I.

STATUS OF FOOD PROCESSING IN INDIA

a. Distinctive features of commodities covered under food processing, perishable

and non-perishable processing, Primary, secondary and tertiary processing

Food processing definition- the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw
ingredients into food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by humans or
animals either in the home or by the food processing industry

What are processed foods?

Foods that are subjected to technological modifications either for preservation or for
converting into ready-to-use/eat foods, eliminating laborious household procedures, are
called “processed foods”. Some of the examples are ready mixes, dehydrated foods, pasta
products, canned foods, confectioneries, bakery, dairy products and breakfast foods.
Manufacture of processed foods requires technology and machinery and as a result, processed
foods are expensive. Manufacture of processed foods is on the increase in the unorganized,
small-scale and cottage-industry sectors and these products may not always be in conformity
with food standards. While using processed foods following should be kept in mind:
 Prefer traditional, homemade foods.
 Avoid processed snack foods at meal times.
 Limit consumption of sugar and processed foods which provide only (empty)
calories.
 Prefer fortified processed foods.
 Limit intake of processed foods to decrease load of food additives on the body.
 Always look for information on the food label (given on containers) regarding
shelf-life and the additives used.
Industrially Processed and ready-to-eat foods:
 Urbanization has increased the intake and demand for processed foods.
 There is a trend towards replacing traditionally cooked foods with processed
foods.
 Processed foods contain a variety of food additives.
 Processed foods may not be nutritionally balanced unless fortified.
 Sugar, processed food, provides empty calories.

Reasons for food processing

To conserve food: Perishable food are something liable to perish, decay or spoil rapidly such
as
fresh meat, poultry, seafood, milk, aromatics, herbs and ripe fruits while non-perishable are
items that do not spoil or decay example of it are grains, canned goods, all pasta types, sugar,
flour (and chips if air-sealed), spices are non perishable as well. Processing of
perishables:The primary aim in processing perishables is to increase their shelf life or to
preserve.
To make foods convenient to use: There is a great demand nowadays for “instant”, “heat
and serve” and “ready-to-cook” convenient foods. These foods make up about 60 per cent of
the food that Americans buy. Such foods result in saving considerable amounts of time and
effort in food preparation at home, restaurants, etc. The convenience food revolution would
not have been possible without food processing. With the convenience needs of dual income
families, 200 million more consumers are expected to move to processed food by 2020.
With rapid increase in the per capita income and purchasing power along with increased
urbanization, improved standards of living, there lies a large untapped opportunity to cater to
1000 million domestic consumers. It is estimated that 300 million upper and middle class
consume processed food.

Advantages of food processing

1. Foods are preserved so that they can be kept edible for longer.
2. Preservation reduces wastage and hence cost.
3. It enables people in affluent communities to eat their favourite foods all the year
round.
4. It enables us to benefit from economies of scale by growing large quantities of a food
on large areas of suitable land. Preservation helps to feed the growing world
population.
Economic benefits:
The share of the value added products in processed foods would almost double from US $44
billion currently to US $88 billion during the same period, growing at the rate of 15%. This
presents enormous opportunities for investment in processed food sector.

Components of the food industry (commodities covered under food processing)

The food industry may be divided into segments or components, in various ways. One
of the simplest is a functional division into the four major segments of raw material
production, manufacture, distribution and marketing.
1. Raw material production encompasses the technologies of farming, orchard
management, fishing and so on, including the selection of plant and animal varieties,
cultivation and growth, harvest and slaughter and the storage and handling of the raw
materials.
2. Manufacturing converts the raw agricultural products into more refined or finished
foods. Manufacturing includes the numerous unit operations and processes that many
consider to be the core of food technology.
3. Distribution is involved in product attributes conducive to product sales.
4. Marketing is the selling of foods in commerce and involves wholesale, retail,
institutions and restaurants.
This overall division is artificial and the segments flow into one another. The food
industry is so geared that there is a highly planned organization and rhythm to the functions
of the segments. In a well-developed food industry, this involves planning and scheduling of
all phases to eliminate or at least minimize both shortages and surpluses among farmer,
manufacturer and distributor. Thus, it includes distribution facilities and even the outlets for
sale of their manufactured products to ensure smooth operations and high profits. In recent
years, for example, many food manufactures have opened national restaurant chains.

Distinctive features of processed foods:

1. Safe: Processing or preparation makes foods safe to eat by destroying or retarding the
growth of pathogenic micro-organisms (such as salmonella, clostridia or fungi) or
inactivating natural toxins (such as trypsin inhibitors and goitrogens).
2. Improved attractiveness: Processing or preparation improves the attractiveness of food,
its flavour and its appearance. This is not a frivolous function. Poorly prepared food is
often the chief complaint of patients in hospitals and nursing homes.
3. Convenience: Processing also provides convenience. Earlier most urban Indian women
spent their lives working for hours each day in the kitchen. Modern convenience foods
have liberated women. Much of the work that used to be done by hand is now done by
machines, some controlled by computer, in the food processing plant or factory.
4. Economy: Large scale manufacturing of processed foods makes them more economical.
Economy of operations and the fact that raw material is sourced from their native
locations and some times processed there itself makes processed foods more economical
e.g. factory produced bread costs considerably less than home made bread.
5. Long shelf life: Processed foods have a longer shelf life than their unprocessed
counterparts. e.g. Tetra packed fruit juices.
6. Variety: Most processing food industries have a strong R&D component. This has
resulted in not only improvement in the quality of processed foods but also has resulted in
a variety of foods.

Distinctive features of commodities covered under food processing: Both perishable and
non-perishable commodities are subjected to processing. Nature and extent of processing may
result in primary or secondary processing and these are described in subsequent paragraphs.

Various stages in food processing

Ingredient preparation scaling for formulation  Mixing


Post processing  Primary packing  Processing

Secondary packaging  Utilising  Storage

Primary and secondary processing: Primary processing results in a product after a little
onsite (on farm or local) processing such as threshing or husking grain or at the most milling
the grain. While secondary processing is more intensive treatments to render the product with
qualities that appeals the consumer and increase its marketability such as converting grains
into snack foods. Following figure shows the relationship between primary and secondary
processing (farm-to-fork):

Farm – to Fork
Field Farming Primary Manufacturing Wholesal Retail/food Table
Processing e service
(Secondary
processing)
The three-sector model in economics divides economies into three sectors of activity:
extraction of raw materials (primary), manufacturing (secondary), and services (tertiary). It
was developed by Allan Fisher, Colin Clark and Jean Fourastié.

Perishable and non perishable processing:

Perishable food are something liable to perish, decay or spoil rapidly such as
fresh meat, poultry, seafood, milk, aromatics, herbs and ripe fruits while non-perishable are
items that do not spoil or decay example of it are grains, canned goods, all pasta types, sugar,
flour (and chips if air-sealed), spices are non perishable as well.

Processing of perishables: The primary aim in processing perishables is to increase their

shelf life or to preserve.

Fresh Storage: Means that are commonly used in the storage of fresh produce include
refrigeration to minimize growth of microorganisms and reduce enzyme activity; packaging
or storage to control respiration rate and ripening; and use of preservatives to kill
microorganisms.
Surface Disinfection: Chemical disinfectant agents are used to decontaminate the surface of
fruits and vegetables in addition to washing with water. The agents may include, chlorine,
chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, trisodium phosphate, ozon e, and organic acids.
Drying: Dehydration of foods is the oldest method of preserving food. It is the process of
removing water from food by circulating hot air through it or other means, which prohibits
the growth of enzymes and bacteria.
Canning: Canning can be a safe and economical way to preserve quality food. Canning
practices remove oxygen; destroy enzymes; kill and prevent the growth of undesirable
bacteria, yeasts, and molds; and help form a high vacuum in cans.
Freezing: Freezing is a quick and convenient way to preserve fruits and vegetables. It does
not sterilize foods or destroy the organisms that cause spoilage; the extreme cold slows the
growth of microorganisms and the chemical changes that affect quality or cause spoilage.
Food Irradiation: Food Irradiation utilizes a source of ionizing energy that passes through
food to destroy harmful bacteria and other organisms. It is often referred to as "cold
pasteurization" as it does not substantially raise the temperature of the food during
processing.
Jelly & Preserve: Jellies and preserves are gelled or thickened fruit products with a low
pH, cooked and preserved with sugars. Products include fruit butters, jellies, preserves, jams
and similar products.
Pickling & Fermentation: Pickled or Fermented products cure for several weeks. Curing
changes the color, flavor, and texture of the product. Lactic acid produced during
fermentation helps preserve the product.
Processing of non perishables: Unlike the methods stated above processing of non-
perishables is not used to preserve foods but to impart certain quality traits that makes the
food commodities more acceptable.

Separation methods: Milling and oil extraction are included under separation methods
Milling: milling produces several fractions of cereal flours- whole meal (atta), refined flour
(maida), semolina (rava/soji); milled grains (brown rice, white rice).
Wet milling is employed to obtain cereal starches. These starches are the basic material to
produce corn syrups which in turn are used in confectionery industry.
Oil extraction: Pressing of oils or solvent extraction produces oil from oil seeds. Defatted
oilseed meals are a by product which in turn is used to make Protein concentrates and isolates
and texturised vegetable proteins (TVP)

Non- separation methods:

Malting: Process of malting provides the malt extracts and syrup used in brewing and
confectionery industry.
Flaking: Process of flaking produces different types of cereal flakes such as rice flakes, oat
flakes, maize and corn flakes.
Parched grains: Produces different types of products puffed, popped grains.
Snack foods, Baked foods, Confectionery and Extruded products: These products have
potential to increase value added compared to unprocessed foods.

Types of value addition

In its simplest form, value-added agriculture is a process of increasing the economic value
and consumer appeal of an agricultural product. It allows farmers to benefit by being part
of a specialized" supply chain and affords them the chance to receive a larger share of the
consumers' rupee. Usually producer-driven, there is room for both small- and large-scale
development within value-added agriculture.

Value addition has also been defined as –

The additions of time, place, and/or form utility to a commodity in order to meet the
preferences or tastes of the consumer. The true test of value added is achieved when the after
tax return on invested capital used to generate time, place, and / or form utility exceeds the
overall cost of capital”.

Value-added food products are raw or pre-processed commodities whose value has been
increased through the addition of ingredients or processes that make them more attractive to
the buyer and/or more readily usable by the consumer. It is a production/marketing strategy
driven by customer needs and perceptions.

Primary Sector
(i) It is known as agriculture and allied services sector.
(ii) This sector produces goods and services by exploiting natural resources.
(iii) This sector is unorganised and use traditional techniques.
 (iv) Activities related to agriculture, forestry fishing, mining and animal husbandary are
included in this sector.
(v) This sector continues to be the largest employer in most of the developing nations like
that of lndia.
Secondary Sector
(i) It is known as manufacturing sector.
(ii) This sector transforms one good into another by creating more utility from it.
(iii) it is organised sector and use better techniques.
(iv) It includes manufacturing units, small scale units, large firms, big corporates and
multinational corporations.
(v) This sector has failed to provide employment to the surplus workers of primary sector.
Tertiary sector
(i) it is known as service sector.
(ii) This sector provides useful services to primary and secondary sectors for
optimizedfunctioning of their working.
(iii) it is organised sector and use better techniques.
(iv) Services related to banking, insurance, trade and communication come in this sector.
(v) This sector‘s sharing in the employment is increasing
Types of value addition
Post-harvest value addition includes primary and secondary processing, operations performed
on farm produce. Primary processing refers to on-farm handling, cleaning, trimming, sorting,
grading, cooling and packaging.

Secondary processing includes processes which modify the form of the product i.e. convert
raw product to a processed products. Processed products offer cent percent edible product,
are convenient, and have improved eating quality. Jams, jellies, marmalades, sauces,
ketchups, cordials, juices, nectars, pickles, candies, preserves, canned, frozen, dried, and
fermented products are examples of secondary processed products.

