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TephroArchaeology
in the North Pacific
edited by
Gina L. BARNES
SODA Tsutomu
Access Archaeology
Copyright © 2019. Archaeopress. All rights reserved.
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Acces
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TephroArchaeology
in the North Pacific
edited by
Gina L. BARNES
SODA Tsutomu
Access Archaeology
eop
A
cha r
ess
olog Ar
y
Acces
s Archae
Archaeopress Publishing Ltd
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ISBN 978-1-78969-172-6
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© The individual authors and Archaeopress 2019

Except for Creative Commons materials distributed according to licences
Cover Illustration:
Alaid Volcano viewed from Shumshu Island, northern Kurils off the tip of Kamchatka.
Photo: B. Fitzhugh 2016
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior
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This book is available direct from Archaeopress or from our website www.archaeopress.com
Dedicated to
ARAI Fusao & MACHIDA Hiroshi

who together paved the way for
TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific
“In Japan, they’ve got some very very good preservation, but there are some
tremendously compelling things…. We need to know about this; they’re doing
really really good work.” Payson Sheets
“The data in Japan is so incredibly rich and the archaeology is so fantastic that
there is huge potential here within one cultural area for us all to get together and
map out some of these differences. I think it could set a standard for us who have
much less data to compare.” Robin Torrence
iii Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover illustration attribution ii
Dedication iii
Preface xi
TephroArchaeology becomings xi
Stylistic notes xv
Creative Commons licenses xv
Recurrent abbreviations xv
Tephra abbreviations xvii
Contributors xviii
*****
Chapter 1 Gina L. BARNES

“Introduction to TephroArchaeology” 1
An archaeological sub-discipline in Japan 1
A briefing on volcanic matters 2
Volcanic ash or tephra? 3
Tephra deposition 4
Pumice & scoria 5
Tephrochronology & tephra characterization 6
Lithified & weathered tephra 7
Describing volcanoes and their eruptions 8
Magma types 8
Volcano shapes 8
Eruption styles 10
Gas emissions 11
Thunder & lightning 14
Archaeological implications 14
The sub-discipline of TephroArchaeology 14
Tracking human behaviour 15
Prospectus 19
Chapter 2 SODA Tsutomu

“Tephroarchaeology and its history in Japan” 24
Introduction 24
Research history of tephra relating to Japanese archaeology 25
The first period: before the Pacific War (WWII) 25
From the Pacific War through economic expansion 26
1970 to 1990s: tephra framework for widespread tephra 27
A proposal for “Tephroarchaeology” 29
Topics and trajectories of tephroarchaeology after its Introduction 33
Reassessment of previous tephra studies 33
The Palaeolithic scandal and tephroarchaeology 33
TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific iv

New research topics 35
The Great Tōhoku-oki Earthquake and tephroarchaeology 35
Towards a conclusion 36
Chapter 3 KUWAHATA Mitsuhiro

“Volcanic disaster archaeology: comments on methodological prospects and issues” 41
Introduction 41
Tephroarchaeology definition 41
Tephroarchaeology redefinition 41
Measures of volcanic disasters 42
Work procedures in archaeological research on volcanic disasters 44
On-site procedures 44
Procedures in the laboratory 45
Summary 45
Chapter 4 Gerald OETELAAR

“Volcanic ash and landscape evolution: reconstruction of a 7000-year old landscape
on the northwestern Great Plains of North America” 47
Introduction 47
The Mazama eruption 48
The Northwestern Plains 50
Evolution of the Northwestern Plains landscape 53
From the Late Pleistocene to the present 53
Landforms and archaeological sites 53
Mountain valleys: the Vermilion Lakes 53
Mountain lakes: the Lake Minnewanka site 54
River crossings: the Wally’s Beach site 54
Bow River terraces: The Mona Lisa site 55
Tributary drainages: the Saamis site 56
Bluff edge dunes: the Tuscany site 57
Alluvial fans: the Stampede site 59
Hummocky moraine: the Hawkwood site 62
Lacustrine sedimentation: Harris Lake 64
Discussion 65
Conclusion 66
Chapter 5 Ben FITZHUGH, Caroline FUNK & Jody BOURGEOIS

“Volcanoes and settlement in the North Pacific: late Holocene settlement patterns
in the Western Aleutian and Kuril Islands” 76
Introduction 76
Geographic context 78
Archaeology and volcanism around the North Pacific Rim 79
Occupation history of the Aleutian and Kuril Islands 81
Volcanism and human settlement – case studies 82
Case 1: Rat Islands volcanoes and human settlement 82
Case 2: Central Kurils volcanoes and human settlement 85
Discussion and conclusion 89
v Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

Chapter 6 MURAKAMI Yoshinao
“Katakai-Ienoshita Site, Akita, buried by the Mt Towada lahar in the 10th century” 97
Introduction 97
Buried buildings in the Yoneshiro Basin 98
Katakai-Ienoshita site 99
Outline 99
The Excavation 100
Stratigraphy 100
Excavation methodology 101
Features excavated 101
Reflections on the excavation 109
Topics for future research 110
Column: “Akita’s Three Lakes”: the legend of Hachirō Tarō and the dragon 112
by KOBAYASHI Masaru
Chapter 7 Keith PRATT

“Portrait of a volcano: the paradox of Paektu (Changbaishan)” 114
Profile and geographical conspectus 114
Paektu volcanism 114
The NE China-North Japan axis and B-Tm 115
The Mountain and its Eruptive History 116
Scientific interest in the 20th century 116
The 21st century: advances in understanding 117
The ‘Millennium Eruption’ of 946 AD: data 117
The ‘Millennium Eruption’ of 946 AD: narrative and interpretation 120
Other eruptions of Mount Paektu 123
Overview 123
The Tianwenfeng eruption and the Xia Dynasty in China (~1500 BC?) 124
The rise and fall of the Chinese Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500–1046 BC) 126
The Chinese Han period (206 BC–AD 220) and after 127
The Chinese Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) and
early Korean Chosŏn period (1392–1598) 127
The Chinese/Manchu Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) and
Korean late Chosŏn period (1598-1910) 128
The Mountain and its ideology 129
Myth, legend, and religiosity 129
Tan’gun 129
Hogyŏng and the value of p’ungsu in Korea 130
The view from China 131
Mountains and Korean religiosity 131

Political opportunism 131
Future Forecasts 132
Chapter 8 MARUYAMA Kōji

“Volcanic disaster research using archaeological methods: 10th-century eruptions and
population movements in northern Tōhoku, Japan” 140
Introduction 140
The effectiveness and limitations of tephra research 142
TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific vi

Volcanic disaster case studies: geographical limitations 142
Assessing volcanic disasters by indirect archaeological methods 143
Methods of reading society from tephra 144
Assemble data on sites and features intruded by the target tephra 144
Analysis of the tephra intervention conditions and specific timing of 144
building destruction
Temporal and spatial differences according to time-specific features 145
accompanying artefact assemblages
Case study: major eruptions of the 10th century and northern Tōhoku 145
Target tephra 145
Towada-a tephra (To-a) 145
Mt Paektu–Tomakomai tephra (B-Tm) 145
Target area 145
Targeted features for analysis 146
Standards for classifying modes of tephra deposition 146
Depositional pattern and phase classification 147
Results 151
Movements of communities 151
Regional differences and morphological change in artefacts 152
Concluding remarks 154
Chapter 9 HORAGUCHI Masashi

“TephroArchaeology in the Gunma region” 158
Introduction 158
The utility of tephra in archaeology 160
Key strata for indicating chronology 160
Key strata indicating contemporaneous land surfaces 160
Preservation of palaeo-surfaces 160
Preservation of aboveground structures 160
Preserved transformations and alterations of the Earth’s surface 161
Application of tephra advantages in archaeological investigations 161
Volcanic disaster and settlement transition seen in damaged sites 162
Northern sites 163
Sites to Haruna’s southeast 163
Volcanic disaster and human reactions 164
Definitions 164
Discussion 164
Conclusions
Chapter 10 SUGIYAMA Hidehiro

“Disasters at Kanai, Gunma, by Mt Haruna eruptions in the Kofun Period” 167
Introduction to the Kanai sites 167
Finds from under the first Haruna eruption (Hr-FA), early 6th century 170
Human and animal remains 170
Site structures 172
Kanai Higashi-ura site 172
Kanai Shimo-shinden site 174
Specialist analyses 175
vii Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

Bone preservation and strontium isotope testing 175
Damage variability and assessment 176
Surge damage 176
Impact traces 177
Mound erosion 177
Investigating pre-eruption conditions 177
Use of horses 178
Plant uses 178
Summary 179
Chapter 11 SAKAGUCHI Hajime

“Archaeological investigation of the seasonality and duration of the 6th-century
eruptions from Mt Haruna” 183
Introduction 184
Procedures and seasonality for cultivating wet-rice 184
The FA eruption affecting Moto-Sōja Kitakawa site 185
The FP eruption as known at three sites 188
Moto-Sōja Kitakawa 188
Arima-Jōri and Koizawa-Urita 189
Seasonal comparisons 190
Conclusions 190
Chapter 12 KUWAHATA Mitsuhiro

“Restoration of agricultural assets after volcanic disasters in southwest Japan” 192
Introduction 192
The Kirishima eruption of 1716–1717 193
The Sakurajima eruption of 1471 194
Post-eruption Medieval fields: restored or abandoned 195
Paddy-field remains 195
The Sakamoto A site 195
The Tsuruhami site 196
Dry-field remains 197
The Nakao site 197
The Tōbeizakadan site 199
Conclusions 200
Chapter 13 Gina L. BARNES

“Tephra-derived soils of Japan in comparative context” 202
Tephrogenic soils 202
Andosols 202
Tephra in other soil classes 206
Implications 206
Tephra transformations 207
From tephra to clay 208
Weathering of tephra 208
Weathering of volcanic glass 209
Clay and alterite formation 210
Turning tephra into soil 211
TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific viii

Plant activity 211
Nitrogen N 212
Plant regeneration 212
Andolization 214
Andolizer species 214
Andosol soil profiles 214
Grassland longevity 216
Kurobokudo as a pyrome 217
Andosol productivity 221
Andosol properties 222
General cropping 224
Summary 225
Chapter 14 NOTO Takeshi & Gina L. BARNES

“Farming tephrogenic soils in Gunma: before and after volcanic eruptions” 234
Introduction 234
Paddy-fields and dry-fields and their products 236
Paddy-field and rice types 237
Dry-field agriculture 238
Swidden vs field firing 240
Swidden slash-and-burn agriculture 240
Fired fields 241
Kofun-period fire-cleared pasture? 242
Swidden at Heian-period Kumakura site? 244
Farming upland soils 245
Soil varieties 245
Historical practices & archaeological evidence 246
Fertilizers 249
Crop rotation 249
Field restoration 250
Dōdō site paddy-fields: Yayoi~Kofun 250
Dry-field ridge reconstitution 253
Heian Period paddy and dry-field: divergent reconstruction histories 254
Pre-modern records of pumice clearance 255
Summary of restoration activities 255
Summary of farming activities 256
Chapter 15 Torill Christine LINDSTRØM

“TephroArchaeology: past, present, and future” 261
Reflections 261
Human adaptations to volcanoes 263
Why do volcanic eruptions have such different consequences? 263
Risk perception 263
Relations between emotions and behaviours 264
What may disturb and prevent vs promote rational behaviours in reactions to volcanoes? 265
Defence 265
Coping 266
Diffusion of responsibility 267
ix Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

Adding external factors, and summing up factors influencing adaptation 267
Examples 268
Kamchatka, Russia 268
Iceland 269
Mt. Vesuvius, Italy 270
Santorini/Thera, Greece 271
Conclusion 272
Final words 272
Appendices A–E Table of Contents, Appendix Figures & Tables List 275
Appendices A-D by Gina L. BARNES
Appendix E by ARAI Fusao & MACHIDA Hiroshi
A Map and Chronological Charts 277
B Volcanic Geology 281
C Tectonic Setting of North Pacific Volcanoes 287
D Volcanic Soils Geochemistry 294
E The History of Tephra Characterization in Japan 305
Glossary and Character Index by Chapter 317

Index I: Archaeological Sites 320
Index II: Volcanoes and Related Geological Terms 323
TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific x

