who lived in the
woods close by, he was very angry and told the Prince he should
never wed her.
All the beautiful princesses were sent home, and the angry King
called his servants to him and commanded that they should go to the
woods and find this girl who had upset his plans for his son.
“Find her and chase her out of the woods; drive her into another
land where the Prince will never find her,” he told them.
But the King had forgotten one very important thing, and that was
his son, for he should have made him a prisoner before he gave
such an order. This he did not do, and Prince Roul, who overheard
what his father had said, lost no time in jumping on his horse and
making his way to the woods ahead of the servants of the King.
“Jump up behind me,” he said to Leta when she came out of the
cabin, and away they rode, the feet of Prince Roul’s horse scarcely
touching the ground as they fled.
The King’s servants were not long in discovering that the Prince
had outwitted them, but they gave chase and away they went
through the woods, while poor frightened little Leta clung to the
Prince, wondering what it was all about.
On and on they rode, but to Leta clinging to her lover, it seemed
they flew over the ground and through the woods. She could see the
bright trimmings of the servants’ coats glistening in the sun, and she
knew they were gaining on them.
By this time Prince Roul had told her that his father, the King, had
tried to make him marry a princess, but that he would marry no one
but the girl he loved and that was herself.
When Leta heard this she was more frightened than ever, for she
knew now that she was the cause of all this trouble and that the
servants must be chasing them to take Roul from her.
Leta put her hand to her breast. Yes; it was there—the little paper
with the powder a fairy had given her a long time ago, because Leta
had left a beautiful rose on its stem she was about to pick when she
discovered a little fairy sleeping inside the rose.
“If you ever are in trouble, open this paper and throw the powder
around you,” the fairy had told her. “It will protect you from all harm.”
Leta had never before needed protection, and she was not
thinking so much of herself now as of her lover, wondering what the
King would do if he did not obey him.
Just then the horse on which they were riding came to a full stop
with such force that Leta was thrown to the ground and the next
thing she knew over the side of a cliff leaped the horse with the
Prince on his back.
The ocean was below, but before the horse and his rider had
reached it Leta drew from her dress the magic powder and threw it
over the cliff.
“Make the ocean dry,” she screamed as she threw the powder,
and, to her surprise, as she threw it over she went, too, and the next
instant she stood beside Prince Roul on dry land before a beautiful
white castle and the ocean was miles away.
The cliff over which they had gone was the white rock where the
ogre and the ogress lived, but when Leta threw the powder she had
also summoned the little fairy who had given it to her and she had
changed the big white cave into a castle.
When the King’s servants came dashing up to the cliff they saw
nothing of the Prince or his horse, and the bottom of the cliff was so
far below that they felt sure they had been destroyed, and they rode
home to the King with the sad news.
The King’s grief was deep and bitter, for he really loved his son
very much, and now when it was too late he cried out that he wished
he had let the Prince marry the girl he loved; if only he had him alive
that would be all he would ask.
The little fairy did not make herself visible to either Leta or the
Prince, but if they could have seen with fairy eyes they would have
seen the fairy flying ahead of them into the castle, touching
everything with her magic wand as she went.
When Leta entered the door, which was open, for they had called
and no one answered, she stood spellbound by what she saw.
The long white marble hall had a floor of silver and marble and the
doors were silver also.
The Prince, who was used to beautiful things, was quite surprised
at all the splendor, too.
Opening a big silver door, they entered a room hung with silver
and deep-blue curtains, and on a silver table Leta saw a big white
envelop. When she looked at it she read her own name.
Wondering who could have left it, she opened it and read:
“Princess Leta, this is your castle; it is the gift of the fairies who love
roses.”
“Your father will not object now to having me for the wife of his
son,” she said, with a blush, as she gave the note to the Prince, and
then they ran like two happy children through the beautiful castle that
had come to them so strangely.
In the deep dungeons under the castle they found all the wealth
that the ogre had taken from the ships, and after they had become
used to their new home they gave it all to the poor, and so the ogre’s
stolen wealth did not help him, and while it could not be given back
to those who had lost it, it did much good.
And what became of the old ogre and his wife, you are wondering.
I will tell you. When the fairy changed the cave into a castle she
changed the ogre and ogress into two big silver statues in the big
hall, one at each end, like huge mummies, holding a big light in their
hands, which lighted the long hall of the castle.
Then one day Prince Roul and Princess Leta rode away to the
palace of the old King, and when he saw his son he wept for joy and
hugged him to his heart, and Leta’s pretty face won the old King’s
heart at once, so they all lived happily ever after.
But while the old King wanted them to make the palace their
home, Prince Roul and Leta could not give up their white castle by
the sea, so part of the year they lived in the white castle, and when
Prince Roul grew old and his grandchildren begged for a story, the
King told them of Prince Roul’s bride and the wonderful leap they
took over the cliff which forms the back of the castle.
SUNEV
T
here was once a poor peasant and his wife who had a very
beautiful daughter named Sunev. So beautiful was she that her
hair rivaled the sun in its golden brightness. Her eyes were like
the blue sky and her lips were so red that the roses beheld her with
envy. Her skin was so white and fair that the winter snow was not
whiter. Her teeth were like the pearls. And when an old witch named
Zitna, who lived in the forest near by, saw Sunev one day she
became enraged because she was more beautiful than her own
daughter.
Witch Zitna had thought till then that her own daughter was the
most beautiful creature in the world, for the witch child was as dark
as Sunev was fair, and Witch Zitna wished the Prince of Esor, who
was looking for a wife, to wed her.
She knew that the Prince had sent out his servants far and near to
look for the most beautiful lady in the country for his wife, and if
Sunev were brought before the Prince of Esor her daughter would
never be chosen.
There was only one thing to do, and that was to entice the lovely
Sunev into the forest and there change her into the shape of an
animal and leave her to her fate.

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List of Entries ........................................................................................ix

About the Editors ................................................................................xiii

Democratic Classrooms ....................................................... 131

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Doda, Nancy M. .................................................................... 138 Institute for Education Sciences.......................................... 207

The Encyclopedia of Middle Grades Education, 2nd edition, page xiii

Maud Abeel Peter Boedeker

The Encyclopedia of Middle Grades Education, 2nd edition, pages xv–xviii

Sondra S. Cooney Casey D. Gilewski

Janet Josephson Richard L. Mehrenberg

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T he middle school movement is now 53 years old. Yet,

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REFERENCES National Association of Secondary School Principals Council

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or state of being accountable; especially: an obligation HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

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