Distinctive features of commodities covered under food processing

Type of Value addition

Commodity Primary Secondary
Dairy Liquid milk Whole milk powder, skimmed milk powder,
condensed milk, ice cream, butter, ghee, cheese
Fruit and vegetables Fresh fruit and Beverages, juices, concentrates, pulps, slices,
vegetables frozen and dehydrated products, potato
wafers/chips etc.
Grains and cereals Flour, milled grains, Baked products, starch, glucose, cornflakes,
semolina, parched and malted foods, vermicelli, beer and malt extracts,
puffed cereals. grain based alcohol.
Legumes Dhal, whole legumes, Papad, savoury and sweet snacks,
flour, roasted grams
Oilseeds Oilseeds roasted and Oils, oilseed flour products
raw
Nuts Raw Ready – to –eat foods
Fisheries Fresh fish Frozen, canned, pickled.
Meat and poultry Fresh Frozen, canned, Egg powder
Sugar cane Sugar, cane juice Candies, confectionery, mithais.
Consumer foods Snack foods, namkeens, biscuits, ready-to-eat
food, alcoholic and non – alcoholic beverages

Processing of food has advantages and disadvantages both. We know that it

results into desirable changes like enhancement of flavours, improvement of texture, and
increase in shelf life etc. However, it may lead to some undesirable changes too. These
include changes in colour, flavour, nutritional properties and development of toxicity.

Freezing, Drying, Cooking, and Reheating

Nearly every food preparation process reduces the amount of nutrients in food. In particular,
processes that expose foods to high levels of heat, light, and/or oxygen cause the greatest
nutrient loss. Nutrients can also be "washed out" of foods by fluids that are introduced
during a cooking process. For example, boiling a potato can cause much of the potato's B and
C vitamins to migrate to the boiling water. You'll still benefit from those nutrients if you
consume the liquid (i.e. if the potato and water are being turned into potato soup), but not if
you throw away the liquid. Similar losses also occur when you broil, roast, or fry in oil, and
then drain off the drippings.

Consuming raw foods

The amount of nutrient loss caused by cooking has encouraged some health-conscious
consumers to eat more raw foods. In general, this is a positive step. However, cooking is also
beneficial, because it kills potentially harmful microorganisms that are present in the food
supply. In particular, poultry and ground meats (e.g. hamburger) should always be thoroughly
cooked, and the surface of all fruits and vegetables should be carefully washed before eating.

Grilling meats
Outdoor grilling is a popular cooking method, primarily because of the wonderful taste it
imparts on meats. It can also be a healthy alternative to other cooking methods, because some
of the meat's saturated fat content is reduced by the grilling process. However, grilling also
presents a health risk. Two separate types of carcinogenic compounds are produced by high-
temperature grilling:

Heterocyclic Amines (HCAs)

HCAs form when a meat is directly exposed to a flame or very high-temperature surface. The
creatine-rich meat juices react with the heat to form various HCAs, including amino-imidazo-
quinolines, amino-imidazo-quinoxalines, amino-imidazo-pyridines, and aminocarbolines.
HCAs have been shown to cause DNA mutation, and may be a factor in the development of
certain cancers.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

PAHs form in smoke that's produced when fat from the meat ignites or drips on the hot coals
of the grill. Various PAHs present in the resulting smoke, including benzo[a]pyrene and
dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, adhere to the outside surface of the grilled meat. PAH exposure is
also believed to be linked to certain cancers.

Effect of Food Processing on Vitamins and Minerals

The freshness, appearance, and nutritive value of foods changes when they are stored for long
time. People in food industry work for procedures which make the foods retain their nutritive
value even after a long time. The conversion of raw food materials into the acceptable food
product by a variety of means is referred to as food processing. The techniques followed
include, dehydration, freezing, heating at high temperatures, exposure to radiation (i.e.
irradiation), fermentation, chemical preservation etc.

Effect of processing on Vitamins and minerals

Processing (including preparation) makes food healthier, safer, tastier and more shelf-stable.
While the benefits are numerous, processing can also be detrimental, affecting the nutritional
quality of foods.

Benefits
 Soaking, heating and fermentation can reduce or eliminate most of the toxic factors of
the pulses.
 Fermentation, Fermentation: the processing of food pulses by fermentation increases
their digestibility, palatability and nutritive value.
 Germination (sprouting), Germination: germination improves the nutritive value of
pulses.
 Thermal processing. Cooking also contributes to better digestibility. Correct
application of heat in cooking legumes can eliminate most toxic factors without
impairment of nutritional value. Heat causes denaturation of trypsin inhibitors,
haemagglutinin and the enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis of cyanogenic
glycosides. The mode of application of heat is important.

Harmful effects
Processing of food and also cooking is an essential first step to ensure safe and digestible
food. However, it is important to know how much nutrient loss occurs due to cooking and
processing.
Vitamins:
 Thermal processing: Vitamins, especially ascorbic acid, thiamin and folic acid, are
highly sensitive to the some processing methods. The time and temperature of
processing, product composition and storage are all factors that substantially lowers
the vitamin status of our foods. More destruction of water soluble vitamins occurs.
 Milling and extrusion can cause the physical removal of vitamins during processing.
E.g. milling of rice
 Leaching: Vitamin losses during leaching can be minimized by use of a minimum
amount of water and use if the cooking water in preparation of the food for
consumption. A common practice of throwing away the water in which foods such
 as , such as in gravies, soups, and sauces. Losses in manganese, iron, copper,
phosphorus, zinc, calcium, and manganese during the cooking of pasta may be as
great as 86.5 – 100 %. Blanching, for example, results in leaching losses.

Minerals:
The nutritional quality of minerals in food depends on their quantity as well as their
bioavailability. Concentrations of these constituents are altered by various processing
methods including

 Leaching: Mineral losses during leaching can be minimized by use of a minimum

amount of water and use if the cooking water in preparation of the food for
consumption, such as in gravies, soups, and sauces. Losses in manganese, iron,
copper, phosphorus, zinc, calcium, and manganese during the cooking of pasta may
be as great as 86.5 – 100 %. Blanching, for example, results in leaching losses.
 Use of hard water for processing and cooking can result in an increase in the calcium
or magnesium content of foods, while use of softened water can result in an increase
in the sodium content.
 Mineral losses may also occur as a result of physical separation from the product
during milling of grains, refining of sugar, and processing of legumes or seeds into
oils. For example, significant losses of magnesium, zinc, iron, copper, and cobalt have
been reported during milling of wheat to flour.
 However, nutrients can be added back to foods by restoration or fortification.
 Grain milling has positive nutritive benefits, as well. Phytate and fiber, which are
present in the bran portion of the grain, are removed during this process, and they are
no longer able to bind to minerals and render them unavailable.
 Minerals are also susceptible to changes in bioavailability due to interactions with
other food components. For, examples, oxalates may inhibit calcium bioavailability;
while vitamin C enhances iron bioavailability.

b. STATUS OF FOOD PROCESSING IN INDIA

Food processing is a way or technique implemented to convert raw food stuff into well-
cooked and well preserved eatables for both the humans and the animals. All these methods
are used by food processing industry to give out processed or preserved foods for our daily
consumption. Best quality harvested, slaughtered and butchered and clean constituents are
used by food processing industry to manufacture very nutritious and easy to cook food
products.

HISTORY OF INDIAN FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY:

Earlier the industrial food products catered to the breakfast / snack segment rather
than the main course.
 Breakfast or snack: Bread butter, cheese, jam, tea, coffee, biscuits, health drinks,
noodles.
  Cold beverages: Squashes, syrups, canned and tetra pack, fruit juices, soft drinks and
carbonated beverages.
 Indulgences: Chocolates, candy, yoghurt, ice cream etc.
Of these biscuits boasted of a 75% penetration in top 12 towns and were the cheapest
available snack in rural areas, bread was received with a modest 50 per cent acceptance as an
alternative for breakfasts and snacks, while health drinks, both brown and white and baby
foods fulfilled the basic used in nutrition as milk was not available in plenty.

FOOD PROCESSING SECTOR – AN INDIAN SCENARIO

STATUS OF FOOD PROCESSING:

- The Indian food and grocery market are the world’s sixth largest, with retail
contributing 70 per cent of the sales. The Indian food processing industry accounts for
32 per cent of the country’s total food market, one of the largest industries in India
and is ranked fifth in terms of production, consumption, export and expected growth.
It contributes around 8.80 and 8.39 per cent of Gross Value Added (GVA) in
Manufacturing and Agriculture respectively, 13 per cent of India’s exports and six
per cent of total industrial investment. The Indian gourmet food market is currently
valued at US$ 1.3 billion and is growing at a Compound Annual Growth Rate
(CAGR) of 20 per cent. India's organic food market is expected to increase by three
times by 2020.
- The online food ordering business in India is in its nascent stage, but witnessing
exponential growth. With online food delivery players like Food Panda, Zomato,
TinyOwl and Swiggy etc building scale through partnerships, the Organised food
business has a huge potential and a promising future. The online food delivery
industry grew at 150 per cent year-on-year with an estimated Gross Merchandise
Value (GMV) of US$ 300 million in 2016.
- The staple foods are the untapped market and is making in roads

- The size of global processed food industry is estimated to be valued around US $3.6
trillion and accounts for three-fourth of the global food sales. Despite its large size,
only 6% of processed foods are traded across borders compared to 16% of major bulk
agricultural commodities. India is one of the major food producers in the world. The
food sectors contribute 28% of India’s GDP
In terms of world rank India stands
1st in production of cereals, milk and livestock population
Second in producing fruits and vegetables
Rank amongst the five in production of wheat, groundnut, rice, coffee, tea,
tobacco, spices, sugar and oilseeds
- According to the Ministry of food processing industries the structure of Indian food
processing Industry is -

- Organised – 25%
- Unorganised – 42%
 - Small scale industries – 33%
- With potential of being the biggest in the world India next to China is the world‟s second
largest producer of food and processed food products. India is having the biggest
consumption category, with spending on food accounting for nearly 21% of India‟s GDP
and with a market size of $181 billion. The Indian domestic food market is expected to
grow by nearly 40% of the current market size to $258 billion by 2015 and $344 billion
by 2025

INDUSTRY SUB-SEGMENTS (COMMODITIES)

The food processing sector is highly fragmented industry, it widely comprises of the
following sub-segments: fruits and vegetables, milk and milk products, beer and alcoholic
beverages, meat and poultry, marine products, grain processing, packaged or convenience
food and packaged drinks. A huge number of entrepreneurs in this industry are small in terms
of their production and operations, and are largely concentrated in the unorganized segment.
This segment accounts for more than 70% of the output in terms of volume and 50% in terms
of value. Though the organized sector seems comparatively small, it is growing at a much
faster pace.
FAIDA: Food and Agril, intergrated Development Action (McKinsy &co.)

Food Processing Units in Organized Sector (Numbers)

Flour mills 820
Fish processing units 568 (mostly cold storage)
Fruit and vegetable processing units 5300
Meat processing units 171
Sweetened and aerated water units 656
Milk products unit 266
Sugar mills 429
Solvent extract units 725
Rice mills 91000
Modernized rice mills 43000
Mechanized pulse mills 11000
Fruits & Vegetables The installed capacity of fruits and vegetables processing industry has
doubled from 1.1 mn tonnes in January 1993 to 2.1 mn tonnes in 2006. Presently, the
processing of fruits and vegetables is estimated to be around 2.2% of the total production in
the country. The major processed items in this segment are fruit pulps and juices, fruit based
ready-to-serve beverages, canned fruits and vegetables, jams, squashes, pickles, chutneys and
dehydrated vegetables. The new arrivals in this segment are vegetable curries in retortable
pouches, canned mushroom and mushroom products, dried fruits and vegetables and fruit
juice concentrates.

Milk and Milk Products India‘s dairy industry is considered as one of the most successful
development industry in the post-Independence era. In 2005-06 total milk productions in the
country was over 90 million tonnes with a per capita availability of 229 gms per day. During
1993-2005, the dairy industry recorded an annual growth of 4%, which is almost 3 times the
average growth rate of the dairy industry in the world. The total milk processing in India is
around 35%, of which the organized dairy industry accounts for 13% while remaining is
either consumed at farm level, or sold as fresh, non-pasteurized milk through unorganized
channels. In an organized dairy industry, dairy cooperatives account for the major share of
processed liquid milk marketed in India. Milk is processed and marketed by 170 Milk
Producers‘ Cooperative Unions, which federate into 15 State Cooperative Milk Marketing
Federations. Over the years, several brands have been created by cooperatives like Amul
(GCMMF), Vijaya (AP), Verka (Punjab), Saras (Rajasthan). Nandini (Karnataka), Milma
(Kerala) and Gokul (Kolhapur). The milk surplus states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Meat & Poultry Since 1995, production of meat and its products has been significantly
growing at a rate of 4% per annum. Presently the processing level of buffalo meat is
estimated at 21%, poultry is estimated at 6% while marine products are estimated at 8%.
But only about 1% of the total meat is converted into value added products like sausages,
ham, bacon, kababs, meatballs, etc.

Marine Products India is the largest fish producing country in the world it is the third largest
fish producer in the world while ranks second in inland fish production. Processing of marine
produce into canned and frozen forms is carried out fully for the export market.