Preface
TephroArchaeology Becomings
The way volcanic eruptions affect human life has become a widespread topic of archaeological research.
I owe special gratitude to Payson Sheets, Robin Torrence, and Felix Riede for introducing me to this field
of study beyond Japan. Their publications together with those of many other colleagues have provided a
rich array of assessments of human interaction with volcanoes from the modern era into deep time (e.g.
Sheets & Grayson 1979; Torrence & Grattan 2002; Grattan 2006; Grattan & Torrence 2007; Riede 2015,
2016). These works segue into those from the Earth Sciences by geologists becoming more interested in
the effects of volcanic eruptions on human society (e.g. Chester 1993; Cashman & Giodorno 2008; Cronin,
Nemeth & Neall 2008; Donovan 2010; Lockwood & Hazlett 2010). Many works deal broadly with many
kinds of disasters (e.g. Cooper & Sheets 2012; Mata-Prelló et al. 2012; Stewart & Gill 2017), but in this
volume, we will restrict ourselves particularly to examining human responses to volcanic eruptions and
specifically in the North Pacific.
This book is mainly the product of a Forum on TephroArchaeology, organized by Gina Barnes and SODA
Tsutomu1 for the 2016 meeting of the World Archaeology Congress (WAC8) in Kyoto. It was followed
by a similar Forum on Archaeological Volcanology at the 2017 Society for American Archaeology (SAA)
meeting in Vancouver, organized by Felix Riede, Gina Barnes, and Payson Sheets. For a discussion of
these forum titles, their meanings and suitabilities, please see the Introduction (Chapter 1). Most of the
chapters herein were first presented at the WAC8 Forum, but other timely papers were included to widen
the scope of the volume; discussion from the SAA Forum formed a major framework for the presentations
herein. We thank the editors of the WAC One World Archaeology Series for allowing this publication not
to be included in their series, as they have first right of refusal for volumes based on WAC conference
papers.
Due to the WAC8 Forum being held in Japan with mainly Japanese participants, the volume is naturally
geared to the practice of tephroarchaeology in that country, though what is presented here barely scratches
the surface of the work being done there. The remit of the Forum was to concentrate on the methods and
techniques of excavating in tephra. Unsolicited comments by Payson Sheets and Robin Torrence, taken
from SAA and WAC8 Forum discussions respectively with their permission, shine a light on the potential
significance of the Japanese data to worldwide tephroarchaeology. SODA Tsutomu reports on the history
of tephroarchaeology in Japan where the term originates (Chapter 2); KUWAHATA Mitsuhiro comments
on the measurement of volcanic disasters by tephra depth (Chapter 3) and also writes on eruption effects
on medieval agriculture in southern Kyushu (Chapter 12). The Towada eruption of 915 AD is covered
from different angles by MURAKAMI Yoshinao and KOBAYASHI Masashi (Chapter 6) and MARUYAMA
Kōji (Chapter 8), dealing with lahar-buried villages and population movements respectively. With Chapter
9, HORAGUCHI Masashi reviews Gunma Prefecture tephroarchaeology, setting the stage for detailed
excavation reports on the tephra-preserved Kanai settlements by SUGIYAMA Hidehiro (Chapter 10) and
agricultural reconstruction efforts in Chapter 11 by SAKAGUCHI Hajime. The agricultural theme is
continued by Gina BARNES in Chapter 13 on tephrogenic soils and their potential, and Chapter 14 by
NOTO Takeshi and Gina BARNES presents an overview of Japanese agriculture and cultivation recovery
techniques in Gunma.
WAC8 Forum topics, however, were not exclusively limited to Japan: participants broadened this regional
focus, with Gerry OETELAAR’s Chapter 4 investigating landscape change on the Northern Great Plains of
North America, and with Torill Christine LINDSTRØM’s Chapter 15 dealing with psychological behaviour
in the face of volcanic eruptions, drawn from several examples around the world. It is unfortunate that
1
Soda’s surname appears with a macron (Sōda) in this volume when indicating a publication in Japanese.
xi Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

Ezra Zubrow’s WAC8 Forum presentation on Kamchatka, and the southern Kyushu data presented by
MAGOME Ryodo and MORISAKI Kazuki, could not be included here. Keith PRATT’s paper on Mt Paektu
eruptions (Chapter 7) was first given at the Association for Korean Studies in Europe (AKSE) conference
in April 2017 for a panel on the sociology of Mt Paektu; it appears here by invitation. Chapter 5 by Ben
FITZHUGH, Caroline FUNK and Jody BOURGEOIS is a welcome addition, growing out of interaction at the
SAA Forum; dealing with the Kuril and Aleutian arcs, it justifies the chosen title for the volume. MACHIDA
Hiroshi’s contribution (Appendix E) is a translation by Gina BARNES of a chapter published in the Atlas
of Tephra in and around Japan (Machida & Arai 1992, 2003, 2011; hereafter, the Atlas of Tephra),
included here by invitation. Machida’s co-author, ARAI Fusao, is now deceased, but he would have been
glad to be included as he was involved with archaeology from early on (cf. Arai 1971). The Introduction
and Appendices A–D by Gina BARNES are additions to round out the volume methodologically, providing
crucial geographical and geological information for archaeologists new to the field; cross-references
among all the appendices and other chapters have been added editorially with the authors’ permission.
This volume is also designed to bring Japanese work on volcanic disaster studies to the English-speaking
world. Until now, only two people have had a voice in this discussion: SHIMOYAMA Satoru, who very
unfortunately passed away prematurely, and MACHIDA Hiroshi, who continues his valuable research after
retirement. Shimoyama’s work (1999, 2002a,b) has continued to influence volcanic disaster studies on an
international scale as well as within Japan. In addition to sharing the research area of southern Kyushu
with Shimoyama, KUWAHATA Mitsuhiro continues that methodological involvement in disaster
archaeology. Machida is a tephrochronologist who has consistently published in English from 1980
(Machida 1980), contributing to one of the first collations on tephrochronology deriving from the NATO
Advanced Study Institute symposium (Self & Sparks 1981; Machida 1981). By 1984, he had begun
exploring tephrochronology for archaeological use within Japan (Machida 1984), including prehistoric
data in relevant sections of the Atlas of Tephra. In the early 1990s, he collaborated with Robin Torrence
in archaeological work in Papua New Guinea (Machida 1996), and he has continued his concern with
archaeology in Japan (Machida 2000; Machida 2002; Machida & Sugiyama 2002). In 2011 he was
honoured with a commemorative volume of Quaternary International (Lowe et al. 2011).
The impact that Shimoyama and Machida have had on the field is due primarily to their ability to work in
English. This is not a trivial comment, as the major wall (kabe) between Japanese and worldwide
archaeology is the language barrier. Most local Japanese archaeologists do not speak or read English, and
in turn how many of us speak or read Japanese? The archaeological literature in Japan is voluminous. In
its heyday (1970s and ’80s), 40 shelf feet of archaeological reports were being produced by prefectural
archaeological units every year (see Barnes 1990 for reasons why). Public archaeologists work to an
annual schedule tied by construction contract deadlines; they have little time for extra research and little
leeway to make their discoveries known to the wider world, or even read about world archaeology. Of
course, there is a cohort of Japanese archaeologists that interacts internationally – two cohorts, in fact: one
that studies non-Japanese archaeology of various foreign countries, and the other that writes about
Japanese archaeology in English. The latter tend to be few and far between as well as theoretically
oriented, while the archaeological papers on Japan in this volume come directly from the excavators
themselves. They reveal the wealth of data, extraordinary methodologies and discoveries, and valuable
comparative materials for the general field of TephroArchaeology.
For several Japanese archaeologists represented in this volume, this is their first publication in the English
language. Kuwahata, Maruyama, Kobayashi, Sugiyama, Murakami, Horaguchi, and Sakaguchi all work
or have worked in archaeological units and present knowledge gleaned from or inspired by their local
excavations. The reader will notice that their chapters are entirely localized, with few citations of theory
or even problem-orientation. This is bottom-up archaeology, defining the problems as they are met, and
solving them along the way. Nevertheless, this inductive approach is very fruitful, and the detail of work
presented here is astounding, with several unprecedented discoveries: Who would have thought to identify
TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific xii

the direction of pyroclastic flow from rock impact traces? Or estimate eruption timings from footprint
overlays? Or deduct seasonality of tephra fallout from the preserved stage of the agricultural cycle? All
such findings require attention to minute detail and rigorous care in excavation.
Several of the Japanese chapters contain discussions of methodology. These are given without reference
to developments in the field elsewhere precisely because of the language barrier. Many of their
observations form independent confirmation of what researchers in other countries have also concluded
from their archaeological volcanology studies. It is heartening to know that archaeologists around the
world can come to the same conclusions, and it is good to have Japanese archaeologists speak in their own
voices. Activities of tephroarchaeologists in Japan continue, with a large panel having been offered at the
November 2017 regional meetings of the Japan Archaeological Association organized by Kuwahata.
Researchers from around Japan contributed their findings and insights to his panel entitled “New
Developments in TephroArchaeology”. The papers are now available in the special issue of Archaeology
Quarterly (Kikan Kōkogaku 146, February 2019), in Japanese with English table of contents on p. 117.
Except for Kuwahata, who submitted his two manuscripts in English, the translation and editing of the
Japanese chapters have been carried out by myself. Many of the authors have sufficient reading ability to
double-check these efforts, and for those with little confidence in their English skills, I hope this exercise
has improved them. It takes enormous effort and good will on both sides to produce a final product, and I
would like to thank all authors for their patience and cooperation, both in preparation for the Forum and
during the editing process. I hope they are pleased with their debut on the international stage and will
continue to think of publishing internationally. Many thanks are due the international authors who agreed
to have their work published in this volume and who bore with me through a long editing process.
In closing, I would like to add a personal acknowledgement to the Department of Earth Sciences at
Durham University, which has generously supported an affiliation that allows off-site access to scientific
journals. Without such access, this research – for my own contributions and in editing others – would have
been impossible. I am eternally grateful and hope that this book is useful to the field.
Gina L. Barnes (GLB) Durham, February 2019
Special thanks to David W. Hughes, who has worked his usual magic in proof-reading the volume.
References
ARAI Fusao (1971) “Lithic artifact-bearing layers in the Kanto loam in north Kanto, Japan: problems on
the so-called Early Palaeolithic in view of geology.” Daiyonki Kenkyū 10: 317-335 (in Japanese
with English title and abstract).
BARNES Gina L. (1990) “The origins of bureaucratic archaeology in Japan.” Journal of the Hong Kong
Archaeological Society 12 (1986-88): 183-96.
CASHMAN K.V. & GIORDANO G. (eds) (2008) “Volcanoes and human history.” Journal of Volcanology
and Geothermal Research 176.3 (Special issue): 325-438.
CHESTER David (1993) Volcanoes and society. London: Edward Arnold.

COOPER Jago & SHEETS Payson D. (eds) (2012). Surviving sudden environmental change, answers from
archaeology. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado.
CRONIN Shane J., NEMETH Karoly & NEALL Vincent E. (2008) “Volcanism and archaeology”, pp.
2185-2196 in Encyclopedia of archaeology, ed. by D.M. Pearsall. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
DONOVAN Katherine (2010) “Doing social volcanology: exploring volcanic culture in Indonesia.” Area
42.1: 117-126.
GRATTAN John (2006) “Aspects of Armageddon: an exploration of the role of volcanic eruptions in
human history and civilization.” Quaternary International 151: 10-18.
xiii Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

GRATTAN John & TORRENCE Robin (eds) (2007) Living under the shadow: cultural impacts of volcanic
eruptions. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast.
LOCKWOOD John P. & HAZLETT Richard W. (2010) “Part V – Humanistic volcanology”, pp. 395-478 in
Volcanoes: global perspectives, ed. by J.P. Lockwood & R.W. Hazlett. Chichester: Wiley-
Blackwell.
LOWE David J., MORIWAKI Hiroshi & DAVIES Siwan M. et al. (2011) “Enhancing tephrochronology
and its application (INTREPID Project): Hiroshi Machida commemorative volume.” Quaternary
International 246.1/2: 1-396.
MACHIDA Hiroshi (1980) “Tephra and its implications with regard to the Japanese Quaternary period”,
pp. 29-53 in Geography of Japan, ed. by the Association of Japanese Geographers. Tokyo:
Teikoku-shoin (in English).
––––– (1981) “Tephrochronology and Quaternary studies in Japan”, pp. 161-191 in Tephra studies.
Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute conference on “Tephra Studies as a Tool in
Quaternary Research”, held in Laugarvatn & Reykjavîk, Iceland, June 18-29, 1980, ed. by S. Self
& R.S.J. Sparks. Dordrecht: D. Reidel.
––––– (1984) “The significance of explosive volcanism in the prehistory of Japan.” Geological Survey
of Japan, Report 263: 301-313.
––––– (2000) “The impact of the Kikai eruptions on prehistoric Japan”, pp. 11-12 in Interdisciplinary
study on the origins of Japanese peoples and cultures, ed. by M.J. Hudson. Kyoto: Nichibunken.
––––– (2002) “Impact of tephra forming eruptions on human beings and the environment.” Global
Environmental Research 6: 61-68.
MACHIDA Hiroshi & ARAI Fusao (1992) Atlas of tephra in and around Japan. Tokyo: University of
Tokyo Press, revised editions in 2003, 2011 (in Japanese with English title).
MACHIDA Hiroshi & SUGIYAMA Shinji (2002) “The impact of the Kikai-Akahoya explosive eruptions
on human societies”, pp. 313-325 in R. Torrence & J. Grattan (eds).
MACHIDA H. et al. (1996) “Holocene explosive eruptions of Witori and Dakataua caldera volcanoes in
west New Britain, Papua New Guinea.” Quaternary International 34-36: 65-78.
MATA-PERELLÓ J. et al. (2012) “Social geology: a new perspective on geology.” Dyna 2012(February):
1-10.
RIEDE Felix (2016) Volcanic activity and human society. Quaternary International 394 (thematic issue),
193 pp.
RIEDE Felix (ed.) (2015) Past vulnerability: vulcanic eruptions and human vulnerability in traditional
societies past and present. Aarhus University Press.
SHEETS Payson D. & GRAYSON Donald K. (eds) (1979) Volcanic activity and human ecology. New
York: Academic Press.
SHIMOYAMA Satoru (1999) “The present situation and problems of Disaster Archaeology: a report of
WAC4.” Jinruishi Kenkyū 11(May): 331-335 (in Japanese with English title and abstract).
–––––(2002a) “Volcanic disasters and archaeological sites in southern Kyushu, Japan”, pp. 326-341 in
Torrence & Grattan (eds).
––––– (2002b) “Basic characteristics of disasters”, pp. 19-27 in R. Torrence & J. Grattan (eds).
STEWART Iain S. & GILL Joel C. (2017) “Social geology – integrating sustainability concepts into Earth
Sciences.” Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 128.2: 165-172.
TORRENCE Robin & GRATTAN John (eds) (2002) Natural disasters and cultural change. London:
Routledge.
TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific xiv

Stylistic Notes
• All Asian names occur surname first; when the whole name is given, the surname is in small capitals.
Non-Asian names linked with Asian names (e.g. as co-authors) also have the surname in small caps.
• East Asian terms in chapters are given characters in the Glossary.
• Measurements are given in metric; mm = millimetre, cm = centimetre, m = metres, km = kilometres,
dm = diameter
• Korean names are given in McCune-Reischauer transliteration, with South Korean government
alternatives in parentheses.
• Macrons are eliminated from the names of the main Japanese islands (properly Kyūshū, Honshū, and
Hokkaidō).
• BC/AD are used instead of BCE/CE; the former are more visually distinct, and the latter do not avoid
the issue that year 0 (the birth of Christ) is used as the watershed – a meaningless year in East Asian
history: nothing ‘in common’ about it.
• Figure sources are given at the end of each chapter rather than in captions.
• Figures are cross-referenced throughout the volume in the format ‘Chapter number: Figure number’.
• Spelling is British or English according to author/translator preference.
• Multiple references to edited volumes in bibliographies are referred to the editor(s) entry.
• The bibliography style is unique to this volume.
• NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
• Author/editor entries in bibliographies are limited to three persons, plus et al.
• 4th-level sub-headings are not listed in the Table of Contents.
Creative Commons Licenses

as used in different chapters and appendices of this volume:
CC0 Public Domain
CC BY-SA 2.0 [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0]
CC-BY-SA 2.5 [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5]
CC BY 2.5 [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5]
CC BY 3.0 [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0]
CC BY-SA 3.0 [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0]
CC-BY-SA 3.0 unported [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by sa/3.0]
CC-BY-SA-3.0 [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0]
CC-BY-SA-4.0 [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode]
CC BY-SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0]
CC-by-4.0 International License [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/deed.en_GB]
Recurrent Abbreviations (exclusive of bibliographies)

• # = number
• aDNA = ancient DNA
• b. = born
• BCE or bc = uncalibrated 14C dates given in the Smithsonian’s Global Volcanism Program
• BP, bp = lit. before present:
bp sensu stricto = uncalibrated radiocarbon date; before present = 1950
BP sensu stricto = calibrated or true calendar date, calendar years before present
• ca. = circa, ‘about’
xv Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

• cal. = radiocarbon date calibrated by wiggle-matching to dendrochronological date
• CBS = Changbaishan volcano
• 14C = radiocarbon, carbon isotope 14
• ch. = chapter
• CVL = Commission on Volcanic Lakes
• DPRK = Democratic People’s Republic of Korea = North Korea
• DRE = Dense Rock Equivalent
• EDMA = Energy Dispersive (X-ray) Micro-analysis
• EPMA = Electron Probe Micro-Analysis
• est. = estimated
• GARF = Gunma Archaeological Research Foundation
• GSC = Geological Survey of Canada
• HPD = Highest Posterior Density (used in radiocarbon calibrations)
• IAVCEI = International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior
• IWGCL = International Working Group on Crater Lakes
• JAA = Japanese Archaeological Association
• JMA = Japan Meteorological Agency
• ka (used in science publications), see kya
• Kor. = pronunciation in the Korean language
• kya = thousand years ago
• Kyōi = Kyōiku Iinkai = Board of Education
• LIP = Large Igneous Provinces
• Maibun = Research Institute for Buried Cultural Properties
• ME = Millennium Eruption (of Mt Paektu)
• ML = ‘local magnitude’, the original Richter scale for measuring earthquake strength; includes Mb
(body-wave magnitude), Ms (surface-wave magnitude), and Mw (moment magnitude)
• msl (metres above sea level)
• Mt = mountain (-shan in Chinese, e.g. Changbaishan; -san in Japanese and Korean, e.g. Paektu-san)
• mya = million years ago
• Nabunken = Nara Research Institute for Cultural Properties
• n.d. = no publication date given
• NSF = National Science Foundation, USA
• PDC = pyroclastic density current = pyroclastic flows & surges
• pH = lit. ‘potential of Hydrogen’: a measure of relative acidity or alkalinity of a substance
• PI = Principal Investigator
• PRC = People’s Republic of China
• r. = reigned
• SAA = Society for American Archaeology

• uncal. = uncalibrated radiocarbon date
• ‘unpg.’ in citations means ‘unpaginated’, becoming more common in online materials and difficult for
quotation attribution
• USGS = United States Geological Survey
• VEI = Volcano Explosivity Index
• WAC = World Archaeology Congress
TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific xvi

Tephra abbreviations (references to volcanoes in Index II)
• A-Ito (Ito pumice), see Aira
• As-A, As-B, As-C (Asama tephra), see Asama
• Aso-4 tephra, see Aso
• AT (Aira-Tanzawa volcanic ash), see Aira
• B-Tm (Baekdu–Tomakomai tephra), see Paektu
• FA = Hr-FA
• FP = Hr-FP
• Hk-TP (Hakone-Tokyo pumice ), see Hakone
• Hr-FA (Futatsudake Ash), see Haruna
• Hr-FP (Futatsudake Pumise), see Haruna
• K-Ah (Akahoya tephra ), see Kikai
• K-Ky (Kōya pyroclastic surge), see Kikai
• Km-11, Km-12, Km(gr), see Kaimondake
• KS1 eruption, see Ksudach
• Ku-a, Ku-b (Kumakura ash), see Kumakura
• On-Pm I (Ontake pumice I), see Ontake
• To-a (Towada-a ash), see Towada
xvii Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

CONTRIBUTORS
ARAI Fusao Deceased; formerly Professor Emeritus, Gunma University, Japan

BARNES Gina L. Professor Emeritus, Durham University; Affiliate, Department of Earth Sciences, Durham
University & Professorial Research Associate, SOAS University of London
(corresponding editor, [email protected])
BOURGEOIS Jody Emeritus Professor, Earth and Space Science; Participating Faculty, University of
Washington Quaternary Research Center, Seattle, USA
FITZHUGH Ben Professor of Anthropology & Director, Quaternary Research Center, University of
Washington, Seattle, USA
FUNK Caroline Research Assistant Professor, Asian Studies, Anthropology, University at Buffalo, New
York, USA
HORAGUCHI Masashi Gunma Archaeological Research Foundation, Shibukawa, Gunma, Japan
KOBAYASHI Masaru Retired, Akita Prefecture Cultural Assets Research Center, Daisen City, Akita, Japan
LINDSTRØM Torill Christine Professor, Department of Psychosocial Science, Faculty of Psychology, &
Centre for Early Sapiens Behaviour (SapienCE), Faculty of Humanities, University of Bergen, Norway
MACHIDA Hiroshi Professor Emeritus, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Tokyo, Japan
MARUYAMA Kōji Curator, Iwate Prefectural Museum, Morioka City, Iwate, Japan
MURAKAMI Yoshinao Akita Prefecture Cultural Assets Research Center, Daisen City, Akita, Japan
OETELAAR Gerald Professor, Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Calgary,
Alberta, Canada
PRATT Keith Emeritus Professor of Chinese, Durham University, UK
SAKAGUCHI Hajime Retired from Gunma Prefecture Buried Cultural Properties Research Group;
member, Japanese Archaeological Association, Japan
SODA Tsutomu Institute of Tephrochronology for Nature and History, Co. Ltd., Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
SUGIYAMA Hidehiro Gunma Archaeological Research Foundation, Shibukawa, Gunma, Japan
TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific xviii

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to TephroArchaeology
Gina L. BARNES *
An Archaeological Sub-discipline in Japan

‘TephroArchaeology’ 1 is a translation of the Japanese word kazanbai kōkogaku (lit. volcanic ash
archaeology), referring to a sub-discipline of archaeology that has developed in Japan in the last few
decades. The Japanese term was coined by archaeologist SHINTŌ Kōichi and developed by geologist ARAI
Fusao. The historiography of the field’s
development within Japan is written by SODA
Tsutomu (Chapter 2), who translated the term into
English as ‘tephroarchaeology’. That Japan
should take the lead in formalizing such an
archaeological sub-discipline is not surprising,
given the geographical prominence of volcanoes
in that country. Active volcanoes in Japan account
for 10% of the world’s total, up to 110 in number
depending on the source reference and definition.
In Japan, the definition of ‘active volcano’ has
been modified through time. The first list of active
volcanoes was made by the Committee for
Predicting Volcanic Activity, formed in 1974 of
university specialists and government workers in
hazard prevention (Nakata 2005). At that time, 66
volcanoes were recorded as active within the last
thousand years. The list was revised in 1999
(active within two thousand years), and in 2003
(active within ten thousand years) (Yamasato
2005). By 2006, 108 volcanoes were listed as
active during the last 10,000 years (Aizawa 2006),
and the current list (JMA 2013) has 111 entries.
This list does not include volcanoes that erupted
FIGURE 1 VOLCANIC FOOTPRINTS IN JAPAN
prior to the Holocene; earlier volcanoes are
Volcanoes mentioned in this chapter are red/pink
considered ‘inactive’ or even eroded, but their
products still exist in the landscape and have
formed important sources of stone for artefact and architectural use from prehistoric into modern times.
Moreover, eruptions prior to the 10 kya cut-off point for Active Volcanoes, such as Aira at 30,000 years
ago, have been very disruptive to prehistoric life and should not be ignored.
1
It is idiosyncratically capitalized here to visually distinguish it from other sub-disciplines: ‘tephrochronology’ and
‘tephrostratigraphy’.
* Professorial Research Associate, SOAS University of London & Affiliate of Earth Sciences, University of Durham
& Fellow of the Geological Society of London. [email protected]
G.L. BARNES
TephroArchaeology is only one of several sub-disciplines to have developed in Japan in the last 40 years.
Three of them can be considered under what I call ‘Tectonic Archaeology’: those that deal with direct
effects of being located in a tectonically active subduction zone region. These are TephroArchaeology,
Earthquake Archaeology (jishin kōkogaku), and Tsunami Archaeology (tsunami kōkogaku).2 The focus of
TephroArchaeology on volcanic ash has been conditioned by the fact that although active volcanoes have
a relatively small footprint in the Japanese landscape (Figure 1), every inch of the archipelago has been
subject to tephra cover of varying quantities (Machida 1980: 29). However, some areas have been more
affected than others due to the clustered distribution of the volcanoes. In particular, archaeologists in
Kagoshima and Miyazaki Prefectures3 in southern Kyushu (Shimoyama 2002a; Chapter 12 herein) and
Gunma Prefectures (Shiraishi 1992; Tsude 1992; and Chapters 9, 10 and 11 herein) have found themselves
excavating sites that have been heavily covered with tephra layers. These are the two areas in Japan in
which the sub-discipline developed, and its nature is due to the condition of the archaeological record –
not from a perspective of Quaternary volcanological processes or terminology. More recently, excavations
involving tephra layers have increasingly been acknowledged in Aomori, Akita and Iwate Prefectures of
the northern Tōhoku region (Chapters 6 and 8), extending the reach of TephroArchaeology throughout
Honshu.4
Japanese contributions to disaster studies began around the turn of this century (Shimoyama 1997, 1999,
2002b; Machida & Sugiyama 2002). Recently, a movement in Japan has emerged to recombine the several
sub-disciplines named above, that developed somewhat separately, into an archaeology of all sorts of
natural disasters (Okamura et al. 2013; Okamura 2015). A Disaster Archaeology database is currently
being established at the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties (Nabunken) by reviewing
published site reports and collating information (Okamura 2015: 251). This resumes the early efforts of
Shimoyama (1997, 2002b) and the presentation of the archaeology of natural disasters at previous World
Archaeology Congresses (WAC4, WAC5) (Shimoyama 1999; Torrence & Grattan 2002; Grattan &
Torrence 2007). However, the emphasis of this research in examining past disaster damage and resiliency
differs from that proposed by Gould (2007), which deals with current disasters and the recovery of
information, aligned with forensic anthropology.
Grattan and Torrence (2007: 11) spoke of a ‘new discipline’ prefacing their collected volume on the
cultural impacts of volcanic eruptions; however, they did not give it a name, referring instead to the
“science of environmental catastrophes” noted by Leroy (2006). In contrast, this volume takes the
formulation of the Japanese sub-discipline of TephroArchaeology as its starting point and investigates the
various aspects of volcanic disasters primarily in the North Pacific, most of which range far beyond
consideration of volcanic ash per se. For a view from the Southwest Pacific, see Cronin et al. (2008); for
other areas of the world, see Harris (1999); and for a geological introduction similar to this, see Elson &
Ort (2018).
A Briefing on Volcanic Matters

Although it is always tedious to have to explain specialist jargon or terminology, the chapters herein may
be using frameworks and concepts derived from volcanology that are unfamiliar to archaeologists. This
section aims to provide as much of a background as necessary to put the chapters in context and note
where within them the terms and concepts are being used. This introduction is augmented by: Appendix
2
See review articles by Barnes (2010, 2015, 2017). The effects of both volcanic eruptions and tsunami, however,
are acknowledged to be further widespread than the subduction zone itself. For a quick review of the geological
development of Japan and introduction to terminology, see Barnes (2003, 2008).
3
See Appendix A-1 for prefecture, district, and island locations and boundaries.
4
The literature in Japanese on excavations in these prefectures is too vast to list! See individual chapters for site-
specific references.
TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific 2

1. INTRODUCTION TO TEPHROARCHAEOLOGY
B, providing a basic geological background in elements, minerals, and magma as relevant to volcanology;
Appendix C, contextualizing Pacific Rim volcanoes within the North Pacific subduction zones; and an
Index which lists terms related to volcanoes and tephras (as well as archaeological sites). Volcanoes
worldwide mentioned in this volume appear in Figure 2. More can be discovered in the Global Volcanism
Program (2013) of the Smithsonian Institution, the Volcano Hazards Program (USGS n.d.), and in
Volcano World (OSU 2017) etc., while Japanese volcanoes are described online at the JMA (2013 in
English, 2017 in Japanese).
Volcanic Ash or Tephra?
FIGURE 2 WORLDWIDE LOCATIONS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY MENTIONED IN THIS VOLUME