Processing of grain (cereals) includes milling of wheat, rice and pulses. In 1999-00, there
were more than 91,000 rice hullers and 2,60,000 small flourmills which were engaged in
primary milling. There are 43,000 modernized rice mills and huller-cum-shellers. Around 820
large flourmills in the country convert about 10.5 mn tonnes of wheat into wheat products.
Also there are 10,000 pulse mills milling about 75% of pulse production of 14 mn tonnes in
the country. Primary milling of grains is the considered to be the important activity in the
grain-processing segment of the industry. Indian Basmati rice has gained international
recognition, and is a premium export product. Branded grains as well as grain processing is
now gaining popularity due to hygienic packaging.

Dal milling is the third largest in the grain processing industry, and have about 11,000
mechanised mills in the organised segment.

Oilseed processing is another major segment, an activity largely concentrated in the cottage
industry. According to estimates, there are approximately 2.5 lakh ghanis and kolus which
are animal operated oil expellers, 50,000 mechanical oil expellers, 15,500 oil mills, 725
solvent extraction plants, 300 oil refineries and over 175 hydrogenated vegetable oil plants.
Consumer Foods This segment comprises of packaged foods, aerated soft drinks, packaged
drinking water and alcoholic beverages.

Packaged / Convenience Foods Consumer food industry mainly consists of ready-to-eat and
ready-to-cook products, salted snacks, chips, pasta products, cocoa based products, bakery
products, biscuits, soft drinks, etc. There are around 60,000 bakeries, several pasta food units
and 20,000 traditional food units and in India. Products of bakery include bread, biscuits,
pastries, cakes, buns, rusk etc. This activity is mostly concentrated in the unorganized sector.
Bread and biscuits constitute the largest segment of consumer foods with an annual
production of around 4.00 million tonnes.

Other processed products include Cocoa Products Cocoa products like chocolates, drinking
chocolate, cocoa butter substitutes, cocoa based malted milk foods, soft drinks. After packed
tea and packed biscuits the soft drink segment is considered to be the 3rd largest in the
packaged foods industry in India. Over 100 plants are engaged in aerated soft drinks industry
and provide huge employment.

LIMITATIONS OF INDIAN FOOD PROCESSING SECTOR

- Some of the key constraints identified by the food processing industry include:
- Poor infrastructure in terms of cold storage, warehousing, etc
 - Inadequate quality control and testing infrastructure
- Inefficient supply chain and involvement of middlemen
- High transportation and inventory carrying cost
- Affordability, cultural and regional preference of fresh food
- High taxation
- High packaging cost

There is a great potential for improvement-

Ministry of food processing in its Vision 2015 document has estimated the size of
processed food sector to treble, processing level of perishable to increase from 6% to 20%,
value addition to increase from 20 % to 35% and India’s share in global food trade to
increase from 1.5 % to 3%.

There is huge potential for both investors and exporters. With rapid increase in the per
capita income and purchasing power along with increased urbanization, improved standards
of living, there lies a large untapped opportunity to cater to 1000 million domestic consumers.
It is estimated that 300 million upper and middle class consume processed food.

With the convenience needs of dual income families, 200 million more consumers are
expected to move to processed food. The market size for the processed foods is thus bound to
increase from US $40 billion currently to US $330 billion assuming a growth of 10%.. This
presents enormous opportunities for investment in processed food sector.

MAJOR INITIATIVES TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA TO IMPROVE

THE FOOD PROCESSING SECTOR IN INDIA:

Ministry of food processing in its Vision 2015 document has estimated the size of processed
food sector to treble, processing level of perishable to increase from 6% to 20%, value
addition to increase from 20 % to 35% and India’s share in global food trade to increase from
1.5 % to 3%. According to estimates, food-processing sector has the potential of attracting
US $33 billion of investment in 10 years and generate employment of 9 million person-days.
The food-processing sector in India is clearly an attractive sector for investment and offers
significant growth potential to investors.

In order to achieve this following steps are initiated

 Leveraging reforms such as 100 per cent Foreign direct investment (FDI) in
marketing of food products and various incentives at central and state government
level along with a strong focus on supply chain infrastructure.
 In Union Budget 2017-18, the Government of India has set up a dairy processing
infra fund worth Rs 8,000 crore (US$ 1.2 billion).
 The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) plans to invest around Rs
482 crore (US$ 72.3 million) to strengthen the food testing infrastructure in India,
by upgrading 59 existing food testing laboratories and setting up 62 new mobile
testing labs across the country.
 The Ministry of Food Processing Industries announced a scheme for Human
Resource Development (HRD) in the food processing sector. The HRD scheme is
being implemented through State Governments under the National Mission on Food
Processing. The scheme has the following four components:
o Creation of infrastructure facilities for degree/diploma courses in food
processing sector
o Entrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP)
o Food Processing Training Centres (FPTC)
o Training at recognised institutions at State/National level
 2. PROCESSING OF DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF FOOD

(Cereals, Legumes, Oilseeds, Fats and oils, Fruits and vegetables, Milk)

CEREALS
The term “cereals” refers to members of the Gramineae family and determines nine species:
wheat (Triticum), rye (Secale), barley (Hordeum), oat (Avena), rice (Oryza), millet
(Pennisetum), corn (Zea), sorghum (Sorghum), and triticale, which is a hybrid of wheat and
rye.

Structure of cereal grains: The overall structure of all cereal grains is basically similar,
differing from one cereal to another in detail only. Grains of wheat, rye, maize and grain
sorghum (naked caryopsis) consist of fruit coat (pericarp) and seed. The seed comprises the
seed coat (bran), germ and endosperm. Grains of rice, barley and oats (covered caryopsis)
have, in addition, fused palea and lemma which constitute the husk outside the fruit coat.
Each of the main parts of the grain pericarp, seed coat, germ and endosperm is further divided
into various layers, tissues and regions.

Structure of grain Milling of paddy to

brown rice

Storage of cereals: Cereals, if not properly stored, deteriorate. The moisture content chiefly
determines the extent of deterioration. Temperature, supply of oxygen, characteristics of the
grain and infestation with molds and insects also contribute to deterioration. Cereal grains,
although stored in the dormant state, continue to respire producing heat, water and carbon
dioxide. This facilitates the growth of molds which are invariably present in the grain. The
growth of molds produces many enzymes that cause chemical deterioration of grains. A
moisture content of less than 14 per cent is considered safe for the storage of cereals. The
grains should, therefore, be dried by appropriate methods so that the moisture content is less
than 14 per cent and stored in such a way as to prevent damage due to insects and rodents.

Milling
Milling represents the principal procedure in the cereal industry and is classified in two
categories: Dry (Rice, Wheat, Maize) & Wet Milling (Maize and rice).
Common Steps in milling:
Cleaning and conditioning of grains precede milling. The main grain impurities following
formal definition are shrivelled grains, other cereals, damaged grains, extraneous matter,
husks, ergots, decayed grains, dead insects, and other undesirable material.
↓
Conditioning or tempering is the process during which the kernels are moistened with
controlled addition of water for the inner endosperm to become softer and the bran harder.
This process aims to prevent breakup of bran, helps gradual separation during milling, and
also improves sieving efficiency.
↓
Grinding and sifting: Dry milling consists of two processes: grinding and sifting.

PROCESSING OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.):

Dry milled
Milling of rice (paddy) consists of cleaning to remove small and large heavy impurities,
dehulling and milling‘- a process which removes the coarse outer layers of bran and germ.
Paddy, on milling, yields approximately 20% hulls, 8% bran, 2% polishing and 70% rice.

Traditional milling
Paddy is milled in India either by home pounding or in mechanized rice mills. Home
pounding is most commonly done using a pestle-and-mortar made of wood and worked by
hand or foot. Pounding is continued till the paddy has been sufficiently husked, after which it
is winnowed and polished by light hand pounding. The average recovery of rice, including
broken rice, in home pounding is higher than in rice milling. Home pounded rice has a short
storage life owing to the high content of fat in the bran which develops rancidity.

Modern milling
Steps in milling rice in a modern rice mill
Pre-cleaning: In modern milling, rice is cleaned by using various types of machinery.
Dehusking or dehulling: The cleaned rice is then dehulled in a huller. This is actually a
shelling device and there are different devices to carry it out. Rice is passed through two
stone or rubber discs rotating at different speeds and, by the shearing action on the grain, the
hull is pulled away. The whole kernel from which the hulls have been removed is known as
―brown rice.
Paddy separation: This is then milled in a machine called a pearler to remove coarse outer
layers of bran and germ by a process of rubbing, resulting in unpolished milled rice. There is
always a certain amount of breakage of rice in this milling.
Whitening or polishing: Unpolished rice is liable to develop rancidity and so it is next
polished in a brush machine, which removes the aleurone layer and yields ‘polished rice‘.
Sometimes the polished rice is further treated in a device known as trumbol, to give a coating
of sugar and talc to produce a brighter shine on the grains.
Grading and separation of white rice: The milled rice consists of unbroken kernels (the
heads) and broken kernels. The latter are then separated, based on their size, into large
fragments (second heads), medium ones (screenings) and the smallest ones (brewers rice).

Solvent extraction milling (SEM)

Polishing of brown rice is also carried out by solvent extraction milling (SEM). In this
case, the brown rice is soaked in oil so that the bran layer is softened and then wet milled in
the presence of rice oil and hexane. The debrowned rice is rinsed with hexane and the solvent
removed by suitable methods. From the bran-and-oil mixture the solvent and bran are
recovered. This method has many advantages over the conventional method. The yield of
heads is up by 10%; the decrease fat content of rice increases its storage life. The bran
contains 17-20% protein but less than 1.5% fat and is thus good for use in dietetic food,
snacks, etc. the rice oil (about 2% yield on rice weight) has edible and industrial applications.

Parboiled rice
Parboiled rice is a kind of processed rice, which is produced in some countries of Asia,
principally India, as well as Africa, Europe and America. Parboiling process involves the
hydrothermal treatment of paddy before milling. The advantage of the parboiling process
stems from the gelatinization of rice starch and hardening of rice kernel that it brings about.
As a result, breakage losses during milling of rice can be minimized. Five major steps in the
parboiling process are required, as follows; 1) Soaking paddy in water (cold or lukewarm
water) to increase the moisture content. 2) Steaming paddy to achieve partial gelatinization.
3) Drying paddy to save the moisture content for storage and milling. 4) Husking to remove
paddy husk from paddy kernel. 5) Milling to remove bran from brown kernel.
Advantages of parboiling rice are due physical, chemical and nutritional changes in
rice, as follows:
1) The milling yield is higher and quality improved as there are fewer broken kernels.
2) The preservation of parboiled paddy and milled rice is longer and better than in the raw
state. Germination is no longer possible and the endosperm has a compact texture making it
resistant to attack by insect and microorganism.
3) The milled rice remains firm during cooking, and its texture becomes less sticky
A great amount of water is absorbed during cooking causing the rice to swell.
4) Its nutritional value is enhanced due to the higher content in vitamins and minerals that
have spread into the endosperm during the parboiling process.
6) Soild materials are less in the cooking water resulting in lower nutritional losses.

Expanded cereal products from rice

Puffed rice (Pori): Expanded rice (murmura, pori, puri, muri) is a traditional convenience
food widely consumed in India either as such or with Jaggery, roasted Bengal gram and
shredded vegetables and spices. The product is mostly produced in home or cottage sector by
skilled artisans.
In the traditional process, the paddy is soaked in water preferably over night until saturation,
drained and then either steamed or dry roasted in sand for parboiling. The parboiled paddy is
milled, salted and again roasted in sand for expansion.

Popped rice: This is yet another traditional value added product prepared from raw paddy.
The paddy at a moisture content of 12-14% is directly roasted in iron pans using sand as a
medium at a temperature of 150-200. The production of popped rice is comparatively less
and the product is mainly used in religious functions and ceremonies.

Flaked cereal product

Flaked rice is another important value added product prepared from paddy. Traditionally, it
is prepared from soaked paddy, after heat treatment and immediate flattening using a flaking
machine (an edge runner).
Flaked rice is made traditionally from parboiled rice. Paddy is soaked in water for 2 -3 days
to soften the kernel followed by boiling water for a few minutes and the water is drained off.
The paddy is heated in a shallow earthen vessel or sand in iron pan till the husks break open.
It is pounded by a wooden pestle which flattens the kernel and removes the husk. The husk is
separated by winnowing. Flaked rice is thin and papery and off- white colour.

PROCESSING OF WHEAT (TRITICUM SP.)