For Japan and Cascadia, see Appendix C; for the North Pacific, see Chapter 5: Figure 1
‘Volcanic ash’ was historically and mistakenly equated with wood ash, and even its formal term as a
‘pyroclast’ (‘fire fragment’) perhaps encourages this line of thinking. However, in a geological context,
‘ash’ is simply a measure of particle size: pyroclasts less than 2mm. These are extruded from a volcano
during an explosive eruption which pulverizes the magma and rock surrounding the volcanic vent.
Volcanic ash has variable composition: it may contain rock particles, fragments of glass bubbles, and
individual mineral crystals that had already formed within the magma. It can be divided into coarse ash
(2 mm–0.06 mm) and fine ash (<0.06 mm) – the latter may also be called ‘dust’ (Lowe & Hunt 2001).
Ironically, the term ‘tephra’ originally meant ‘ash’ in Greek, but it has been adopted in geology to
encompass particles of all sizes, including ash, referring specifically to those materials aerially extruded
during a volcanic eruption. This definition differentiates tephra from lava, which generally seeps out of a
volcano as a viscous substance on the ground except as ejected in fire fountains and as lava bombs. Tephra
is divided into size classes: ash (<2 mm), lapilli (2–64 mm), then bombs and blocks (>64 mm). Lava
bombs are ejected as fluid and solidify during flight (forming pointed ovoid shapes like an American or
rugby football), while rock blocks are ejected as solids (Tucker 1991: table 10.1).
These latter projectiles can be very large in size and are potentially quite dangerous. In order to be
inclusive of all sizes of volcanic ejecta, the term ‘tephra’ is now preferred to that of ‘volcanic ash’ – a
term which should be confined to describing ash-sized particles.
3 Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

G.L. BARNES
Tephra Deposition
Tephra is usually deposited on the ground in one of three ways,
in addition to the actual ejection of large projectiles: through
fallout from an eruption column and ash cloud; by heavy, dense
clouds of ash and rock fragments rolling down the flanks of a
volcano as ‘pyroclastic flows’; or as lighter ‘pyroclastic surges’
composed mainly of ash. Pyroclastic flows and surges cross the
landscape in different ways, affecting how they will be
discovered in the archaeological record. Pyroclastic flows tend
to follow established stream valleys leading down the mountain’s
flanks, and they can cut deeper valleys as described for Mt
Paektu [Baekdu]5 in Chapter 7. Their remains thus concentrate in
hollows. Surges, on the other hand, can flow over hills but still FIGURE 3 TEPHRA LAYERING BY DEPOSIT TYPE
settle thicker in depressions than on rises (Figure 3). These A Ash fallout blanketing
contrast with the more even blanketing by aerial fallout of tephra. B Pyroclastic flow in hollows
Thus, the discovery of thinner or thicker tephra layers in a C Pyroclastic surge draping the
confined area of archaeological excavation may not represent the topography
wider depositional situation – even before erosion, weathering,
etc.
Along with pyroclastic flows, lahars can be highly dangerous; these are water-saturated tephra flows that
may start as landslides and then flow down hollows in the landscape – including river valleys where the
tephra may be put into suspension in the water and be carried great distances. Lahar movement may
coincide with deposition if the tephra is extremely wet; or rain-saturated tephra deposits may move at any
time – even years – after their deposition. Barring the first possibility of wet tephra flowing upon
deposition to form a primary deposit, by definition lahars are secondary deposits of tephra. They can
consist of fine-grained mudflows of volcanic ash (the original meaning of lahar in Indonesian), or a lahar
can be full of rocks and large-size tephra (then referred to as blocky debris flows). Lahars and debris flows
travel much slower than pyroclastic flows but can extend many kilometres. Lahar damage associated with
the 6th-century eruptions of Mt Haruna are discussed for Gunma Prefecture in Chapters 9, 10, and 11,
while Chapter 6 deals with lahar deposits having intruded into and buried standing houses in 10th-century
Tōhoku.
The eruption sequence of a volcano can change during a single eruption or between eruption events (Soda
1993, 2006). For example as presented in Chapter 10, a 6th-century volcanic event begins with a volcanic
ash fallout, then a pyroclastic surge, and finally a pyroclastic flow during the same eruption. Although
several ‘styles’ of eruption are used to classify volcanic activity, as presented below, the idiosyncratic
nature of individual eruptions is also becoming more recognized and studied (Cashman & Biggs 2014).
In reconciling the general or common aspects of volcanic eruptions with the unique histories of individual
volcanoes, the archaeologist is in a position to increase this geological knowledge through detailed
excavation.
Tephra deposition is ideally depicted as lobate areas of decreasing tephra thicknesses, with the direction
of ash deposition determined by the prevailing winds (Figure 4); these distributional trajectories can vary
with wind patterns from season to season, so the tephra from different eruptions of the same volcano will
not always fall in the same direction. Moreover, animations of tephra-fall distribution from the 2010
eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland rather put paid to the idealistic view of the interactions between
5
This volume uses the McCune-Reischauer transcription system for Korean; the South Korean government
spelling is given in square brackets on first mention.

tephra and wind (Crowe

2010; djxatlanta 2010;
NASA 2010); this
dissonance has yet to be
incorporated into ongoing
archaeological fieldwork.
From modern assessments,
a tephra fall between 10 and
15 cm deep and lasting for 5
to 7 days will kill pasture
plants, crops and soil
microbes – leaving the area
sterile for up to a year; if
more than 15 cm of tephra
falls, all vegetation is killed,
and “soil formation must
begin again from this ‘time
zero’” (USGS n.d, unpg.).
These statistics suggest that
the 500 km3 Dense Rock
Equivalent (DRE) of tephra
deposition from the Kikai
eruption (Tatsumi et al.
2018) exterminated living
FIGURE 4 ISOPACH DISTRIBUTION OF AKAHOYA (K-AH) TEPHRA
things in most of the south-
erupted from Kikai off southern Kyushu ca. 7300 bp
western Japanese Islands,
including all of Shikoku and
most of Kyushu. This is confirmed by investigations that found a hiatus of ca. 900 years before
reoccupation of the land from the north and west (Machida & Sugiyama 2002). According to breaking
news, there is a 1% chance of a large eruption from a massive lava dome in Kikai caldera within the next
100 years, following activity there in 1934–1935 (Tatsumi et al. 2018). Such lava domes form at the end
of an eruption and often collapse later, becoming deadly pyroclastic flows.
Pumice & Scoria
Cross-cutting the size classes presented above, tephra can take different forms depending on the chemical
composition of the parent magma. Two important types are pumice and scoria; both are vesicular glasses,
formed of magma froth and riddled with holes which were once gas bubbles. Pumice is a product of high-
silica magma, whereas scoria forms from low-silica magma (see Appendix B-3). A common name for
scoria is ‘cinders’ – another mistaken analogy with burned material – and scoria extrusions are often said
to form ‘cinder cones’. Cinders are most commonly of lapilli size, though large bombs do exist.
Pumice is more common than scoria in the Northern Pacific because subduction zone magmas have
intermediate to high levels of silica. We are mostly aware of small pumice rocks which we use as bathing
utensils. However, like scoria, it can occur in all size-ranges and can be deposited as a pyroclastic flow or
fallout (Yagi et al. 2006: table 1),6 accumulating to be several hundred metres thick. Pumice tends to exist
for long periods as unconsolidated material and is subject to erosion during that time. Southern Kyushu
6
The term ‘airfall’ is deemed passé by Lowe & Hunt (2001); ‘fallout’ or tephra-fall’ are preferred.

G.L. BARNES
Island still sports deep deposits of pumice called shirasu (Figure 5). It was emplaced by the Ito pyroclastic
flow during the eruption of the Aira Caldera 29–30 thousand years ago.
With sand of an average grain size (0.062–1 mm), the shirasu is unconsolidated and therefore easily dug
but too deep to excavate from the top; it has presumably buried numerous Palaeolithic sites, some of which
have been excavated during road cuts.
Tephrochronology & Tephra Characterization
Lowe distinguishes between broad and strict
definitions of tephrochronology. The former
encompasses “all aspects of tephra studies and their
application” (2017: 4, fig. 2). The latter is more of
concern here: a tephra layer comprising an event-
based distribution of sediment across the Earth’s
surface whose primary deposition provides a natural
“stratigraphically fixed tie-point” that allows correla-
tion between locations on a shared time-plane (Lowe
2017: 1). Correlation of distributions relies on
accurate tephra characterizations or fingerprints,
obtainable through both field observation and
laboratory procedures. Once identified, these key
tephra layers form a contemporaneous marker bed
over broad swaths of landscape, continuous or even
discontinuous.
In Appendix E, Machida and Arai outline the steps
FIGURE 5 SHIRASU PUMICE IN ROAD CUT, SOUTHERN KYUSHU
leading to tephra identification (separating it from
non-tephra sediments) and characterization
(distinguishing features of each tephra) – first in the field and then in the lab. Proper field observations
are extremely important, as they often provide defining characteristics for a tephra which cannot be known
through lab analyses. This means that tephra samples should be taken not by archaeologists but by
tephrochronologists, who can make a proper examination of in situ deposition. This is particularly
important in distinguishing different strata of tephra from a ‘single’ eruption that may undergo several
stages, as characterized for the Haruna Hr-FA tephra (Sōda 2006).
Laboratory procedures include optical and scanning electron microscopy, electron probe and geochemical
analyses (Lowe 2017: table 3); Machida and Arai also describe the uses of refractive index for tephra
characterization (Appendix E-6), a method developed in the early 1970s (Arai 1972). Geochemical
analyses with electron microprobe can reveal the chemical composition of individual mineral crystals and
glass shards. The identification of a previously unknown tephra from Mt Samalas in Indonesia, by
correlating the composition of single flakes of volcanic glass from an Iceland core with the composition
of pumice deposits near the Samalas volcano that erupted in 1257, have been been taken as fact despite
the tentative conclusions of the researchers (Lavigne et al. 2013; Lavigne & Guillet 2015). But as Lane et
al. (2011: 87) caution, the chemical compositions of tephra which erupted at different times from the same
volcanic system may have similar compositions; therefore “it seems that composition alone is insufficient
for the correlation of some widespread tephra layers: good stratigraphic information and/or robust dating
control are also essential.”
Despite the ‘chronology’ in tephrochronology, the absolute age of the tephra may be unknown and be
dated only through association with cultural materials or relationship with other dated tephra in

stratigraphic sequences. Even in these cases, one tephra type still may provide an “age-equivalent dating
method” (Lowe 2017: 1) because it represents a slice of time that is correlated over a widespread area via
the distribution of the tephra.
Lithified & Weathered Tephra
Tephra when solidified becomes a
sedimentary rock – even though it is of
igneous origin. Volcanic ash forms tuff, a soft
carvable rock (Figure 6) much quarried for
use in architecture. If the volcanic ash is
extremely hot when laid down, as in a
pyroclastic surge, it may lithify as welded
tuff, with the clasts welded together.
Pyroclastic flow sediments, particularly those
containing much pumice and/or blocky
material, lithify as ‘ignimbrites’ or as welded
tuff. Ash that accompanies the pyroclastic
flow is co-ignimbrite ash.
The weathering of tephra, whether lithified or
unconsolidated, produces various types of
clays dependent on climate, precipitation,
flora, and its chemical composition (see
Chapter 13). Exposure to water will leach out
FIGURE 6 PEACE BODHISATTVA SCULPTURE OF OYA TUFF
the alkali and alkaline elements (calcium–Ca, disused tuff quarry, Utsunomiya City, Tochigi Prefecture
sodium–Na, magnesium–Mg, and potas-
sium–K), leaving concentrations of
aluminium–Al, silicon–Si, and iron–Fe
(Velde & Meunier 2008: 132, 249). These,
together with oxygen-O and hydrogen–H, are
the building blocks of 2:1 structure clays
(Figure 7) which support agriculture around
the world.
Weathering of tephra by water alone can take
close to a million years, as documented for
New Zealand (Lowe 1986). Once plants
‘install themselves’ on a rock surface,
however, plant/rock interaction can form
clays within years or decades. The type of
plant grown influences the type of clay FIGURE 7 ATOMIC POSITIONS IN A 2:1 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF CLAY
formed. Soils that are derived from volcanic

ash are called ‘andosols’, with ando being a Japanese word meaning ‘dark earth’; nevertheless, andosols
(or andisols) in Japan are actually called kurobokudo ‘black fluffy earth’ (see Chapter 13). The clay species
typical of andosols include gibbsite, kaolinite/halloysite, and smectite as well as the alteration products
allophane and imogolite (Shoji et al. 1993). The island of Honshu (at least) in Japan has been called an
island of smectite (Taylor & Eggleton 2001: fig. 2.48). ‘Imogolite’ is also a Japanese word derived from
imo+ko meaning ‘potato child’ (imogo) – obviously an agricultural reference. Chapter 14 deals further

G.L. BARNES
with these agricultural implications, hoping to shed light on the argument whether volcanic ash soils are
good for agriculture or not.
Other forms of tephra are also important in Japan. Weathered pumice is often called miso-tsuchi – earth
with the grainy consistency (and colour!) of miso, the fermented soybean cooking ingredient. Perhaps the
most notorious unconsolidated tephras are those incorporated into the Kantō Loam – deep deposits of
weathered Middle–Late Pleistocene loess and redeposited volcanic ash from Mt Fuji and Mt Hakone that
contain many Palaeolithic sites within them. In Chapter 2, Soda cautions that the volcanic ash in the Kantō
Loam layers is of secondary deposition, not primarily laid in an eruption.
Describing Volcanoes and Their Eruptions
Several distinctions have been made above that follow from magma chemistry, volcanic structures, and
the many modes of eruption. These multi-dimensional aspects interact in different ways to produce
volcanic products of unique specificity. Space allows only brief characterizations of these below. For
details, see the Smithsonian’s webpage ‘Types and Processes Galleries’ in the Global Volcanism Program
(2013) and Sigurdsson et al. (2015).
Magma Types
Magmas are primarily categorized by their silica contents along a continuum from rich to poor (Appendix
B: Figures B-1, B-3, Table B-2). In the past, silica-rich magmas have been described as ‘acid’ because it
was originally thought that silicic acid was a major component. This has been disproved, and now the
term ‘felsic’ is preferred, derived from the magma’s feldspar and silica contents. Silica-poor magmas are
classified as ‘mafic’, derived from their manganese and iron contents; magmas virtually lacking in silica
are ‘ultra-mafic’. And in between rich and poor are the intermediate magmas. Chemically, these three
compositions are described from rich to intermediate to poor as having the composition of rhyolite
(rhyolitic), andesite (andesitic), and basalt (basaltic). Thus, rhyolitic products are rich in silica, basalt is
poor in silica, and andesite is intermediate between the two. The greater the silica content of a magma, the
more viscous it is, preventing it from flowing freely.
These magma types influence both the energy of the eruption and the shape of the volcanic pile. Most
silica-poor (basaltic) lava is emitted slowly in ‘effusive eruptions’; their low viscosity allows gas to escape
gradually. Silica-rich (rhyolitic) magmas tend to be more explosive in nature because their viscous nature
does not allow continuous de-gassing: the gas builds up pressure in the magma and causes ‘explosive
eruptions’. These different magma types lead to different shapes of volcanic edifices produced.
Volcano Shapes
Most basaltic volcanoes emit lava slowly, in effusive eruptions, spreading over large areas. Flood basalts
that flow from fissure vents can cover hundreds of square kilometres and accumulate to several kilometres
deep, forming Large Igneous Provinces (LIP). The Siberian Traps (Figure 2) are one such example of an
LIP. Hot spots and magma plumes, which arise from deep in the Earth’s mantle usually within a tectonic
plate, characteristically form basaltic shield volcanoes which are broad and low, such as the Hawaiian
Island volcanoes. Mt Paektu (Chapter 7) apparently began as a shield volcano before building into a cone
with a change in magma composition. Fissure vents on these volcanoes can also be responsible for
outpourings of lava. Basaltic volcanoes, however, are not immune to the pressures of gas or the addition
of water, both of which increase explosivity. Cinder cones and spatter cones can form from explosively
emitted basalt, resulting in piles of small particles in the first instance or droplets of solidifying magma in
the second.