Milling of Wheat
Traditional milling
The traditional procedure for milling wheat in India has been stone grinding (chakki) to
obtain whole meal flour (atta). This method results in 90-95% extraction rate flour which
retains almost all the nutrients of the grain while simultaneously eliminating that part of the
grain which is most indigestible like cellulose, and phytic acid which binds and carries away
minerals.
Modern milling
Cleaning: In modern milling, wheat is first subjected to cleaning to remove various types of
impurities together with damaged, shrunken and broken kernels which are collectively known
as screenings. The total quantity of screenings removed generally amounts to 1-1.5% of the
grain fed to the machine.

Conditioning: Next, the cleaned wheat is subjected to conditioning to achieve average

optimum moisture content (i.e. 15-17%), the bran is toughened and separation of endosperm
from the bran becomes easy.
Milling: Finally the cleaned and conditioned wheat is subjected to milling to separate the
endosperm from the bran and germ, and to reduce the endosperm to flour fineness to obtain
the maximum extraction of white flour from the wheat.
Milling involves progressive series of disintegrations followed by sievings. From this
operation several flour fractions having finer and finer endosperm particles are collected. The
coarser particles are used for semolina (rava, sooji) and finer particles are the reduced
endosperm is known as flour (white flour, maida) and the germ, bran and residual
endosperm obtained as by-products are used primarily in animal feeding. Flour milling is
achieved by grinding in roller mills.

PROCESSING OF MAIZE
Milling of Maize
Maize is milled by a dry or wet process.
Dry milled Corn (Zea mays L): In general, dry milling of corn results in a great number of
products and by-products. From the refined endosperm, flours of different particle size are
obtained and are widely used to produce brewer’s grits, snack food grits, and corn flour. In
ZARS Mandya AICRP on Maize was successful in milling maize to rawa or semolina.
Cleaning and Conditioning: In dry milling, the object is to recover the maximum amount of
grits with the minimum amount of flour, with the least possible contamination of the germ.
The grains are cleaned and conditioned by addition of cold or hot water or steam.
After degermination, the dry milling employs roller mills and the process is somewhat similar
to wheat milling. The large, medium and fine fractions (hominy) are then milled in roller
mills.

Wet milled Corn (Zea mays L): Wet milling is mainly used for the production of starch and
gluten, having as coproducts steep solids (rich in nutrients valuable for the pharmaceutical
industry), germ (intended for the oil-crushing industry), and bran. Maize is wet milled to
obtain starch, oil, cattle feed and the products of starch hydrolysis, viz., liquid and solid
glucose and syrup.

Wet milling involves a steeping stage and complete disintegration of the endosperm in order
to recover starch and protein. The first step in wet milling is steeping. The cleaned maize is
steeped for 48 hours in warm water (50°C) containing some sulphur dioxide. After steeping,
the steep water is drained off, and the maize is coarsely ground in degerminating mills to free
the germ from the grain. Then the ground material flows down separating troughs in which
hulls and grits settle, while the germ overflows. The germ is then separated, dried and oil
extracted by hydraulic pressing or by using a solvent. The suspension of starch and protein
from wet screening is adjusted to a specific gravity of 1.04 by dewatering over string filters
and the starch is separated from the protein by continuous centrifugation. Finally, the starch is
filtered and dried. The protein in the steep water is recovered by vacuum evaporation and
dried as ―gluten feed‖ for animal feeding.

CEREAL MALTS
The technologies of malting and brewing vary widely, resulting in a variety of products.
Malting is primarily applied to barley grains following cleaning and grading of the grains into
uniform fractions, which are then properly stored and processed. The production of malt
comprises the following processes: steeping, germination, and kilning. The germination
process is broken up by drying the malt and kilning to stop further transformations. During
drying, the water content is decreased to less than 5%, thus stopping all the enzymatic
activity while color and flavor compounds are formed. Although liquid malt extract is mainly
used as a first ingredient brewing industry it has found application in the production of meals,
malted shakes, malt vinegar,confections, flavored drinks, and baked goods. In India dry malt
powders are also popular e.g. ragi malt.
2. LEGUMES

Legumes refer to the edible seeds of leguminous plants belonging to the Legurninosae family,
one of the three largest families of flowering plants comprising nearly 700 genera and 18,000
species. Fruit is a pod that contains the seeds. The edible seed of leguminous plants. The seed
is separable into two parts (dicotyledon) general term - bean, pulse.

Legume Processing Terminology

BEAN Legume, primarily referring
to those of the Phaseolus
genus.
DECORTICATIO Home-Scale Processing Wet method: Soaking as a pre-
N Removal of the hull, husk, treatment to decortication facilitates
or outer seed coat of the removal of the husk or skin. Non-
legume seed. decorticated grains that are soaked in
DHAL Dehusked, split grain water for a short time lend themselves
legume (major form eaten in to easy husk removal. In this instance,
India). the husk takes up more water than the
MILLING Process of husking and rest of the grain, whereby it becomes
subsequent splitting of pulse more easily separable. In addition,
or legume - usually taking legumes may be steeped, soaked in hot
place simultaneously in water that is below its boiling point, to
reference to pulse milling allow the seed coat to swell and loosen
and dhal preparation (India). from the cotyledon.
Decortication and/or Dry method: The dry method involves
preparation of husked simply pounding the grains to loosen
legumes into flour. the husks followed by removal by
winnowing. In addition, the pounded
mass then can be submerged in water,
and the husks removed when they float
to the top of the water's surface.
PULSE Dried, edible seed of a
cultivated legume; usually
refers to one that has been
dehusked.
GRAM The entire, whole legume
grain or seed usually
prepared into dhal.

Processing:

In India, more than 75% of grain legumes are milled to produce dehusked splits (dhals) for
direct consumption.

Dhal making: Preparation of dhal from pulses is an important aspect in pulse processing.
Dhal milling is widely practiced in Asia, Africa and South America. Whole grain legumes
have a fibrous seed coat (husk or skin) which often is indigestible and may not be palatable.
In such cases the skin has to be removed. A number of methods are available for
decortication.

1. A simple method is to soak the seeds for a short time in water the husk takes up more
water than the seeds and may be easily separated by rubbing while still moist. In the
alternative, the soaked grains may be dried and the husk removed by pounding and
winnowing. Roasting also renders separate husk easily. Roasted legumes like those of
Bengal gram and pea are widely used in India.

2. The wet method used in India is one in which grains, previously steeped for a few
hours, are mixed with red earth and then sun-dried for 2-4 days. After removing the
red earth by sieving, subsequent milling in mortars or chakkis dehusks and splits the
grain.

3. The dry method is one in which the sundried pulses, sometimes after mixing with oil,
are sprinkled with small amounts of water. After heating, the pulses are milled
(dehusked and split) in mortars or hand-operated wooden or stone chakkis which
consist of rotating plates.

4. Commercial dhal mills: The commercial methods involve the same basic principles as
in household methods. As described above, both a wet method and dry method of
processing are used.

a. Comparatively smaller units practice the wet method of processing. After

grains are steeped in water for 4-12 hours in cement tanks, upon draining of
the water a paste containing red earth and water is mixed thoroughly with the
steeped grain at a 2-3% level. The grains are then kept heaped for about 16
hours. Later, the grains are air-dried for 2-4 days in thin layers in drying yards.
The red earth is removed by sieving. When dry enough, the grains are passed
through a power-operated stone- or emery-coated vertical chakki (sheller).
During this step, about 95% of the grain is dehusked and split. The husk is
aspirated off and the dhal is separated by sieving.

b. With the dry method, initially, the pulse is cleaned, graded according to size in
a grading sieve, and then passed through an emery-coated roller for initial
"pitting" or scratching of the husk to facilitate subsequent oil penetration.
Pitted grains are then thoroughly mixed with about 1% oil (linseed) in an
oiling machine, which is essentially a worm mixer. The oil grains are then
spread in thin layers for sun drying in drying yards for 2-5 days. Grains are
heaped during the night to preserve heat. At the end of the drying period,
grains are sprayed with 2-5% water, thoroughly mixed, and heaped overnight.
The grains are subsequently passed through the roller for dehusking by
abrasion. In the process, about 40-50% of the grains are dehusked and a major
portion of these are split simultaneously. Husks are aspirated off and the
 mixture of grains and dhal is passed through a dhal-separat ing sieve to
remove the dhal.

Puffing/ parching: Puffed grain legumes are prepared in the Indian household in a manner
similar to that used for roasting. Puffing brings about a light and porous texture in split
dehusked dhal. Whole unhusked grains are more commonly used for this process. For
puffing, grains are soaked in water and mixed with sand, which has been heated to 25o0 c
and then toasted for a short time, approximately 15-25 seconds. After the sand is sieved off,
the grains are dehusked between a hot plate and rough roller. The more common legumes
prepared in this manner are chickpeas and peas.

The addition of heat to legumes by roasting, toasting, or parching renders the husks
easier to remove since they become brittle and subsequently crack. In addition to facilitating
husk removal, heating can be effective in destroying toxic factors present in legumes most
antinutritional or toxic effects of legumes can be partially or wholly eliminated by the proper
application of heat. Such factors include trypsin inhibitors, haemnagglutinins, goiterogenic
agents, cyanogenic glucosides, alkaloids, and saponins.

Legume powders that can be easily and rapidly prepared for use in familiar foods can
increase the consumption of legumes by people of all economic statuses. There is a need to
alter the image of beans and pulses as that of a "poor man's food." It was thought that this
could be accomplished by increasing their overall acceptance through the introduction of
legumes in a form especially desirable to upper income people, namely, as a convenient-to-
use tasty powder.
Fermentation: Fermented mixtures of legumes and rice are widely consumed in India. In
this process, previously soaked (4-6 hours) mixtures of black gram dhal and rice (1:2) are
mashed and left overnight to ferment. Subsequent steaming of the fermented batter produces
idli, whereas baking or frying produces dhosai.
Soaking, heating and fermentation can reduce or eliminate most of the toxic factors of the
pulses. Correct application of heat in cooking legumes can eliminate most toxic factors
without impairment of nutritional value. Cooking also contributes to legume digestibility.
Heat causes denaturation of trypsin inhibitors, haemagglutinin and the enzyme responsible
for the hydrolysis of cyanogenic glycosides. The mode of application of heat is important.

Frying: Frying is mainly used on previously processed legumes, which are in the form of a
flour, paste, batter, or dough. In addition, mung bean or dhal is also fried in a little fat and
eaten as a snack.

Germination: Germination as a means for processing legumes, allows the whole bean to be
eaten in a palatable form. The germination process itself as practiced in India involves
initially soaking the whole unhusked grains for 24 hours, and then spreading them on a damp
cloth for up to 48 hours. Under tropical conditions, sprouts up to a length of 1.0 cm appear.
Sprouted grains are eaten raw with salt, or further seasoned and fried or boiled. Germination
increases vitamin C. reduces antiniutritional factors and improves digestibility.
Papads: Papads are made from different types of legume flours principally black gram
(uddin/urad). Commonly the fine dal flour is mixed with oil, water and papad khara (an
alkaline salt with major components as sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate) to form a
very stiff dough. The dough is worked with oil till it becomes pliable. Papads are rolled using
thin rolling pins. The rolled papads are shade dried to low moisture content, packaged and
marketed. In India papads are a thriving home industry which has become a commercial
success story e.g. Lijjat papad.

3. NUTS AND OILSEEDS

Nuts, in addition to their superior quality protein and high oil content (50%), are also good
sources of minerals. Almonds, cashew nut, coconut pistachio nut, chestnut, walnuts are some
of the common nuts. Groundnut, sunflower, sesame, safflower are some of the oilseeds.
Nuts usually grow on trees, and are used for table purpose while oilseeds are usually grown
as field crops and are used extensively for production of oil. Nuts are generally more
expensive than oilseeds. Nuts are used in a variety of ways. They are eaten raw, roasted,
salted or cooked. Nuts and oilseeds generally, contain about 2 per cent minerals, with a good
proportion of phosphorus and potassium. Other mineral elements present in nut kernels and
oilseeds are calcium, sodium, magnesium and iron. Nuts and oilseeds also contain
appreciable quantities of vitamins.
OILSEEDS
India is fourth oilseed producing country in the next only to USA, China and Brazil. Many
varieties of oilseeds, the major oilseeds are soybean, cottonseed, groundnut, Sunflower,
Rapeseed, Sesame seed, Copra, Castor seed and Palm Kernels. India occupies the place of
pride as the world’s largest producer of Groundnuts, Sesame seeds, Linseeds and Castor
seeds. Depending on the period of cultivation, the oilseeds are classified as “Kharif crop” and
“Rabi crop”.
Post-harvest processing of nuts and oil seeds:
Shelling, cleaning, storage and packaging
Cleaning: Oilseed and nut should be properly dried, and cleaned to remove sand, dust, leaves
and other contaminants before storage. All nuts and oilseeds should be sorted to remove
stones and mouldy nuts. Some moulds, especially in the case of groundnuts, can cause
aflatoxin poisoning. When storage is necessary, this should be in weather proof, ventilated
rooms which are protected against birds, insects and rodents.
Shelling/Decortication: Some raw materials (for example groundnuts, sunflower seeds) need
dehusking (or decorticating). Decortication is important to give high yields of oil and reduce
the bulk of material . However, expellers normally require a proportion of fibrous material in
order to work and, particularly with groundnuts; some husk is normally added to allow oil to
escape more freely from the press. Coconut is dehusked and split manually by skilled
operators. Most oilseeds (copra, palm kernels and groundnuts) need grinding in mills before
oil extraction to increase the yields of oil. All oil-bearing materials need to have correct
moisture content to maximize the oil yields.
Storage and packaging: Moisture content of oil seeds and nuts affects the quality of raw
materials. High moisture in oilseeds reduces oil content, decrease protein, and increases the
colour and the refining loss during extraction of oil. High moisture also increases microbial
growth and therefore spoils the food material.
Seeds shall be stored at Moisture Content less than 10%. If the seed moisture content is over
10% then it should be dried prior to storage. Moisture can be lowered by:
a) Steaming/ boiling along with sun-drying.
b) Adequate ventilation or aeration of the seeds or nuts during storage.
c) During very humid conditions, the perishable raw materials such as coconut, etc. shall
be processed as soon as possible after harvesting.
The packed food materials/ ingredients/packaging material shall be stored on racks/ pallets
such that they are stored off the floor on pallets and off the walls to ensure easy and adequate
cleaning and prevent harbouring of any insects, pests or rodents.
 A wide range of flexible (plastic polymers and metallised material offers strong
barrier to atmospheric oxygen. These are a good option for delicate and mid-to-high
value nuts.
 Similarly large consignments may pack in solid airtight containers.
  Often different combinations of gasses (CO2 and/or N2) are used in a packaging
container or flexible pouches to modify atmosphere (Modified atmosphere packaging
or MAP). MAP can extend shelf life considerably as they prevent rancidity.
Products from nuts: Nuts are usually used for table or confectionery purpose. Very little is
converted to oil example almond oil.
Products of oilseeds for food use: The first step in the production of quality food from
oilseeds is to obtain edible flours and protein concentrates from them. Good raw material is
selected and after removing extraneous matter, the seeds are dehulled. The dehulled kernels
are then milled under optimal conditions to recover oil and a high-quality protein-rich edible
grade meal. Several oilseeds contain anti-nutritional and toxic substances. These must be
eliminated or inactivated during processing. Protein concentrates are obtained from different
processes to suit different seeds. Groundnut flour and seasame, cottonseed, mustard-rapeseed,
coconut, sunflower and soyabean and used in the production of supplementary foods.
Nutritional food mixes from oilseeds: Protein-calorie malnutrition has been an important
cause of infant and child mortality. Hence, the development of low-cost processed protein
enriched foods based on vegetable proteins is necessary. Nutritive food mixes developed in
the country are of two types (i) protein rich foods containing about 40-45 per cent protein
based on blends of oilseed meals and pulses and fortified with essential vitamins and minerals
and (ii) protein enriched cereal foods, containing 17-25 per cent proteins based on blends of
cereals, oilseed meals and pulses.

OILS AND FATS

Extraction of oil and fat: Oil and fat is obtained by one of the three methods –

1. Rendering (Rendering is a process that converts whole animal fatty tissue into
purified fats like lard or tallow).
2. Pressing
3. Solvent extraction.
Oil Extraction methods
a) Mechanical expression
During the process of mechanical expression, the oil seeds are compressed in various types of
compression devices/equipment. Expression is the process of mechanically pressing liquid
out of liquid containing solids. Screw press, roll presses, collapsible plate are some examples
of wide range of equipment used for expression of liquid.
i) Hydraulic press: The hydraulic press consist of a series of horizontal corrugated
iron plates. The oil seeds are pressed and then pressure applied for 5-10 min to
complete the expression process. The recovery of the oil varied depending upon
the sizes and seed being pressed. But, at commercial level, the hydraulic press is
replaced by screw type presses.
ii) Screw press: A screw press has a horizontal main shaft. The screw assembly is formed
integrally with this shaft. The screw rotates within a cage or barrel. The barrel is made of case
hardened, tool steel bars or rings to allow drainage of the oil as the pressure on the feed
material is increased. At the discharge end, a movable choke or cone controls the operating
pressure. It is achieved by changing the width of annular space through which the oil cake
passes. The choke is adjusted by a hand wheel on the opposite end of the screw. The
configuration of screw is such that the volume displacement at the feed end of the press is
considerably greater than at the discharge end. As a result of such configuration, as the
material is conveyed from feed end to discharge end, it is subjected to increasing pressure. As
pressure increases, the material is compressed and oil is expelled through the spacers between
the cage lining bars and oil is expelled

b) Oil Extraction (solvent extraction)

Extraction is a process of separating a liquid from a solid system with the use of a solvent.
Extraction is also a process of diffusion with the help of low boiling point solvent. This
process gives a higher recovery of oil and a drier cake than expression. Solvent extraction is
capable of removing nearly all of the available oil from oilseed meal. This extraction process
provides meal of better preservation qualities and with higher protein qualities.
In this process, the solvent is poured to the well prepared material. It is then followed by the
diffusion of oil solvent mixture to the surface of solid for recovery of oil. The most common
solvent used in India is n-hexane having boiling point of 65.5 ºC. The oil is separated from
mixture of oil and hexane called miscella by distillation and stripping under vacuum. The
extracted meal having hexane is de-solventized by heating with live steam in a de-solventizer.
This meal is known as deoiled cake and it contains about less than 1 % residual oil. The
solvent from the distillation and stripping columns as well as from the de-solventizer is
condensed and recovered and stored in the solvent storage tank. The oil separated from the
miscella goes to the storage tank after cooling.
Solvent extraction plant use hexane as a solvent to extract oil from oilseed cake. These plants
are expensive and only suitable for large volumes which justify the capital cost of equipment.
Where large amounts of oilseed cake are available, solvent extraction becomes a
commercially- viable option to extract residual oil left in the cake and leave an almost oil-free
powder known as oilseed meal. Both cake and meal are incorporated in animal feeds.

Process flow chart of oil seeds processing

Refining: Oils extracted by the above methods are crude and contain many other constituents
like free fatty acids, unsaponifiable matter, gums, waxes, mucilaginous matter, variety of
colouring matter, metallic contaminants, undesirable odoriferous constituents, etc. In refining,
the suspended particles are removed by filtration or centrifugation. The free fatty acids are
removed by alkali treatment. When the free fatty acid content is high as in palm oil (5 per
cent), it is removed by blowing steam through hot oil under vacuum. This results in both
deacidification and deodorization. Any remaining free fatty acids are removed by
neutralization. Pigments are removed by bleaching using adsorbents like activated earth.
Process of Oil Refining: In many local markets further refining is not required as the
complexes of unrefined oils are preferred. International markets tend to prefer lighter less
intense oils for cooking which means further processing of the oil. There is series of refining
processes that can be carried out after the oil has been filtered.
i) De-odorising: Volatile compounds that produce bad odours can eliminated through the
process of sparging, i.e. bubbling steam through the oil, under a vacuum.
ii) Wintering: Allowing the oil to stand for a time at low temperatures so that glycerides,
which naturally occur in the oil, with higher melting points solidify and can then be removed
from the oil by filtering. Over time glycerides can degrade releasing fatty acids into the oil
increasing the acidity levels and reducing the quality.
iii) Neutralisation: Fatty acids can be neutralized by adding a sodium hydroxide solution,
also known as caustic soda, or by stripping, which is a similar process to de-odorising.
iv) Bleaching: Some oils have a very dark colour to them that is unpopular with consumers.
The appearance of the oil can be lightened by bleaching.
v) De-gumming: De-gumming is a way of treating seed that have high phosphatide content.
The phosphatide, which makes a gummy residue, is removed by mixing the oil with 2 to 3%
water. This hydrated phosphatide can then be removed by settling, filtering or centrifuged.

Hydrogenation: Hydrogenation is brought about by passing hydrogen under pressure

through hot oil in presence of catalysts like nickel. The properties of the final product are
affected by temperature, rate of mixing with hydrogen, nature of catalyst and pressure of
hydrogen. Hydrogenation is done to overcome rancidity and to obtain fats of desired
properties.
In addition, partial hydrogenation results in the formation of large amounts of trans fats in the
oil mixture, which, since the 1970s, have increasingly been viewed as
unhealthy.Disadvantage of hydrogenation is that it will bring about some isomerization of
oleic acid to its trans isomer, eladic acid. Trans fatty acids have bad effect on cell membranes
in the human body. Thus, hydrogenated fats are bad for our health eg. Vanaspati:
Animals fats
Butter: because of its pleasing flavour and good shortening qualities, has for a long time
been an important fat component in food preparations. It is made from milk fats.
Lard: Lard is an animal fat from hogs. It is very popular in Western countries as a low cost,
flavourful substitute for butter in frying and baking. It is obtained by the heat rendering of
fatty tissues. The quality of lard depends upon the part of the body of the animal from which
the fat is obtained and the feed given to the animal.
Margarine: Margarine, used as a substitute for butter, is made from vegetable oils or a
mixture of vegetable and animal fat by hydrogenation. Appropriately hydrogenated fat is
blended with cultured skim milk and salt. To simulate (imitate) butter, yellow colouring
matter, butter flavour (diacetyl) and vitamins A and D are added. For emulsification, mono-
and diglycerides is added. Sodium benzoate is added as preservative. Like butter, margarine
contains 80 per cent fat.

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Fruits: Fruits in food preparation are fleshy or pulpy in character, often juicy and usually
sweet with fragrant, aromatic flavours.
Composition: Fresh fruits have high water content (70-96%), varying amount of
carbohydrate (3-27%) and fibre (0.2-3.1%) and a low content of protein, fat and minerals.
Fruits are important sources of provitamin A and vitamin C. Some dry fruits are rich sources
of minerals, calcium and iron. Fruits contain pigments, which are responsible for their colour.
Most fruits contain an edible part combined with some inedible part.
Vegetables: Vegetables are plants or parts of plants that are used as food. The parts of plant
normally used as vegetables include leaves, roots, tubers, bulbs, fruits, seeds (beans and
peas), flowers, stems and shoots. Some parts of plants can be grouped under more than one
heading.
Composition: Water content is high in most vegetables, but particularly in greens and
tomato. Water constitutes more than 90% of the edible portion of these vegetables. Cellulose,
the structural carbohydrate is in the cell walls of all plants. Some vegetables such as corn and
potatoes contain a high percentage of carbohydrate in the form of starch. Legumes, however,
are an important source of vegetable proteins.
Nutritional significance: The nutritional contribution of different vegetable is sufficiently
varied that means it is wise to serve a variety of vegetables to ensure that all the necessary
nutrients from the vegetable category are included in the diet.
Plant parts used as vegetables in tropics
Leaves Roots and Bulb Fruit Flower Stem and
tubers shoot
Amaranth Beet Garlic Cucumber Agasti Amaranth
Cabbage Carrot Leek Brinjal Broccoli Colocasia
stem
Colocasia Potato Onion Drumstick Cauliflower Celery
Fenugreek Potato (sweet) Capsicum Okra Drumstick Lotus stem
Lettuce Radish Kovai Plantain Onion stalk
Mustard Tapioca Papaya Waterlily Knol Khol
Radish Turnip Tomato Plantain
leaves stem
Spinach Yam All beans Spinach
stalk
All gourds

Factors responsible for spoilage

Respiration: Fruits and vegetables breathe like humans do, respiring day and night,
continuously giving off water as they release energy for growth and metabolism. In
respiration, plants use oxygen to break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into carbon-
dioxide and water. Respiration leads to drying out, wilting and shriveling, less food value and
less sweetness. This leads to loss of quality and freshness.
Mechanical injuries such as abrasion, puncture and bruising lead to more water loss. Also
wounded and punctured areas are more prone to be attacked by bacteria and fungi.
Other factors: Apart from these, there are other factors that lead to loss in quality. These
include inefficient crop production, harvesting and handling methods, poor crop processing
techniques, inadequate methods of storage and transportation and even poor preparation
procedures. Traditional marketing systems often contribute to reduced returns to farmers, by
involving several changes of hands.
Therefore, a series of sophisticated technologies have to be applied in post harvest handling
of horticultural crops

Prevention of spoilage
Modern post-harvest technologies applied in grading, packaging, pre-cooling, storage, and
transportation, minimize losses, and preserve quality.
Value addition: Another useful approach to minimize post-harvest loss of horticultural
commodities is to add value to products. Value addition involves change of form of a
product, converting raw material into ingredients or processed products to cater to demands
of heterogenous consumers. Value addition offers numerous advantages to the growers and
consumers. Value added products have extended shelf life, improved quality, and palatability.
Farmers can derive high farm income from their produce by adding value to their products by
way of cleaning, trimming, processing, and packaging.
Post-harvest value addition includes primary, secondary, and tertiary processing, operations
performed on farm produce. Primary processing refers to on-farm handling, cleaning,
trimming, sorting, grading, cooling and packaging whereas secondary processing includes
processes which modify the form of the product i.e. convert raw product to a processed
products. Processed products offer cent percent edible product, are convenient, and have
improved eating quality. Jams, jellies, marmalades, sauces, ketchups, cordials, juices, nectars,
pickles, candies, preserves, canned, frozen, dried, and fermented products are examples of
secondary processed products.