As magma becomes silica-rich, more tephra than lava is extruded through more explosive eruptions,
forming stratovolcanoes. Cone-shaped volcanoes are young stratovolcanoes, so named for the multiple
eruptions that build up layers of tephra, leading them also to be called composite volcanoes. These are the
idealized Fujiyamas of the world. Some composite volcanoes have multiple vents and build a small
mountain range with different peaks formed from different eruptions, making them compound volcanoes.
Mt. Haruna in Japan is such a compound volcano, with the Futatsudake vent having exuded tephra that
caused great damage in 6th-century Japan, as discussed in Chapters 9, 10, and 11. Stratovolcano products
are usually andesitic to dacitic (intermediate to medium-rich in silica) in composition and often host a
crater lake less than 1 km in diameter after eruption.
Two other types of craters can occur on flat land: maars and tuff rings. Both result from the interaction of
water with a magma source and cause explosive distribution of pyroclastic material. Maars were initially
identified in southern Germany, but Lake Nyos in Cameroon is one of those existing worldwide. Laacher
See (Riede 2017)7 is often called a maar, but its crater resulted from a Plinian eruption rather than the
more maar-like eruption caused by a mixture of water and magma. There are three maars in northwestern
Japan that are named as ‘lagoons’; two are mentioned in Chapter 8 as Ninomegata and Sannomegata
(Figure 1 above).
Silica-rich magma may form a lava dome during the last stage of eruption within the volcanic crater itself,
as with the current dacite cone at Mt Haruna; or a dome may build up through time and at vents other than
the main crater. They can be very unstable, and dome collapse can cause great pyroclastic flows (Figure
8).
Mega-eruptions can occur on stratovolcanoes or shield volcanoes; the summit and flanks of the volcano
are subject to collapse inwards to form calderas, after emptying tremendous amounts of material from the
magma chamber. Some
calderas form in clusters,
doming the landscape
before erupting and
collapsing; these are the
largest and often most
difficult to recognize as
belonging to a volcano.
The classic case is
Yellowstone Park in the
north-central United
States, the park itself
consisting of three
overlapping calderas.
The most recent
Yellowstone caldera
formed 640,000 years

ago, measuring 48 x 72
km – smaller than the
FIGURE 8 THE CO-IGNIMBRITE ASH CLOUD OF A PYROCLASTIC FLOW previous erupted caldera
Caused by lava dome collapse at Mt Unzen, Kyushu (NPS 2017). New
as caught on film on 8 June 1991 by co-editor SODA Tsutomu, who hails from caldera fields have been
Nagasaki Prefecture elucidated across the
7
Also known as Lachaer See.

G.L. BARNES
Nevada–Utah state borders; the largest known eruption 30 million years ago, ejecting about 5500 km3 of
pyroclastic material which solidified to form the Wah Wah tuff, came from an unnamed oval caldera about
40 x 87 km in area (Best et al. 2013; King n.d.).
There are 14 caldera volcanoes in Japan (JMA 2013), one of which is Mt Aso in central Kyushu, which
erupted 70–90,000 years ago; the caldera is 25 km in diameter, and the pyroclastic flows from its eruptions
cover most of Kyushu Island. Towada Lake in northern Japan sits in a 10 km diameter caldera that formed
through many eruption events, one forming a smaller caldera 2 km across within the caldera lake. Towada
is a grand tourist attraction – as so many caldera lakes are. Towada last erupted in 915 AD through a small
volcano, Ogurayama, sited on the smaller crater rim. Chapter 8 assesses the effects on the populations of
northern Tōhoku of the Towada eruption together with the 10th-century Mt Paektu eruption. Crater Lake
in Oregon is a caldera about 9.5 km across; the eruption that formed it around 6800 years ago spread
Mazama Ash over much of northwestern North America. Its effects on the landscape are investigated in
Chapter 4.
Eruption Styles
As mentioned above, volcanic eruptions are classified along a continuum of effusive to explosive styles.
Effusive eruptions consist mainly of lava flows and tend to be basaltic, while the explosive eruptions
involve the fragmentation of magma and country rock (the rock through which the magma intrudes) to
form pyroclasts, produced by andesitic to rhyolitic magmas. However, any volcanic vent or fissure,
regardless of edifice type or magma chemistry, can produce either and/or both styles at different stages of
eruption or in different eruptions. This makes tracing the eruption history of a volcano (and its several
vents) very complicated and involves multiple lava/tephra identifications and dating. Tephrostratigraphy
and tephrochronology are the two sub-disciplines charged with these analyses.
There are six or seven ‘styles’ of eruptions, often named after the volcanoes where the conditions were
first described – Hawaiian, Strombolian, Plinian, Vulcanian, Pelean, etc.; but the number of styles and
their descriptions often overlap, partly due to historical progress in characterizing them. Generally, the
styles move from effusive Hawaiian-style basaltic eruptions to super-explosive rhyolitic eruptions of
Ultra-Plinian style (King n.d.). Included in the last are supervolcano eruptions such as Yellowstone and
the Wah Wah Springs volcano (Best et al. 2013). The styles are based on the volume of erupted tephra
and the eruption column height (USGS 2016). The severity is measured on the Volcanic Explosivity
Index; from VEI 2 upwards, the scale is logarithmic. Thus, the Wah Wah Springs pyroclastic emissions
(VEI 8) in the southwestern USA, at 5500 km3 DRE, were 5000 times greater than the Crater Lake eruption
(VEI 7) at 150 km3 DRE in the northwest (King n.d.). From VEI 6 upwards, volcanic eruption columns
can send gases and particles into the stratosphere (>15–50 km), making them a global hazard. The
explosive styles and their products are (Figure 9): Strombolian: cinder cones; Phreatomagmatic: base
surges and maars; Sub-Plinian & Vulcanian: composite volcanoes, lava, tephra, small pyroclastic surges;
Plinian: tephra, pyroclastic surges, small to medium caldera formation; Ultra-Plinian: enormous
pyroclastic surges, tephra (mainly small glass shards), with large caldera and pyroclastic terrace formation.
Explosivity is increased by both gas pressure and the presence of water, be it groundwater, lakes, or ice
and snow cover, etc. Magma reacts to water as hot oil does, so any water that meets magma can cause a
reaction, instantly turning the water to steam and driving the explosion of the magma (often called
‘phreatomagmatic’ or hydromagmatic explosions). Volcanoes with crater lakes or that are covered with
snow and ice, therefore, comprise a greater hazard than those that are not. Eruptions may also be termed
‘phreatic’ when water is turned to steam and expelled with country rock but not involving molten magma.
We tend to think of volcanic eruptions as single events in time, but in fact they are often comprised of a
series of events, as illustrated by Mt Unzen in Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan (JMA n.d.). Historical eruptions

are documented for 1663, 1792, and 1798; but beginning in 1922 through 1989, earthquakes occurred
repeatedly every few years and almost annually from 1966. These presaged a large phreatic eruption in
1990 which was surrounded by earthquake tremors before and after. Then in 1991, small eruptions of lava
and earthquakes continued until pyroclastic flows, caused by the collapse of the growing lava dome, began
on May 24th. The pyroclastic flow on June 3rd comprised one of the most devastating volcanic events of
recent times, killing 43 people including several volcanologists and damaging 179 buildings. Another
pyroclastic flow on June 8th (Figure 8) damaged 207 buildings, and on September 15th a third pyroclastic
flow damaged 218 buildings. Lava dome growth and collapse, causing more pyroclastic flows, continued
through 1996, but from 1997 onwards there was a switch back to earthquake tremors that decreased in
frequency over time.
FIGURE 9 THE VARIOUS STYLES OF ERUPTION AND THEIR VOLCANIC STRUCTURES
Each of these volcanic events potentially leaves stratigraphic evidence that records stresses on local
populations of plants, animals, and humans. It is the job of archaeology to retrieve information on how
each of these populations were affected by or reacted to such volcanic hazards, be they single events or
multiple events through time. The main variables in terms of human behaviour and choices made when
confronted with volcanic eruptions are discussed in Chapter 15.
Gas Emissions
In the Forum discussions noted in the Preface, one concern was whether ‘tephroarchaeology’ was a
justifiable name for this new field of endeavour because volcanic gases are not tephra but nevertheless
should be considered for their role in causing disasters due to volcanic eruptions. Included here, therefore,

G.L. BARNES
is basic information about volcanic gases so that more consideration might be given to this issue in future
tephroarchaeological research. The same is true of the next section on volcanic epi-phenomena.
The major forms of gas extruded, both from explosive pyroclastic and slower lava eruptions, are carbon
dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and the halogens fluorine (F) and chlorine (Cl), in addition to water
vapour (H2O). As we all now know, carbon dioxide is a major greenhouse gas that contributes to climate
warming. In contrast, sulphur dioxide can be converted in the atmosphere into acid rain and sulphate
aerosols through several complicated chemical routes (Khoder 2002). The aerosols serve to reflect
sunlight and cool the atmosphere, somewhat counteracting the action of greenhouse gases. In great
quantities, following a large volcanic eruption such as Tambora in 1815 (Wirakusumay & Rachmat 2017),
the aerosols can change seasonal and yearly climate until they are dispersed (Robock 2000). Eruption
columns which reach the stratosphere (>15 km) can put aerosols into circulation through the jet streams
and affect the entire globe. Surface temperatures cool 1 or 2 °C, which together with bad weather and
tephra fallout can damage crops and affect harvests for up to two years (e.g. Lavigne & Guillet 2015).
Eventually these aerosols and acid rain lead to ocean acidification.
Gases from Flood Basalts
Flood basalts are a specific type of magma extrusion through crustal fissures rather than volcanic edifices.
The eruptions can be fire fountains many metres high and/or continuous lava flows; pyroclasts can also
be extruded from the fire fountains, and gases may be released both directly through magma degassing
before and during the eruption and from the flowing lava. Flood basalt flows are generally thought to be
a product of hot spot activity.
The Laki fissure eruption in Iceland in 1783–1784 is classified as a flood basalt and provides the classic
case of disastrous effects from volcanic gas release (Thordarson & Self 1993, 2003; Thordarson et al.
1996). Approximately 235 megatons (Mt)8 of water, 122 Mt of sulfur dioxide, 15 Mt of chlorine, and 7
Mt of fluorine were released, affecting local plant and animal life (Thordarson & Self 2003: 7-4, 7-6, 7-
13). Large numbers of cattle died of fluor poisoning within 2 to 14 days of the Laki eruption, while overall
more than 60% of grazing livestock died within a year from chronic fluorosis in the affected area (Ibid.:
7-3).
Such devastation by gas emissions is generally archaeologically undetectable; the Laki cattle bones did
not remain in the archaeological record. In an attempt to assess fluorine poisoning on the human
population, researchers recently exhumed human skeletal material from two church graveyards in use at
that time and analyzed the fluorine content of teeth and bones, but they were unable to find any evidence
of skeletal fluorosis (Gestsdóttir, Baxter & Gísladóttir 2006). Despite this finding, it is estimated that 20%
of the Icelandic population died from the aftereffects of gas emissions: illness (scurvy, respiratory and
heart problems, acid rain burns); crop and forage failure, malnutrition, and a 3-year famine; and
environmental stress (Thordarson & Self 2003). Efforts to attribute increased mortality in England during
the Laki eruption, however, have not been successful (BGS 2013). More than 80% of the Laki sulphur
dioxide emissions were lofted 10 to 15 km into the lower stratosphere; the bulk of these were converted
to sulphuric aerosols through combination with water, forming the sulphuric cloud (‘haze’) that spread
over the northern hemisphere and caused unusual weather patterns and crop failures all the way to Japan
(Thordarson & Self 2003).
Within the geographic remit of this volume lie the Columbia River flood basalts of the northwestern
United States (Reidel & Tolan 1992: fig. 1B). The most accepted hypothesis for the creation of these
basalts is a hot spot for mantle plume action – possibly the same mantle plume that is responsible for
Yellowstone Park volcanics (Reeg n.d.). But because the Columbia River basalts erupted between 17 and
8
Mt = megaton = 1 x 109 kg