The modern methods of food preservation: in general and of fruit and vegetable
preservation in particular may be broadly classified as follows:
Physical methods of preservation
Method Examples
1 By removal of heat Refrigeration, freezing preservation, dehydrofreezing,
(preservation by cold) preservation, carbonation
2 By addition of heat (thermal Stationary pasteurization, agitating pasteurization or
processing) sterilization, flash pasteurization or HTST processing
etc.
3 By removal of water Sun-drying, dehydration, low temperature evaporation
(evaporation or dehydration) or concentration, freeze-drying, Accelerated freeze-
drying, foam-mat drying, puff drying etc.
4 By irradiation Dosing with Ultra violet (UV) or ionizing radiation etc.
Chemical methods of preservation
Method Examples
1. By addition of acid such as Pickled vegetables, fish and meat
vinegar or lactic acid
2. By salting or brining Vegetable or fruit pickles, salted fish, etc. salt-cured meat and pork
etc.
3. By addition of sugar and Fruit preserves, jams, jellies, marmalades, etc.
heating
4. By addition of chemical using water-soluble salts of sulphur-dioxide benzoic acid, sorbic acid
preservatives and a few like hydrogen peroxide, etc. which are permitted as
harmless in foods. By means of substances of bacterial origin such as
chitosan, resin, etc. which is permitted to a limited extent, in some
cases as harmless additives.
5. By fermentation Alcoholic and acetous fermentation as in the case of fruit wines,
 apple cider, fruit, vinegar etc.
Asceptic packaging
Method Examples
Canning, Aseptic packaging Canned and tetra packed foods
Drying: Preservation of foods by drying is perhaps the oldest method known. The main
objective of drying is removal of free water (lowering of water activity below 0.7) from fruits
and vegetables to the extent, where micro-organisms do not survive and reproduce.
Simultaneously, the total solids, viz., sugars, organic acids are concentrated, exerting osmotic
pressure to inhibit the micro-organisms. There are many methods by which drying is
accomplished such as sun drying, drum drying, vacuum drying and freeze drying etc.
Sun drying : Under sun-drying, the sound fruits are loaded on trays, transferred to the sun-
drying yard and allowed to dry, until the fruits are about two-thirds dry. Then the trays are
stacked in the shade to allow the late stages of drying, which, proceeds slowly. Apricots,
peaches, pears and grapes are some fruits that are sun-dried.
Cabinet drying: Food products dried in a cabinet dryer are placed on trays and moved
into a drying compartment where the product is exposed to the drying air.
Foam-mat drying : The foam-mat drying process consists essentially of incorporating
small amount suitable foaming agents such as glyceryl-mono-stearate, egg albumin,
groundnut protein isolate, guar, guava and carboxymethyl cellulose into the fluid food
materials, so that they can be whipped to a low density foam and spread on trays. Drying is
done at relatively low temperatures, in an ordinary forced air-circulation drier. The dried
product can be reconstituted readily. The method is considerable cheaper than puff drying,
drying, drum drying, etc.
Freez drying: In this method, the material such as fruit juice concentrate is first
poured on trays in the lower chamber of a freeze drier and the frozen material is dried in the
upper chamber under high vacuum. The material is directly dried by sublimation of ice
without passing through intermediate liquid stage. Mango pulp, orange juice concentrate
passion fruit juice and guava pulp have been prepared to give freeze-dried powders of
excellent quality for taste, flavour and reconstitution property, etc.
Canning: For canning, fruits and vegetables should be absolutely fresh. An hour from the
field to the can is the accepted ideal. The fruit should be ripe but firm and evenly matured. It
should be free from all unsightly blemishes, insect damage and malformation. Over-ripe fruit
is generally infected with micro-organisms and would show poor quality.The main processes
of canning are:-
1. Sorting and grading
2. Washing
3. Blanching – This loosens skin and the process is particularly important in beetroot
and tomato. It facilitates close filling in the can and drives out air from tissues.
Further, it helps clean the fruit or vegetable and to eliminate micro-organism. It
also inactivates the enzymes, thus preventing the possibility of discolouration.
4. Peeling, coring and pitting
a. Hand peeling
b. Peeling, coring and pitting by machine
 c. Peeling by heat
d. Lye peeling
5. Can filling – Automatic can filling machines are in use in large canneries in many
countries, but choice graded fruits are generally filled by hand to prevent bruising
and also ensuring properly graded pack. In India, filling by hand using rubber
gloves is a common practice.
a. Syruping or brining – The cans are filled with hot sugar syrup for fruits and with
hot brine for vegetables. Addition of syrup or brine improves the taste of the
canned product. The syrup or brine should be poured to the can at 79°-82°C,
leaving suitable head space ranging from 0.32 cm to 0.47 cm in the can and closed
on the double seaming machine.
b. Lidding or clinching
c. Exhausting – Before sealing the cans finally, it is necessary to remove all air from
the contents. The process by which this is achieved is known as ‘exhausting’.
Containers are exhausted either by heat treatment or by mechanical.
d. Sealing – After exhausting, cans are sealed by special electrical machines known
as double seamers.
e. Heat processing – The heat treatment to which foods are subjected after hermetic
(air tight) sealing is containers is called heat process.
f. Cooling – After the process containers are cooled quickly to prevent over cooking.
g. Labeling and casing – After cooking, cooling and drying the containers are ready
for labeling. Labeling machines apply glue and labels in a high speed operation.
Jams, jellies and marmalades
Jam is made using pulp from a single fruit or from a mixture of fruits. The combination of
high acidity (pH around 3.0) and high sugar content (68-72%) prevents mould growth after
opening the jar. Jellies are crystal-clear jams that are made using filtered juice instead of fruit
pulp and marmalades are produced from clear citrus juices (lime, orange, grapefruit, lemon or
orange) that have fine shreds of peel suspended in the gel. Ginger may also be used alone or
mixed with the citrus fruits.
The important points to remember when making jams, jellies or marmalades:
1) There must be the correct proportions of juice, sugar, acid and pectin in order to form a
good gel. In general, slightly under-ripe fruits contain more acid and pectin than do overripe
fruits, but there are differences in the amounts of acid and pectin in different types of fruit.
2) Water must be boiled off quickly to concentrate the mixture before it darkens. If whole
fruit is used, there are two heating stages: at the start, the fruit is heated slowly to soften it
and to extract pectin; then the mixture is boiled rapidly until the sugar content reaches 68-
72%. This change in heat output requires a large and easily controllable burner.
3) Equipment: At a small scale, a stainless steel pan and a gas burner can be used, but the
mixture should be constantly stirred to prevent it burning onto the base of the pan,
particularly towards the end of boiling when it thickens. At higher production rates, a double-
jacketed pan is better because it gives more even and faster heating and does not risk burning
the product.
4) Pectin: The type of pectin used in jams and marmalades (above 55% solids) is known as
high methoxyl (HM) pectin. It is used in a pH range of 2.0-3.5. A second type, known as low
methoxyl (LM) pectin, is used mainly for spreads or for gelling agents in milk products.
There are a large number of different types of HM pectin, such as ‘rapid set‘ and ‘slow set‘
and it is necessary to specify carefully the type required when ordering pectin from a
supplier.
5) Filling: Jams should be hot filled (at around 85oC) into glass jars and sealed with a new
lid. If the temperature is too high, steam condenses to water on the inside of the lid and
dilutes sugar at the surface of the jam, which can cause mould growth. If the temperature is
too low, the jam thickens and is difficult to pour into containers. Jars should be filled to
approximately 9/10ths full, to help a vacuum to form in the space above the product as it
cools. The jars are kept upright during cooling until the gel has formed.

Fruit and vegetable juices and drinks

There has been a considerable increase in the consumption of fruit and vegetable juices in the
world during the last few years and there are possibilities of its further increase. The beverage
industry is by far the largest outlet for fruit juice and concentrates absorbing more than 80%
of production. In India, a little more than 60% of the fruit processed is used is fruit based
beverages. Many different types of beverages, such as fruit juices, fruit drinks, squashes,
cordials and fruit punches, are available. They are broadly defined as:
Fruit juice: This is a natural juice pressed out of a fruit, and is unaltered in its
composition during preparation and preservation.
Fruit drink: This is made by liquefying the whole fruit and at least 10% of the
volume of undiluted drink must be whole fruit. It may be diluted before being served.
Fruit squash: This consists essentially of strained juice containing moderate
quantities of fruit pulp to which sugar is added for sweetening eg., orange squash,
lemon squash, mango squash, etc.
Fruit cordial: This is fruit squash from which all suspended material is completely
eliminated and is perfectly clear, eg., lime juice cordial.
Fruit punches: These are made by mixing the desired fruit juices at the time when it
is served.
Fruit juice concentrate: This is fruit juice which has been concentrated by the
removal of water either by heat or by freezing.
Sherbets: This is cooling drink of sweetened diluted fruit juice.
Chutneys sauces and pickles:
Chutney: Method of preparation is similar to jam except that spices, salt and vinegar
are added e.g. mango chutney. Slices of fruit or vegetable are cut into slices and
cooked slowly with some water. Onion, garlic, spices, sugar are added. Vinegar is
added in the last stages of cooking. Consistency is thinner compared to jam.
Sauces: Sauces are of two types – thin and thick. Fruit or vegetables are cooked with
spices and after cooking are macerated and strained through a filter. The skin, seeds
and stalk of fruits, vegetables are not allowed to pass through the filter. Tomato sauce
and ketchup are examples of sauces.
 Pickles: The process of preservation of food in common salt or vinegar is called
pickling. Spices and edible oil also may be added to the product. Some of the typical
Indian pickles are made from mango, lime, turnip, cabbage and cauliflower. Pickled
gherkins and onions are common in Western countries. These are prepared by
immersing these vegetables in brine and vinegar. During pickling vegetables undergo
fermentation too (discussed below).
Sauerkraut: Is a German preserved vegetable product. It is made by fermenting
cabbage slices in salt.

Candies /Candied fruit

Also known as crystallized fruit or glazed fruit has existed since the 14th century.
Whole fruit, smaller pieces of fruit, or pieces of peel, are placed in heated sugar syrup, which
absorbs the moisture from within the fruit and eventually preserves it (osmotic dehydration).
Depending on size and type of fruit, this process of preservation can take from several days to
several months. The general principle is to boil the fruit, steep it in increasingly strong sugar
solutions for a number of weeks, and then dry off any remaining water.
[1] This process allows the fruit to retain its quality for a year.
[2] The continual process of drenching the fruit in syrup causes the fruit to become saturated
with sugar, preventing the growth of spoilage microorganisms due to the
unfavourable osmotic pressure this creates.
[3] Fruits that are commonly candied include dates, cherries, pineapple, and a root, ginger,
papaya (tuti- fruti)
[4] The principal candied peels are orange and citron; these with candied lemon peel are the
usual ingredients of mixed chopped peel (which may also include glazed cherries).

Frozen vegetables
Freezing and refrigeration are among the established and convenient method of food
preservation. Other than preservation in many situations low temperature provides added
advantages and improves processing properties of foods. In controlling the rate of certain
chemicals and enzymatic reactions as well as the rates of growth and metabolism of
microorganisms, cooling is applied. Without any doubt properly carried out freezing process
is the most satisfactory method to preserve vegetables for a longer duration.
Methods of freezing: Three basic types of freezing methods that are available in commercial
scale including, freezing in air, freezing by indirect contact with the refrigerant, and freezing
by direct immersion in a refrigerating medium. Freezing by indirect contact by refrigerant is
the common principle in most freezers. Indirect contact freezing includes those methods in
which the food or the food package is in contact with a surface that, in turn, is cooled by a
refrigerant, but the food or food package goes not contact the refrigerant directly. This
method is referred as fast freezing method and may be engineered for batch, semi-continuous,
or continuous operation.
Factors that affect quality of frozen vegetables: A large number of factors affect the
quality of frozen products includes, types, variety, initial quality, process of harvesting, time
lapse between harvesting and processing, pre-treatments, freezing condition and packaging.
 Product-Processing-Packaging (P-P-P) interaction.
  Temperature-Time-Tolerance (T-T-T), which can diminish the quality in case of
adverse storage temperatures and times.
 Foods must be solidly or very nearly solidly frozen in terms of maintaining quality.
Unfrozen core or even partially frozen foods undergo changes in texture, color, flavor
and other properties. Growth of microorganisms can be a quality issue in such
conditions.
 When water in the foods freezes rapidly, it form minute ice crystals in-between the
cell wall, but slowly freezing forms large ice crystals which cause physical rupture of
the cells.
Fermented products
The term ‘fermentation’ was first used for the production of wine by the action of yeast on
fruit juice. Indigenous fermented foods which are strongly linked to our tradition and culture
have been prepared and consumed since many centuries. They have good digestibility,
nutritive value as well as bioavailability of nutrients. Fermented foods are defined as foods
that have been subjected to the action of selected microorganisms by which a biochemically
and organoleptically modified substrate is produced resulting in an acceptable product for
human consumption
Pickle In the case of vegetables, people first added salt or seawater that resulted in extended
shelf life. Before history was recorded, it was known that salt preserved foods and enhanced
their organoleptic qualities (taste). Apart from the preservative action of salt, fermentation
also exerts a preservative action. During the process of pickling there is fermentation brought
about by lactic acid producing bacteria. The acid production reduces the pH and therefore
creating an environment which is hostile to development of harmful bacteria.
In fermentation pickling, the food itself produces the preservation agent, typically by a
process that produces lactic acid. Fermented pickles include sauerkraut, nukazuke, kimchi,
surströmming, and curtido. Some chemically pickled cucumbers are also fermented. The
Indian pickles (uppinkai, aachaar) also rely on fermentation as one of the hurdles.
Wine: It seems that the development of fermented fruit and vegetable products took place
from the time ancient people started collecting and storing food. Fresh fruits and vegetables
are difficult to store. Fruits are naturally rich in juices and sugars and are slightly acidic.
These components induce growth of yeasts and are naturally used for making alcoholic
beverages.
Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented grape juice. Wine is prepared by
fermentation of grapes with yeast. Wines are grouped into two classes as ‘Table’ wines which
contain less than 14 per cent alcohol by volume and ‘dessert’ wines containing more than 14
per cent but less than 21 per cent alcohol by volume.
After the first two stages of crushing and pressing the grapes, fermentation comes into play.
Must (or juice) can begin fermenting naturally within 6-12 hours when aided with wild yeasts
in the air. However, many wine makers intervene and add commercial cultured yeast to
ensure consistency and predict the end result.
Fermentation continues until all of the sugar is converted into alcohol and dry wine is
produced. To create a sweet wine, wine makers will sometimes stop the process before all of
the sugar is converted. Fermentation can take anywhere from 10 days to one month or more.
The next stage is clarification. Once fermentation is complete, clarification begins.
Clarification is the process in which solids such as dead yeast cells, tannins, and proteins are
removed. The clarified wine is then racked into another vessel and prepared for bottling or
future aging.
Presence of acidity and alcohol preserves the wine for several days. Several of the bioactive
compounds as well as ascorbic acid present in the fruit are retained to some extent in the wine
Cider (Apple wine): It is prepared by fermenting apple juice with yeast. It may contain about
8-14 per cent alcohol by volume.
Vinegar is produced by oxidizing alcohol by acetic acid bacteria. This bacterium requires
oxygen for its growth and activity. Alcohol produced from fruits or molasses can be used for
the preparation of vinegar. The different types of vinegar commercially prepared are: (1)
Cider vinegar; (2) Grape vinegar; (3) Malt vinegar; (4) Other fruit vinegars and (5) Spirit
vinegar. Vinegar can act as a preservative in pickles as it contains acetic acid. In order to
obtain good preservative action, the concentration of acetic acid in the pickles should be at
least 2 per cent.
On-farm handling
Practices of postharvest technologies can reduce the quantitative and qualitative losses of
fresh fruits and vegetables and also maintained the product quality up to final consumption.
Proper harvesting: Fruits and vegetables should be harvested very carefully after observing
the appropriate maturity level and quality because lower or upper maturity level of
produces reduces the storage life and enhanced the spoilage
Packaging: Sterilized or properly clean packaging also helps for enhance the quality and
prevent the excess respiration of packed fruits and vegetables. Several preservation
technologies like cold storage, modified atmosphere packaging and edible coating has been
used for keeping the fruits and vegetables safe and hygiene.

Pre-cooling decreases the temperature up to requisite level before processing or storage and
retards the chemical and changes of fruits and vegetables during processing or storage.

Room cooling or forced air cooling are two common modern methods for maintaining the
temperature of previously cooled fruits and vegetables.

Evaporating cooling – cool chambers: This is a low cost method for small farmers.
Evaporation of water produces a considerable cooling effect and the faster the evaporation
the greater the cooling. Evaporative cooling occurs when air, which is not already saturated
with water vapour, is blown across any wet surface. Thus evaporative coolers consist of a wet
porous bed through which air is drawn and is cooled and humidified by evaporation of water.
The principles of evaporative cooling can be gainfully utilized for storage of fresh produce,
particularly in rural India. It is also called “zero energy cool chamber”- as it does not use any
energy (electricity) to cool food unlike a refrigerator.
 Milk and milk products

Composition of milk: Milk from different sources, regardless of breed or even species, will
contain the same classes of constituents. They are milk fat (3-6 per cent), protein (3-4 per
cent), milk sugar (~5 per cent) and ash (~0.7 per cent). Water accounts for the balance of
85.5-88.5 per cent. All the solids in milk are referred to as “total solids” (11.4-14.5 per cent)
and the total solids without fat is known as “milk solids-not-fat” (MSNF) or “solids-not-fat”.
The price of milk depends on its fat content and to a lesser extent, on its solids-not-fat
content.
Lipids: Milk fat is a notable type of fat because of the array of fatty acids found in its
triglyceride molecules. The length of the fatty acid carbon chains ranges from 4 to 26 and
these are chains containing primarily an even number of carbon atoms. Altogether, 64
different fatty acids have been identified in milk fat. By far the most common of the saturated
fatty acids is palmitic acid (16 carbon atoms); oleic acid (18 carbons) is even more abundant
than palmitic acid and is the most plentiful monounsaturated fatty acid is milk fat.

Proteins:
 Curd: Milk precipitate that contains casein and forms readily in an acidic medium.
 Whey: Liquid that drains from the curd of clotted milk; contains lactose, proteins,
water-soluble vitamins and some minerals.
 Casein: Collective name for milk proteins precipitated at pH 4.6 (iso-electric point)
 Casein Micelle: Casein aggregate that is comparatively stable and remains colloidally
dispersed unless a change such as a shift toward the isoelectric point or the use of
rennin destabilizes and precipitates casein.
 Rennin: Enzyme from the stomach lining of calves that eliminates the protective
function of κ-casein in micelles and results in curd formation.
 Whey proteins: The various caseins account for the a little less than 80 percent of the
total protein in milk (Table 13.2); the various whey proteins contribute the remainder.
These whey proteins sometimes are categorized as either lactalbumins. These
designations of the whey proteins are confused a bit by the finding that one of the
lactalbumins is called β-lactoglobulin. Whey proteins are of interest because of their
sensitivity to heat. When milk is heated in food preparation, the whey proteins are
denatured rather easily and sink to the bottom of the pan, forming a layer.
 Enzymes: Milk contains many enzymes, including alkaline phosphatase, lipase,
protease and xanthine oxidase.
Vitamins and minerals: Milk naturally is an excellent source of riboflavin, calcium and
phosphorus. It also provides valuable amounts of thiamin, niacin and vitamin A. In fact, milk
is a very outstanding source of nutrients, except iron and vitamin C.
Flavor components: Volatile organic compounds, notably aldehydes, ketones and acids.
Heat treated milk often is described as having a “cooked” flavor, which is the result of heat
assisted chemical reactions promoting degradation of the lactose and interaction with
proteins. Fermentation by microorganisms results in the formation of acid from lactose, a
change that alters both flavor and texture. Lipase action on lipids, as well as oxidative
changes during storage, releases butyric acid and other fatty acids that ultimately have a
strong influence on flavor. Sunlight can also alter the flavor of milk by triggering formation
of different sulfur containing compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide. Even the feed the
lactating cattle eat influences the flavor of the milk they produce.
Effect of heat on milk: Heating milk to a temperature higher than that used for
pasteurisation (61.8C) effects a great variety of changes in it the changes increasing in
number and degree with temperature and time. Milk boils at 100.2C.
-When it is heated up to boiling for a short time all milk organisms are destroyed.
Microorganisms can induce acidity in milk. Even a slight acidity accelerates the coagulation
of milk proteins.
-Generally, there is scum formation when milk is heated in an uncovered pan. The scum gets
toughened as the temperature is increased but the insoluble scum can be removed from the
surface. The scum contains a small amount of coagulated protein, minerals and fat globules
and results from a drying out of the top of the milk. The tenacious layer of fat that forms on
milk when heated is due to the breaking of the film of protein that surrounds the fat globules
in unheated milk, resulting in coalescence of fat globules. Scum formation can be prevented
by beating or stirring the milk while heating it. Use of a milk boiler helps prevent the
formation of scum to some extent.

Processing of milk
To ensure safe milk free from disease-producing bacteria, toxic substances and foreign
flavors, fresh whole milk is to be processed before marketing. The processing helps produce
milk that has an initial low bacterial count, good flavor and satisfactory keeping qualities.
Milk processing operations consist of clarification, pasteurization and homogenization. The
flow chart for the manufacture, packaging and storage of pasteurized milk is as follows:

Raw milk → Receiving milk (grading, sampling, weighing, testing → Preheating (35 -
40°C) → Pre-filtration/Clarification → Cooling and storage (5°C or below) →
Standardization → Homogenization I (2000 psi/60°C) → Homogenization II (500
psi/60°C) → Pasteurization (63°C/30min or 72°C/15 sec) → Packaging → Storage
(5°C or below)
Clarification: Noticeable quantities of foreign materials such as particles of dust, dirt and
many other undesirable substances find their way into milk due to careless handling. To
remove these, milk is generally passed through a centrifugal clarifier. The speed of the
clarifier will be such that there is little separation of cream. This operation removes all dirt,
filth, cells from the udder and some bacteria. Clarification does not remove all pathogenic
bacteria from milk. Filtration removes suspended foreign particles by the straining process,
while clarification is by centrifugal sedimentation. Standardisation is the adjustment of fat
and /or SNF by increasing or decreasing.
Homogenization The process of making a stable emulsion of milk fat and milk serum by
mechanical treatment and rendering the mixture homogenous is homogenization. This is
achieved by passing warm milk or cream through a small aperture under high pressure and
velocity. High-pressure homogenizers, low-pressure rotary type homogenizers and sonic
vibrators are used for the purpose. The fat globules have a tendency to gather into clumps and
rise due to their lower density than skim milk. When milk is homogenized the average size of
the globule will be about 2 μm. homogenized milk has a creamier structure, bland flavor and
a whiter appearance.
Pasteurisation The aim of pasteurization of milk is to get rid of any disease-producing
bacteria it may contain and to reduce substantially the total bacterial count for improved
keeping qualities. Current recommendations for pasteurization are based on low temperature-
long-time (LTLT) method of holding at 63°C for 30 min to eliminate pathogenic bacteria
that may be present. The index organism for pasteurization is taken as Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. In high temperature short time pasteurization (HTST), milk is heated to 72°C
for 15 sec. In ultrahigh temperature (UHT) pasteurization milk and milk product they are
heated to at least 138°C for 2 sec and packaged aseptically. As pasteurized milk is not sterile
it must be quickly cooled after pasteurization to prevent multiplication of surviving bacteria.
The effectiveness of pasteurisation is evaluated by phosphatase test (alkaline phosphatase
activity in milk).