15 million years ago (mya), they had no impact on human communities. Other flood basalt provinces in
the western North Pacific – Emeishan in southwestern China (260 mya) and the Siberian Traps (250 mya)
in Russia – are even older (cf. Jerram & Widdowson 2005). The Emeishan sequence is 4–5 km thick
(Jerram et al. 2016) and was formed within one to two million years (Zheng et al. 2010; Shellnutt 2014).
Flood basalt eruptions have been characterized as much more dangerous than volcanic eruptions: flows
can persist over years and decades intermittently through centuries and millennia, all the while emitting
copious amounts of gas and lava. Saunders & Reichow (2009: unpg.) estimate that a single ‘flow field’ of
1500 km3 would bury the whole of the UK beneath about 6 metres of lava, or Greater London beneath
about 1 km. Assuming a total volume of 3 million km3 for the Siberian Traps, this could bury the whole
of western Europe beneath more than 1 km of basalt, or the whole of the UK beneath about 12 km.
The climatic effects of very large flood basalt emissions are potentially disastrous, as they have been
linked to three or four of the mass extinctions when concurrent with meteoric impacts (White & Saunders
2005; Rampino 2016). Human society has not yet been exposed to this extreme situation, though we are
carrying out our own form of environmental extinctions. But the climate effects from Laki were severe
enough to generate concern about the possible effects on previous communities in the archaeological
record.
Gas Emissions From Volcanoes
There has been a tendency to dismiss gas emissions from volcanoes (rather than fissures) as unimportant.
For example, Mt Asama in Japan erupted the same year as Laki, in 1783, but the amount of sulfur dioxide
was described as “inconsequential”, at 0.2% of the SO2 mass-produced by the Laki eruption (Thordarson
& Self 2003: 7-2). However, Etna, Stromboli and Vesuvius (discussed in Chapter 15) also erupted in 1783,
contributing to the dry acid fogs that damaged crops in the Mediterranean Basin. Calculations of gas
emitted from large volcanic eruptions show that several, including Mt Paektu discussed in Chapter 7,
come within an order of magnitude of
Laki’s emissions (Figure 10), and halogen
emissions from two of the volcanoes
exceeded Laki.
A rather different kind of gas hazard is the
eruption of gases – carbon dioxide (CO2)
or methane (CH4) – through lakes; these
are called lake overturns or ‘limnic
eruptions’. Some of these gas accumu-
lations result from biogenic decay
mechanisms, while others are
volcanically fed as at Lake Kivu between
the Congo and Rwanda (Nayar 2009) and
Lakes Nyos and Monoun in Cameroon
(Kusakabe 2017). In either case, the gases

are kept dissolved in the lower stratified
water column until they exsolve and erupt
catastrophically. The mechanisms are FIGURE 10 COMPARATIVE GAS EMISSIONS FROM LARGE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
hotly debated, but in the cases of Nyos
and Monoun Lakes, it is clear from its Grey = Halogens: F (Fluorine) + Cl (Chlorine)
geochemistry that the carbon dioxide Black = S (Sulphur)
derives from the mantle through a basalt
dike (Kusakabe 2017: fig. 29).

G.L. BARNES
The eruptions of such gas concentrations are lethal; because CO2 is heavier than air, the gas cloud follows
the valleys – as pyroclastic flows do – suffocating all life before the cloud disperses. The 1986 Lake Nyos
eruption instantaneously killed more than 8000 cattle and 1746 humans (Kusakabe 2017: 2, 6). At Lake
Kivu, “gaps in layers of plankton fossils at the bottom of the lake suggest that such paroxysms have struck
several times in the past 5,000 years” (Nayar 2009: 322). Kusakabe compiled oral traditions of previous
possible lake eruptions that specifically documented people moving across the landscape, giving
motivation for migrations that might be seen in the archaeological record. Without such documentary
records – oral or written – that detail these effects of volcanic gas release on local and distant populations,
how are archaeologists to identify and assess their impact on prehistoric populations? Lacustrine coring
is one approach; Barker and Bintliff (1999) further suggest the use of EDMA9 to recover evidence from
sediments of toxic gases which might have adhered to or been incorporated into tephra and deposited with
it. Only since the limnic eruptions in the mid-1980s have scientists become aware of the hazard associated
with volcanic lakes, either maars or crater lakes. After the Nyos maar eruption, an International Working
Group on Crater Lakes (IWGCL) was convened, which was formalized in 1993 as the Commission on
Volcanic Lakes (CVL, under the auspices of IAVCEI, the International Association of Volcanology and
Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior).10
Thunder & Lightning

The epi-phenomena of storm-like emissions of volcanoes have rarely been considered by archaeologists
– even though such effects have been known since Pliny the Elder recorded their occurrence during the
eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 AD. The sounds of the eruptions have been compared to thunder, as
described in Chapter 4 on behalf of prehistoric Native American populations on the Great Plains. Within
the last 200 years, volcanic lightning has been recorded over 200 times (Weirup 2010; McNutt & Williams
2010; Cimarelli et al. 2016). In 2016 scientists in two different studies documented two different ways
lightning is generated within ash plumes: by ash particle friction in the lower ash plume as recorded for
Sakurajima (Cimarelli et al. 2016), and by ice particle collision with charged ash particles in the upper
troposphere (Van Eaton et al. 2016). The impact of the sight and sound of lightning generation during
volcanic eruptions – what Elson and Ort (2018) describe as a ‘full sensory experience’ – must have added
further terror and awe for those affected.
Archaeological Implications
The sub-discipline of TephroArchaeology

The point of the above review is to emphasize the fact that TephroArchaeology cannot be isolated from
volcanic processes; these are very complicated and not understood in detail by most archaeologists. There
is more to TephroArchaeology than just digging in tephra or discovering it in excavated strata. The term
needs to be understood in its widest context of everything related to volcanic eruptions, and as Soda admits
below, we may well be on our way to adopting ‘Volcanic Archaeology’ or ‘Archaeological Volcanology’
as umbrella terms (cf. Elson & Ort 2018; Riede 2015a,b). Whatever the name of the sub-discipline, there
are two aspects that must be addressed: how archaeologists, through special methodologies, can retrieve
information on 1) the sequences of volcanic events during (and after) an eruption, and on 2) a micro-
timescale that reveals human reactions to each of those events.
9
EDMA = Energy Dispersive (X-ray) Micro-analysis
10
See the CVL website at https://iavcei-cvl.org/

The ‘archaeology’ part of the proffered umbrella terms is quintessentially cultural: this sub-discipline is
primarily concerned with the effects of volcanic eruptions on past societies – in Riede’s term, it is the
study of ‘palaeosocial volcanology’ (Riede 2015b). It meets the field of ‘historic social volcanology’
(Scarlett, forthcoming) which leads into ‘social volcanology’ as dealing with volcanic hazards, mitigation,
and studies of resilience in today’s population (e.g. Donovan 2010; Donovan, Oppenheimer & Bravo
2012). The special issue “Volcanoes and Human History” (Cashman & Giordano 2008) brought together
archaeology and oral history, while studies in the sociology of volcanoes are often published in the Journal
of Applied Volcanology, begun in 2009, and Quaternary International (Riede ed. 2016). We look forward
to seeing similar studies in the new open access journal, Volcanica. TephroArchaeology is one method by
which palaeosocial volcanology can be conducted. It comprises the archaeological techniques of capturing
the data needed for social analysis beyond standard cultural change. Moreover, archaeologically excavated
data can feed back into volcanology to inform on the minutiae of eruptions that would not necessarily be
discovered by geologists.
Nevertheless, volcanology is the bedrock for TephroArchaeological studies, and the crucial tool is for
archaeologists to be able to recognize tephra in the field in all its forms – the various macro-deposits
discussed above as well as the presence of cryptotephra, discoverable only microscopically. The second
step is to have the tephra characterized and dated. The characterization of tephra involves many
procedures, which are outlined in Appendix E. These form the basis for coordinating tephras across the
landscape and through time.
SODA Tsutomu (Chapter 2 herein) provides a history of the development of this sub-discipline in Japan,
going back to the 19th-century scholars who first took an interest in tephra deposits – including the
traveller who sketched the picture of houses buried in an eroded lahar (see Chapter 6: Figure 2). He
contextualizes the geological and archaeological work that led up to the definition of the field called
kazanbai kōkogaku (volcanic ash archaeology). Once entering the current era, he gives a detailed overview
of the tephra deposits that have affected one of the homelands of TephroArchaeology, Gunma Prefecture.
The story would be incomplete without an explanation of the role tephra dating played in the Palaeolithic
scandal of 2000 at Kami-Takamori site. Both Soda and Machida had expressed reservations about site
stratigraphy, and Soda called for a re-evaluation of the site in 1991. His views, as well as reservations
about the site by ODA Shizuo and Charles Keally, were rejected, indeed involving personal persecutions
due to the traditional academic and Japanese social characteristics of bowing to authority and non-
confrontational interaction. Perhaps this incident was needed to shake up the field to allow criticism and
critique to have a place in academic exchange. Soda finishes with a discussion of new avenues of research
being taken in TephroArchaeology in Gunma Prefecture.
KUWAHATA Mitsuhiro has written a response to the initial concept of TephroArchaeology by expanding
its original remit in prehistory to investigate historic volcanic disasters and analysis of artefacts
incorporating tephra. His presentation of Tokui’s graph (Chapter 3: Figure 1) on the disturbance gradient
of damage in volcanic disasters forms the background for several further discussions in this volume. The
procedures he specifies for dealing with tephra in the field and in the laboratory are illustrated with tephra
sections from some of the sites excavated in southern Kyushu, the second homeland of
TephroArchaeology.
Tracking Human Behaviour
There is a huge range of volcanic behaviour that must be met by appropriate human behaviour in order to
survive. The reality of sudden and/or multiple eruptions or shifting eruption styles that cannot be predicted
increases risk; perhaps the wide range of possibilities is one aspect that causes complacency when
decisions should be made about what to do in the face of an impending or ongoing eruption. Torill
Christine LINDSTRØM, in Chapter 15, presents some of the psychological mechanisms inherent in facing

G.L. BARNES
volcanic eruption risk – a new perspective that can be added to other limiting factors she names that can
also determine responses, such as geography, culture, and social and physical restraints.
The Kurile and Aleutian volcanic arcs (Appendix C-1), which form the northern border of the Pacific
Rim, are younger and compositionally different from the Japan arc which forms the stage of most of the
chapters herein. The northern arcs present geographic and climatic challenges that are absent further south,
and so they provide good comparative material to monitor small-group colonization of difficult terrain
under environmental constraints as well as volcanic hazards. Chapter 5, by Ben FITZHUGH, Caroline
FUNK, and Jody BOURGEOIS, takes issue with the standard interpretation of abandonment in the face of
volcanic disasters in the Kuril and Aleutian archipelagos. Despite geological and climatological
similarities between the arcs, the authors find that geographical constraints are foremost, conditioning
different behavioural patterns between the island chains. Most notably, the abandonments that are
apparent in the archaeological record cannot be explained by volcanic activity.
The potential long duration of intermittent volcanic activity means that each eruption, from onset to
cessation, will inspire different sets of behaviour through time and between individuals or groups
according to their beliefs, perceptions, preparedness, and social contexts. MARUYAMA Koji deals with
two successive 10th-century eruptions in Chapter 8: the 10th-century eruption of Mt Towada, now known
as Lake Towada in the northern Tōhoku area of Honshu Island, Japan (Appendix C-4), and Mt Paektu
(Baekdu or Changbaishan) on the border between China and North Korea (Appendix C-8). Maruyama has
painstakingly extracted data on the presence of these two tephras in pit-dwellings in northern Tōhoku that
have previously been recorded in published archaeological reports. Going beyond mere abandonment as
a generalized response, he has archaeologically assessed contemporaneous settlements which show either
depopulation or population increases; by matching these trends with ceramic data, he proposes differential
migration patterns between the areas. By considering together areas that were and were not affected by
tephra fallout, he has modelled differential responses among peoples of differing cultural affiliations. The
strength of his analysis lies in not limiting his study to areas affected by the eruptions per se but broadening
it to include contemporaneous sites that reveal the radiating social effects of survivor behaviour.
Moreover, such behaviour appears to have been conditioned by the nature of the social structure, varying
from egalitarian societies beyond the reach of the archaic state to those close by and benefitting from state
interaction.
Following the 10th-century Mt Towada eruption, a lahar buried many houses further north in Akita
Prefecture. In Chapter 6, MURAKAMI Yoshinao describes in detail how the lahar entered standing houses
at the Katakai-Ienoshita site, in Akita Prefecture, preserving them upright; careful observation of ceramics
caught in the lahar allow them to be interpreted as swept off a shelf inside a house. Similar to the woven
fence at Kanai in Gunma Prefecture (Chapter 10), several pieces of architectural organic matter were
preserved by the lahar, allowing more detailed reconstructions of the buildings. The presence of these
structures in the ground has been known for a long time, having eroded out of a flood bank and been
documented in the early 19th century; to have sketches and text to compare with current excavation
findings doubles the interpretive strength of the materials. The interesting aspect of one of the sketches
(Chapter 6: Figure 2) is that the house is basically a pit-house, with ladders leading down inside, and yet
the roof does not extend to the ground as in prehistoric pit-houses but is supported on board walls lining
the inside of the pit. The excavated pit-houses at Katakai-Ienoshita were unusual in having surrounding
ramparts rather than deep pits, and two were found with indoor hearth and flue systems. One of these pit-
houses was connected to a pillared building beside it, giving rise to speculations on the varying use of
these architectural structures in the 10th century. Paddy fields were discovered adjoining the residential
area, allowing insights into Medieval farming practices in the far north of Honshu Island.

Moving into central Honshu, SODA Tsutomu in Chapter 2 discusses the volcanics of the Central Honshu
and Fuji volcanic zones (see Appendix C-5, C-6) and the formation of the Kantō loam. Within Central
Honshu, HORAGUCHI Masashi provides a general contextual overview in Chapter 9 of the two active
volcanoes in Gunma Prefecture, Asama and Haruna, and an exposition of repeated eruptions affecting
society from the Kofun Period (250–710 AD), through the Heian Period (794–1183), to the Edo Period
(1603–1868). Horaguchi is particularly interested in human reactions to eruptions at the various sites, and
he proposes a series of distinctions in activities based on terminology in Japanese. He extols the detail of
preserved settlements, never before obtained in Gunma archaeological excavations, and promotes three
key uses of tephra cover. His work sets the stage for the ensuing chapters on Gunma sites, Chapters 10
and 11 by Sugiyama and Sakaguchi, respectively.
The data from the Kanai sites in Gunma Prefecture, discussed by SUGIYAMA Hidehiro in Chapter 10,
provide unparalleled insights into human reactions to a 6th-century eruption of the Futatsudake vent on
Mt Haruna: these reactions were one of leisurely acceptance and one of reverential finality. The two Kanai
sites, Higashi-ura and Shimo-shinden, were differentially hit by tephra fallout, a pyroclastic surge, then a
pyroclastic flow. The detailed effects of these are documented in rock impact traces, tomb scouring, and
hut flattening. Footprints of humans and horses reveal some had time to escape, while others were not so
lucky – as several skeletal remains of both have been preserved in the tephra. The ‘man in armour’ is an
exceptional find. Many sets of armour have been excavated from tombs as funerary goods, but this is the
first time one has been found being worn. The man, facing the oncoming pyroclastic flow, knelt in a ditch,
took off his helmet, turned it around so that it faced him, spread out the cheek flaps, and bowed his head
onto the helmet crown before being consumed in the ashes. A woman nearby splayed out in the ditch
shows more panic in trying to escape. Underneath the tephra, an elite settlement has been revealed, with
a 3-metre high woven fence partitioning off the main residence. Unparalleled insights into their residential
structures, gardening efforts, and ritual concerns make Kanai one of the most important sites for
understanding Kofun-Period society in this frontier region.
The main aim of Chapter 11 by SAKAGUCHI Hajime is to assess the seasonality and timing of two volcanic
eruptions in the 6th century in Gunma Prefecture by comparing the conditions of paddy fields and
irrigation canals buried by tephra fallout and lahars with the modern agricultural cycle. He is able to
narrow down the time of year of both these eruptions to one month during the late spring/early summer
planting seasons. This involved detailed analysis of field and canal construction with added footprint data.
Concomitant with his analysis, he reveals that the local farmers in the 6th century would work through 10
cm tephra depositions and 5 cm thick lahars to continue their seasonal agricultural tasks. It is not likely
that they had experienced previous episodes of light volcanic activity, so what made them carry on with
complacency? Did they rely on folk wisdom shared within the greater community? Why, in that case, did
they not anticipate the devastating lahars that followed? Were they themselves able to escape? We are left
with a human story that is illuminated by the results at the Kanai Higashi-ura site.
At the southern end of Japan, KUWAHATA Mitsuhiro writes in Chapter 12 about field systems in the mid-
2nd millennium in Miyazaki Prefecture, Kyushu. Two active volcanoes, Shinmoe-dake in the Kirishima
Volcanic Zone (see Appendix C-7) and Sakurajima (a parasitic volcano on the rim of the Aira Caldera in
Kagoshima Bay), have regularly covered the region in volcanic ash. Both paddy fields and extensive
ridge-and-furrow traces have been excavated from underneath tephra erupted in the late 15th and early
18th centuries. Kuwahata reveals efforts to restore fields to productivity after the tephra fallout; in only
one out of four cases were the fields abandoned.
In Chapter 13, Gina BARNES continues the study of tephra affecting agricultural systems by examining
soils that develop from tephra deposits and assessing their productivity. After a brief introduction to the
place of tephra-derived soils in soil taxonomy schemes, she focuses on the formation of andosols,

G.L. BARNES
emphasizing the black andosols (kurobokudo) found under grasslands in the Japanese Islands. These have
incited much hypothesizing about their generation – the most convincing argument proposing that these
appeared simultaneously with the peopling of Japan after 40,000 BP and resulted from the firing of the
landscape. For what purposes, it remains for archaeologists to specify. As tephra-derived soils have often
been thought to be infertile for agriculture, the geochemistry and nutritional values of andosols are
examined in general in Chapter 13 with details in Appendix D.
The succeeding Chapter 14 by NOTO Takeshi and Gina BARNES provides an overview of the historical
materials on agricultural innovations to compare with excavated evidence in Gunma Prefecture. This topic
ranges more widely than just farming tephrogenic soils, but land-use patterns can partly be explained by
soil infertilities caused by tephra weathering. The problem of swidden agriculture is discussed, but only
as one of several strategies using fire to control plant growth and provide arable and pasture lands. The
discovery of field systems under tephra, especially under successive burial events by tephra deposition,
allows the exploration of mechanisms for restoring or redeveloping fields, as in Chapter 11. However,
examined in light of the historical documents, a broader, more detailed view emerges that links directly
to political systems of different periods – as also shown in Chapter 8. The impact of socio-political systems
on people’s behaviour in the face of disaster is a new direction in tephroarchaeological studies that can be
studied comparatively through time as well as cross-culturally.
Gerry OETELAAR’s Chapter 4 is unique in using the Mazama tephra deposits at excavated archaeological
sites to understand landscape evolution on the northwestern Great Plains upon retreat of the ice sheet. Mt
Mazama, now known as Crater Lake, belongs to the Cascade Range of volcanics in northwestern North
America (Appendix C-2). Oetelaar details changes in northwestern Great Plains terrain after tephra-fall
from the volcanic eruption hundreds of miles to the southwest. He investigates terrace, dune and alluvial
fan formation, and explores the drying out of ice-block potholes. Such landscape reconstruction for
specific periods of time and specific locales is essential for understanding the potential for human
occupation as dependent on the flora and fauna – and particularly water and fuel supplies – within those
micro-environments. Oetelaar then in turn examines the behaviour of prehistoric inhabitants in occupying
these new landforms – which in the main are not volcanically generated. He makes the important point
that groups reoccupying ancestral areas buried by tephra must have made use of landmarks to guide them
back. One might envision that any drastic landform changes (such as rerouting of rivers) would have
interfered with their objectives. Moreover, trails across such changing landscapes would have to be forged
anew. The feedback loops of tephra cover > geomorphological change > archaeological discovery >
geomorphological reconstruction > and behavioural interpretation are fully interdisciplinary.
Finally, we are honoured to have Chapter 7 written by a historian. Keith PRATT delves into the science of
Mt Paektu, an unusual example of alkaline volcanics far from the active subduction zones (Appendices
B-3, C-8). He evaluates the histories of both China and Korea for evidence of eruptions of Mt Paektu –
both before and after the Millennium Eruption of 946 AD. In addition to laying bare Korean political
reactions to the 10th-century eruption, Pratt exposes modern-day North Korean elite claims and ritual
concerns involving Mt Paektu. These works provide interestingly different perspectives on human
behaviour than those gleaned from artefacts and settlement remains. It should be remembered that
eruptions even in pre- or proto-historical periods probably exerted great pressure on political as well as
social systems, though evidence may be more difficult to obtain. In any case, the detail offered by
historical sources are rich and varied but still may not give us the full picture. Assumptions must still be
made about people’s motives – as Pratt surmises that the northward building of garrisons on the Korean
Peninsula in the 10th century was prompted by the desire to reincorporate Mt Paektu into the political
realm. This chapter exemplifies the necessary inter-disciplinary nature of volcanic disaster research and
the onus on each individual researcher to completely grasp the science behind volcanic eruptions. But it

also has cautionary lessons for non-historians who use historical documents in trying to understand both
the geologic event and the archaeological remains.
Prospectus
With contributions from psychologists, historians, archaeologists, soil scientists, geologists,
volcanologists, tephrochronologists, geographers, and botanists, TephroArchaeology is becoming an
accepted sub-field in the North Pacific. Further collaborations among these with politics, social science,
religious studies, oral history, and research in volcanic epi-phenomena are all signposted within the
chapters offered here. We look forward to such future interdisciplinary studies.
One of the points of doing TephroArchaeology is to help prepare for future volcanic disasters, as discussed
in the WAC8 and SAA Forums as mentioned in the Preface. However, as Kling (2016: unpg.) notes,
Jumping from ‘doing science’ to ‘applying science’ is not easy. It requires a much
broader understanding of the natural ‘system’, which includes not only the
underlying science but various social and political aspects as well.
We have argued here for a closer discipline familiarity and collaboration between archaeologists and
volcanologists, but even this volume just scratches the surface of what needs to be done to bring volcanic
hazard research to public policy planning.
Figure Sources
Figure 1 after Barnes 2003: fig. 4, based on Yonekura et al. 2001: fig. 1.3.2; base map by Durham
Archaeological Services
Figure 2 after Outline World Map Images 2009-2018 [http://www.outline-world-map.com/blank-thick-
white-world-map-b3c], modified by GLB; licensing conditions are “royalty free for any legal
purposes” with the copyright displayed
Figure 3 after Tucker 1991: fig. 10.7, modified by GLB
Figure 4 after Machida 1984: fig. 1, modified by GLB
Figure 5 By Ray_go (Own work) CC BY-SA 3.0 unported, via Wikimedia Commons
[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AShirasu_Cliff.jpg]
Figure 6 photo by author
Figure 7 after Velde & Meunier 2008: fig. 1.4, modified by GLB
Figure 8 photo by SODA Tsutomu
Figure 9 after Machida & Arai 1992: fig. 18, modified by GLB
Figure 10 after Iacovino et al. 20 16: fig. 1A, modified by GLB
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Älä kainostele! Tanssithan sinä minulle mökissä.
IMANDRA
Niin, mökissä, mutta en hovissa.
PRINSSI
Ja taisit hiukan koetella luontoani, villi veitikka!
IMANDRA
Minä tahdoin vain saada Metsä-Matin mustasukkaiseksi.
PRINSSI
Kas, kas vaan! Kylläpä sinulla on juonia pienessä päässäsi. No

niin!
Pitäisihän minunkin pyytää sinulta anteeksi sitä menettelyäni
metsässä.
Olkaamme siis ystäviä, olen sinuun tyytyväinen. Olet kutonut
kaunista
hääkangasta.
IMANDRA
Olen iloinen, jos se mielyttää prinssiä.
PRINSSI
Mutta en voi kuitenkaan olla iloinen, sillä minun korkea

morsiameni on yhä mykkänä. Viidestä valtakunnasta olen
kutsuttanut tietoniekkoja, mutta he eivät voi mitään tälle oudolle
taudille.
IMANDRA (ilostuen)
Eikö siis häitä vietetäkään!
PRINSSI
Ei tänään. Mutta miksi sinä hymyilit, ilahuttaako tämä sinua?
IMANDRA
Minä olen niin iloinen, mutta en ymmärrä, miksi.
PRINSSI
En ymmärrä sinua. — Niin, mutta Metsä-Mattiin en ole

tyytyväinen, miksei hän tule tänne, vaikka olen käskenyt?
IMANDRA
Hän on sairaana, hän nyrjäytti jalkansa.
PRINSSI
Miksi!
IMANDRA
Hän haki minua metsästä, kun olin karannut.
PRINSSI
Niinkö? Te taidatte elää kuin koira ja kissa. Sairas? Ehkä hän on
vain tekosairas, laiska, leväperäinen. Kyllä minä tiedän…
IMANDRA
Prinssi kulta, kyllä hän on oikein sairas, minä hieroin hänen

jalkaansa, jonka hän nyrjäytti minun tähteni.
PRINSSI
Minä en usko. Hän on huono vartija, on päästänyt tulen niinkuin

varkaan metsään. Hänhän voi vielä polttaa koko huvilinnani! Minä
panen hänet viralta, minä häädän hänet mökistäni.
IMANDRA
Älkää tehkö niin, hyvä prinssi! Kyllä hän palkitsee kaikki

parannuttuaan, hän on niin heikko, hänellä ei ole ruokaa.
PRINSSI
Eikö hän hanki sinulle ruokaa?
IMANDRA
Mistä hän hankkisi, kun ei ole. Ja sitten…?
PRINSSI
Ja sitten?
IMANDRA
Sitten pyysi hän, että minä pyytäisin… "Ei siihen köyhän auta",
sanoi Metsä-Matti. Niin, niin, minä vaikka kerjään, antakaa meille
hiukan jauhoja, että minä voisin keittää hänelle puuroa ja hautoa
häntä hauteilla.
PRINSSI
Hän käskee sinun kerjätäkin! Mokoma mies! Kuolkoon nälkään!
IMANDRA
Prinssi, prinssi, hän ei saa kuolla nälkään! Jos hän kuolisi, niin
minä menehtyisin omantunnon tuskista.
PRINSSI
Turhia tuskia! Mutta tyttö parka, ehkä sinun on nälkä.
IMANDRA
Mitä minusta.
PRINSSI
Oletko syönyt tänään mitään?
IMANDRA
Enhän minä… mutta kyllä minä kestän, kunhan Matti saisi jotain
hengen pidoksi.
PRINSSI
Mattia on syytetty raskaista rikoksista. No niin! Olen antanut asian
neuvoskunnan ratkaistavaksi. Siihen asti saa hän olla vapaana. Ja
minä toimitan sinulle, ymmärrä, en hänelle, kaksi tynnyriä rukiita.
IMANDRA
Oi, kiitos, armollinen prinssi. Uskokaa minua, Matti ei ole tehnyt

mitään pahaa, pahat parjaajat ovat tämän tehneet.
PRINSSI
Minä teen tämän siksi, että olet tehnyt niin kauniin

morsiuskruunun. (Ottaa morsiuskruunun ja katselee sitä.) Etkö sinä
panisi tätäkin päähäsi?
IMANDRA
En ole tämän kruunun kelvollinen. Ei, ei, en minä, minä olen vain
halpa rahvaan nainen!
PRINSSI
Mutta mitä tässä kruunussa on, mitä sinä olet siihen ommellut?
IMANDRA
Peilinpalasen.
PRINSSI
Noidan peilinpalasen, jota sinä välkyttelit minulle mökissä? Kerro

mitä tiedät!
IMANDRA
Mökkiin tuli kerran vanha tietäjä ja hän sanoi, että tässä

peilinpalasessa on ihmeellinen voima.
PRINSSI
Tuntuu niinkuin minä tuntisin sen.
IMANDRA
Siinä näkee itsensä sellaisena kuin todella on.
PRINSSI
Sehän on merkillistä! Sehän on mainiota! Tämän peilinpalasen

avulla minä saan tietää, millainen minun hoviväkeni on, hoviherra,
hovirouva ja monet muut.
IMANDRA
Ja taikasanan avulla voi tulla mielensä mukaiseksi.
PRINSSI (katsoo peiliin)
Sano se sana!
IMANDRA
Katso itseesi!
PRINSSI
Katso itseesi? Merkillistä! En tunne itseäni. Minä toivon, toivon,
toivon, että olisin metsänvartija ja sinä prinsessa. Mitä tämä on?
Olenko tajuissani? Silmäni aukenevat. Minä olen nähnyt sinut, minä
näen sinut sellaisena kuin todella olet. Katso itseesi! Sinä olet…?
IMANDRA
Ei, ei, se peili valehtelee, älkää katsoko siihen! Minä en ole…
PRINSSI
Sinä olet…
IMANDRA
Ei paimenelämä ole sellaista kuin mitä kirjoista luin eikä hovielämä

niin loistavaa kuin mitä lapsena luulin.
PRINSSI
Nyt minä tunnen. Sinä olet… te olette prinsessa Imandra.
IMANDRA
Oh, prinssi, te tunsitte minut, nyt minä olen hukassa.
PRINSSI
Armollinen prinsessa, minä tunsin teidät jo äsken, kun hypitte

harakkaa.
IMANDRA
Minä en kehtaa katsoa kasvoihinne, tahtoisin vaipua maan alle.
PRINSSI
Mikä omituinen sattuma — niinkuin sadussa.
IMANDRA
Oi, miksi, miksi minä särin peilin, tämä tuli minulle vitsaukseksi.
Minä olen ansainnut alennukseni.
PRINSSI
Prinsessa, älkää sanoko niin! Te olette vain kohonnut katseissani.

Unohtakaa monet sopimattomat sanani, minä en voinut ajatella,
minä en aavistanut.
IMANDRA
Oh, olisinpa tämän aavistanut. Nyt minun kai täytyy mennä.
PRINSSI
Ei, ei, viipykää ja viihtykää täällä! Uskokaa, että minä tunnen

samalla lailla kuin silloin Suvikunnan hovissa.
IMANDRA
Se on mahdotonta, sen jälkeen mitä on tapahtunut, mitä minä

onneton olen rikkonut teitä vastaan.
PRINSSI
Minä polvistun teidän edessänne, minä rukoilen teiltä
rakkauttanne.
IMANDRA
Prinssi, nouskaa, minä en voi. Voi, minua, voi, meitä! Tämä peili
on lumonnut minut, se on lumonnut teidät. Te ette tiedä, mitä te
sanotte, te puhutte vastoin tahtoanne. Kun lumous laukeaa, niin ette
muista enään sanojanne.
PRINSSI
Minä vannon, valitkaa!
IMANDRA
Minä en voi!
PRINSSI
Antakaa arvan ratkaista! Katsokaa, tämän liinan alla on valkoinen

ja musta leipä, valitkaa minun ja Metsä-Matin välillä.
IMANDRA (syöksyy liinan luo)
Oi, leipää!
PRINSSI
Ei, ei! Arvatkaa, kumpiko leipä on valkoinen.
IMANDRA
Mi-minä en uskalla. Minä en kestä kauempaa. Minulla on nälkä
kuin sudella! (Riuhtaisee liinan ja tarttuu toisella kädellä valkoiseen,
toisella mustaan leipään.)
PRINSSI
Mutta prinsessa! Te koskitte molempiin leipiin yht'aikaa!
IMANDRA (syö vuorotellen kumpaakin leipää)
Hahhaa, minä unohdin aivan koko arvoituksen! Kylläpä tämä on

hyvää!
Prinssi, teillä on erinomainen hovileipuri! Hahhaa, muistatteko,
kuinka minä tukistin teitä. Hahhaa! Ei, minä olen nälästä hullu.
Hahhaa! Minä kuolen naurusta. Minä en voi muuta kuin nauraa,
haahhaa!
(Kuuluu melua pihalta.)
PRINSSI
Mikä siellä on!
IMANDRA
On niin valkeata. Pihalla kantavat jo hääsoihtuja.
PRINSSI
Tämä on omituista! Ei tämä tunnu hää-ilolta. Prinsessa, kuulkaa!
INKERI (syöksyy huoneeseen)

Tuli on irti! Metsämökki palaa!
IMANDRA (vaipuu lattialle)
Metsämökki? Ja Metsä-Matti! Voi, minua onnetonta! Minun sairas

ylkäni palaa! (Syöksyy ovelle.)
PRINSSI
Tyyntykää, prinsessa! Ei hän pala. (Prinssi ja Inkeri pidättävät

prinsessaa.)
IMANDRA
Prinssi, päästäkää minut, minä en voi jäädä tänne, kuuletteko, hän

palaa, palaa! Oh, auttakaa häntä, hän ei saa kuolla, hän ei saa
kuolla!
INKERI
Prinsessa, rauhoittukaa, ei hän kuole!
IMANDRA
Inkeri, Inkeri, älä estä, minä tahdon hänen luoksensa. Voi, voi, hän
on sairas ja hän palaa ilmielävänä näkemättä minua! Oi! Miksi minä
jätin hänet yksin! Minä olin mieletön. Päästäkää, päästäkää,
päästäkää, minä tahdon pelastaa tai palaa hänen kanssaan! Voi,
minua! (Syöksyy ovesta, Inkeri ja prinssi rientävät jälessä. Kujeilijat
tulevat naurellen. Hepuli pitää selkänsä takana nahkaista viinipulloa.)
HEPULI
Näitkö sinä! Hahhaa!
KEPULI
Hahhaa! Näinhän minä, kuinka hovirouva pisti hoviherran pään

suihkun alle.
HEPULI
Niinkuin jäniksen pään pensaaseen. Tämä on sitä

hovimetsästystä!
KEPULI
Kas näin! (Painaa Hepulin päätä.)
HEPULI
Älä, älä! En minä ole mikään jänis enkä hoviherra.
KEPULI
Olet aika hepuli!
HEPULI
Sen varsin valehtelit, senkin kepuli!
KEPULI
Sytytetään vahakynttilät, niin näemme paremmin valehdella…
HEPULI
Ja näemme, kuinka korvat liikkuvat. Hovissa ei koskaan puhuta
totta.
KEPULI
Mutta nyt täytyy hoviherran ja hovirouvan puhua totta.
HEPULI
Koska taikapeili puhuu totta.
KEPULI
Mutta nämä hovin hupsut eivät vielä tiedä taikapeilistä muuta kuin
että saavat toivoa kolme toivomusta.
HEPULI
Älä sinä mene puun ja kuoren väliin!
KEPULI
Tiedätkö, mitä siellä on?
HEPULI
En.
KEPULI
Siellä on toukka.
HEPULI
Luulet olevasi rikkiviisas.
KEPULI
Ja sinä nenäviisas. Unohdat, että nenä on yläpuolella suuta.
HEPULI
Mutta silmät ovat yläpuolella nenää. Minä näen, ettet näe mitään.
KEPULI
Hovissa on vaarallista nähdä liian paljon.
HEPULI
Ja vaarallista ajatella liian paljon, kun on liikaa täällä

yliskamarissa. (Kopauttaa otsaansa.) Katsos, otsa on silmiä
ylempänä. Hei, Kepuli, otetaan pieni partakyynärä!
KEPULI
Hei, sinä löysit hoviherran kätköpaikan.
HEPULI
Hys, löysin tämän puutarhasta.
KEPULI
Sinun päävärkkisi on jo tyhjä kuin ullakko.
HEPULI
Ja sinun järkesi putoaa vatsaan, toisin sanoen viinikellariin. Ota
vielä kulaus hoviherran nahkanassakasta.
KEPULI
Sinä unohdit jalat, jolleivät ne kannata!
HEPULI
Kyllä kannattaa, tänään kannattaa juoda, sillä tänäänhän on häät.
KEPULI
Mutta on pitkä loikkaus ullakolta maahan.
HEPULI
Mutta lyhempi huippaus neitsytkammiosta morsiusvuoteeseen.
KEPULI
Prinsessa Imandran malja!
HEPULI
Hän on väärentämätön, väkevä viini.
KEPULI
Mutta hovirouva on pippurivedellä sekoitettu hapan viini. Katsos,

tuolta tulee jo pöyhkeänä riikin riikinkana! Ja jälessä jumppii tietysti
riikin riikinkukko.
HEPULI
Jolla on kanan höyhenet.

KEPULI
Ja riikinkanalla kukon kannukset.
HEPULI
Voi, kanan villat! Sammuta tulet, niin että he kerran saavat puhua
totta.
KEPULI
Tai puhuvat itsensä pussiin.
HEPULI
Ja piru sitoo pussin suut. Siinä paha missä mainitaan. (Kuuluu

kolinaa)
KEPULI
En pelkää pirua, mutta pirukin pelkäisi tätä akkaa! Hepuli, hei,

paetkaamme!
HEPULI
Hyvässä järjestyksessä! Hip ja heijaa! (Hepuli ja Kepuli kulkevat

takaperin sivuovesta sammutettuaan tulet.)
HOVIROUVA (tulee perältä sarvilyhty kädessä.) Hys, mitä kuulin!

Vai kuulinko vain omat askeleeni! (Katselee varovasti ympärilleen,
tutkii tornikomeroa ja pöytälokeroita.)
HOVIHERRA (tulee varpaillaan perältä, sarvilyhty kädessä)

Hys, mitä! Oh, hovirouva!
HOVIROUVA (ottaa pöydältä morsiusseppeleen, keimailee ja

asettaa sen päähänsä.)
Oo, oo!
HOVIHERRA
Hän puhuu itsekseen. Voi vietävä!
HOVIROUVA
Uh! Mitä se oli? Hoviherra, te täällä? (Pudottaa lyhdyn, joka —

sammuu.)
HOVIHERRA
Armollinen rouva, enhän minä mitään… (Pudottaa lyhdyn, joka

sammuu.)
HOVIROUVA
Uh, nyt me olemme pimeässä! Sytyttäkää lyhtynne! (Hoviherra

sytyttää.)
HOVIHERRA
Minun kuningattareni, kruunu päässä!
HOVIROUVA
Sopiiko se? Näkisinpä nyt kuvani peilissä!

HOVIHERRA
Mutta mikä teidän päässänne kiiltää? Mutta siinähän se on!
HOVIROUVA
Mikä, mikä!
HOVIHERRA
Taikapeili, jota minä…
HOVIROUVA
Tekin! Haitteko tekin sitä? Siis tässä se nyt on! Nyt minä siis saan
toivoa. Niin, minä toivon…
HOVIHERRA
Ei, ei, antakaa minun…
HOVIROUVA
Minä toivon, että te toivoisitte myöhemmin.
HOVIHERRA
Ei, ei!
HOVIROUVA
Seis! Minä ensin…

HOVIHERRA
Mutta minähän ilmoitin ensin…
HOVIROUVA
Minä toivoisin teidät niin kauas kuin pippuri kasvaa.
HOVIHERRA
Nyt meni teiltä jo kaksi toivomusta hukkaan. (Ivaillen.) Minä toivon

taas palaavani pippurimaasta.
HOVIROUVA (kiivastuen)
Ja minä toivon, että te ette toivoisi enään mitään.
HOVIHERRA
Nyt toivoitte viimeisen kerran!
HOVIROUVA (raivostuen)
Te, te, te, olette pilannut koko asian. Kas, kas, te ette saa enään
toivoa kuin kerran.
HOVIHERRA
Mutta minä olenkin nyt varovaisempi, minä mietin.
HOVIROUVA
Ettehän te mieti koskaan mitään.

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© The individual authors and Archaeopress 2019

ARAI Fusao & MACHIDA Hiroshi

much less data to compare.” Robin Torrence

iii Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

Chapter 1 Gina L. BARNES

Chapter 2 SODA Tsutomu

TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific iv

Chapter 3 KUWAHATA Mitsuhiro

Chapter 4 Gerald OETELAAR

Chapter 5 Ben FITZHUGH, Caroline FUNK & Jody BOURGEOIS

v Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

Chapter 7 Keith PRATT

Mountains and Korean religiosity 131

Chapter 8 MARUYAMA Kōji

TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific vi

Chapter 9 HORAGUCHI Masashi

Chapter 10 SUGIYAMA Hidehiro

vii Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

Chapter 11 SAKAGUCHI Hajime

Chapter 12 KUWAHATA Mitsuhiro

Chapter 13 Gina L. BARNES

TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific viii

Chapter 14 NOTO Takeshi & Gina L. BARNES

Chapter 15 Torill Christine LINDSTRØM

ix Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

Glossary and Character Index by Chapter 317

TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific x

xi Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific xii

CHESTER David (1993) Volcanoes and society. London: Edward Arnold.

xiii Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific xiv

Creative Commons Licenses

Recurrent Abbreviations (exclusive of bibliographies)

xv Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

• SAA = Society for American Archaeology

TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific xvi

xvii Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

ARAI Fusao Deceased; formerly Professor Emeritus, Gunma University, Japan

TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific xviii

An Archaeological Sub-discipline in Japan

A Briefing on Volcanic Matters

TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific 2

Volcanic Ash or Tephra?

FIGURE 2 WORLDWIDE LOCATIONS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY MENTIONED IN THIS VOLUME

3 Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific 4

tephra and wind (Crowe

5 Ed. by G.L. Barnes & T. Soda (2019, Archaeopress)

TephroArchaeology in the North Pacific 6

formed. Soils that are derived from volcanic