Evaporated milk
Removal of moisture (dewatering) is also practiced to preserve milk.
Evaporated milk: Sterilized, canned milk that has been concentrated to about half its
original volume by evaporation under a partial vacuum.
Sweetened condensed milk: Canned milk to which sugar is added (contains more than 54
percent carbohydrate because of milk sugar and added sugar); evaporation of about half the
water and heat treatment to kill harmful microorganisms precede the canning process.

Dried milk
Dry milk: The preservation of milk in the dry form is an old art. Whole milk can be
dehydrated to about 97 per cent by spray drying and vacuum drying. Skim milk and low-fat
milk are also dehydrated in large quantities to manufacture milk powder. Nonfat dry milk has
vitamins A and D added to enhance its nutritive value. The low cost and good shelf-life
without refrigeration, of dry milk makes it a particularly valuable milk product.

Instantized dehydrated milk: Milk that has been dried moistened until sticky and then re-
dried into spongy aggregates of solids that rehydrate readily without lumping e.g. dairy milk
whiteners.

Infant food
An Indian infant food based on milk powders, intended to supplement or replace breast milk
for up to 6 months, would legally have to contain 12% milk protein and 25% fat, giving it a
high calorific value. With specific levels of vitamins and minerals[constituents per 100 g are
calcium 450 mg, iron 5 mg, vitamin A 450 g and vitamin D 4.5 g. Nutrients commonly
added are thiamine 0.3 mg, riboflavin 0.7 mg, niacin 3.5 mg, pyridoxine 0.3 mg and vitamin
C 30-40 mg.]. Permitted additions are sucrose, dextrose, dextrins, maltose and lactose, salts
like phosphates and citrates and vitamins and minerals, as indicated. The total level of lactose
and added sugars will be as high as 56%.
Foods for children over 6 months of age have 16% protein and 18.5% fat, of which two-
thirds is milk fat and the rest vegetable oils. Mineral and vitamin levels are similar to those
just mentioned.

Malted milk foods

These are based again on whole or skim-milk powders, to which is added some cereal flour
and an enzyme rich fermented extract separated from a mash of ground barley or other
cereals. The protein level is 13% and the fat level 8%, with high levels of sugars and
carbohydrates.

Fermented milk products

Cheese: Cheese is made by coagulating or curdling milk with acid or rennin or both, drawing
off the when and processing the curd. Desirable flavour and texture of cheese are obtaining
by curing (ripening), i.e., holding it for a specified time at a specified temperature and
humidity. These cheeses are known after their place of origin. The most common, Cheddar
cheese, is the one that was originally produced in Cheddar in England. While Camembert and
Roquefort cheeses originated in France, the Swiss cheese in Switzerland and so on. Cheeses
are classified based on their texture as hard, semi hard and soft cheeses depending upon their
moisture content and they may be ripened by bacteria or molds, or may be unripened. The
cheeses that are directly made from milk are “natural” cheeses as opposed to “processed”
cheeses which are essentially melted or blended forms of the natural cheeses.
Natural cheese: Any cheese made by clotting milk to form a curd and then concentrating the
curd by draining the whey; variations are produced by varying the curd concentration and by
ripening with or without the addition of selected microorganisms or other ingredients.
Processed cheese: Cheese product made by heating natural cheeses with an emulsifier and
then cooling in a brick form; moisture level is about 41 per cent.
Process cheese food: Process cheese product with a moisture content of about 45 percent,
which causes the food to be comparatively soft, yet firm.
Process cheese spread: Spreadable process cheese product with a moisture content of about
50 per cent.

Yogurt and dahi (mosaru), Buttermilk: Streptococcus lactis initiates the fermentation
process, with lactobacilli of various types (e.g., Lactobacillus casei, L. bulgaricus, L. lactis
and L. belviticus) continuing the fermentation as the pH drops into their effective range. The
thickening associated with fermented products is the result of the association of casein
micelles, often accompanied by β-lactoglobulin.
Yoghurt: Yoghurt and yoghurt-like products are the traditional forms of sour milk consumed
in Bulgaria, Turkey and adjacent countries. The fermentation is brought about by lactic acid
bacilli and yeasts. The product is prepared from whole milk or evaporated milk. The
fermentation is brought about by lactic acid producing streptococci and lactobacilli
acidophilus at 37°C for 6-8 hours. A thick and soft acid curd is formed. It can be preserved in
a refrigerator for a few days. During fermentation, glucose present in lactose is fermented and
galactose is left behind.
Lactic curds (Dahi): This is commonly prepared in Indian homes by seeding boiled and
cooled milk with a small quantity of lactic curd and allowing it to stand at room temperature
for 8-12 hours. The milk is changed into smooth lactic curd. The nutritive value of lactic
curds is similar to that of milk from which it is prepared.
Kefir: This is prepared by fermenting milk of cow, sheep and goat by lactic acid bacillus and
yeast. The product contains lactic acid and small amounts of alcohol. It is prepared and
consumed extensively in South-Eastern Russia and Caucasus.
Therapeutic value of Fermented milk products: Fermented milks are generally considered
to possess some therapeutic value in intestinal disorders. The presence of lactic acid and
lactic acid organisms inhibit the growth of many pathogenic organisms. Continuous
consumption of lactic fermented milk may help to change the intestinal flora and prevent the
growth of putrefactive organisms. Lactic fermented milk products are more readily digested
than unfermented milk by subjects suffering from intestinal disorders.

Other milk products

Channa and paneer: (cottage cheeses) are coagulated milk solids obtained by acid
precipitation of milk. They have almost all the fat and casein protein of whole milk (about
20% each) and about half of both the minerals and vitamin A. Paneer is extensively used in
North Indian cookery. Channa is used in the preparation of Bengali sweets.
Ice cream (also called plain ice cream) : Frozen dessert containing at least 10 per cent milk
fat and 20 percent total milk solids and no more than 0.5 percent edible stabilizer; flavouring
particles must not show. Ice-cream is two-thirds water and of the remaining solids, two-thirds
is sugar and the rest about equally protein and fat.
Composite ice cream: Frozen dessert containing at least 8 percent milk fat and 18 percent
total milk solids and no more than 0.5 percent edible stablizer; flavoring particles are not to
exceed 5 percent by volume.
Frozen custard: Ice cream like product that is frozen, egg yolk-thickened custard.
Ice milk: Frozen dairy product containing 2 to 7 percent milk fat and 11 percent total milk
solids.
Sherbet: Frozen dessert containing acid, from 2 to 5 percent milk solids and no milk fat.

Butter and Ghee

Butter
Butter has pleasing flavour and good shortening qualities, and has for a long time been an
important fat component in food preparations. It is made from milk fats or the lipid
components of milk, mostly comprised of triglyceride. A water-in-oil emulsion, comprised of
>80% milk fat, but also containing water in the form of tiny droplets, perhaps some milk
solids-not-fat, with or without salt (sweet butter); texture is a result of working/kneading
during processing at appropriate temperatures, to establish fat crystalline network that results
in desired smoothness (compare butter with melted and recrystallized butter); used as a
spread, a cooking fat, or a baking ingredient. Butter should have a uniform colour, be dense
and taste clean. The water content should be dispersed in fine droplets so that the butter looks
dry. The consistency should be smooth so that the butter is easy to spread and melts readily
on the tongue.
The principal constituents of a normal salted butter are fat (80 - 82%), water (15.6 -
17.6%), salt (about 1.2%) as well as protein, calcium and phosphorous (about 1.2%). Butter
also contains fat-soluble vitamins A, D and E.
Butter making Process: The butter making process involves quite a number of stages.
The continuous butter maker has become the most common type of equipment used. The
cream can be either supplied by a fluid milk dairy or separated from whole milk by the butter
manufacturer. The cream should be sweet (pH >6.6, TA = 0.10 - 0.12%), not rancid and not
oxidized.
Cream separation: If the cream is separated by the butter manufacturer, the whole milk is
preheated to the required temperature in a milk pasteurizer before being passed through
a separator. The cream is cooled and led to a storage tank where the fat content is analyzed
and adjusted to the desired value, if necessary. The skim milk from the separator
is pasteurized and cooled before being pumped to storage. It is usually destined
for concentration and drying.
Pasteurization: From the intermediate storage tanks, the cream goes to pasteurization at a
temperature of 95oC or more. The high temperature is needed to destroy enzymes and micro-
organisms that would impair the keeping quality of the butter.
Cultured butter (optional step): If ripening is desired for the production of cultured butter,
mixed cultures of S. cremoris, S. lactis diacetyl lactis, Leuconostocs, are used and the cream
is ripened to pH 5.5 at 21oC and then pH 4.6 at 13oC. Most flavour development occurs
between pH 5.5 - 4.6. The colder the temperature during ripening more will be the flavour
development relative to acid production. Ripened butter is usually not washed or salted.
Ageing: In the aging tank, the cream is subjected to a program of controlled cooling designed
to give the fat the required crystalline structure. As a rule, aging takes 12 - 15 hours.
Churning: From the aging tank, the cream is pumped to the churn at a requisite temperature.
In the churning process the cream is violently agitated to break down the fat globules, causing
the fat to coagulate into butter grains, while the fat content of the remaining liquid, the
buttermilk, decreases. Thus, the cream is split into two fractions: butter grains and buttermilk.
Draining: After draining, the butter is worked to a continuous fat phase containing a finely
dispersed water phase. It used to be common practice to wash the butter after churning to
remove any residual buttermilk and milk solids but this is rarely done today.
Salting: Salt is used to improve the flavour and the shelf-life, as it acts as a preservative. If
the butter is to be salted, salt (1-3%) is spread over its surface, in the case of batch
production. In the continuous buttermaker, salt slurry is added to the butter. The salt is all
dissolved in the aqueous phase, so the effective salt concentration is approximately 10% in
the water.
Working / kneading: After salting, the butter must be worked vigorously to ensure even
distribution of the salt. The working of the butter also influences the characteristics by which
the product is judged - aroma, taste, keeping quality, appearance and colour. Working is
required to obtain a homogenous blend of butter granules, water and salt. During working, fat
 moves from globular to free fat. Water droplets decrease in size during working and should
not be visible in properly worked butter. Overworked butter will be too brittle or greasy
depending on whether the fat is hard or soft. Standardization and packaging: Some water
may be added to standardize the moisture content. Precise control of composition is essential
for maximum yield. The finished butter is discharged into the packaging unit, and from there
to cold storage.
Ghee
Ghee production is the largest segment of milk utilization in India. Most of the dairy plants
have ghee production facility to meet the demand of the market as well as to utilize the
excess fat in profitable manner. Method of production varies from small scale to large scale.
Methods of Preparation: The principle steps involved in ghee preparation include;
1. Concentration of milk fat in the form of cream or butter.
2. Heat clarification of fat rich milk portion and thus reducing the amount of water to less
than 0.5%.
3. Removal of the curd content in the form of ghee residue.

There are four methods of ghee making:

i.Desi or Indigenous Method
ii. Direct Cream Method
iii. Creamery Butter Method
iv. Pre-stratification Method
Desi Method: Desi method is followed largely at rural household level. This was the practice
from age-old days in rural areas where excessive milk or only the cream (malai/ kene) will be
cultured and kept for overnight for fermentation. Resultant curd was churned using hand
driven wooden beaters to separate the milk fat in the form of desi butter. After collection of
desi butter over a period of time, this butter is melted in a metal pan or earthenware vessel on
an open fire. Extent of frothing is an index to judge when to terminate heating. Curd particles
starts settling down over a period of time and clear fat are decanted carefully. In this method it
is possible to achieve only 75 – 85% fat recovery.
Direct Cream Method: This method involves separation of cream of 60 to 70% fat from milk
by centrifugation process, fresh cream or cultured cream is heated to 114±2°C in a stainless
steel, jacketed ghee kettle. Heating is discontinued as soon as the colour of the ghee residue
turns to golden yellow or light brown. When almost all the moisture is evaporated heating is
stopped. At this stage the typical ghee flavour emanates and this indicates that the final stage in
the preparation of ghee. Advantage of this method is that there is no need for butter production
prior to manufacturing of ghee.
Creamery Butter Method: This is the standard method adopted in most of the organized
dairies. Unsalted or white butter is used as raw material. Butter mass or butter blocks are
melted at 60°C to 80°C in butter melter. Molten butter is pumped into the ghee boiler where
final heating will be done using steam as heating medium. Increase the steam pressure to raise
the temperature. Scum which is forming on the top of the surface of the product is removed
from time to time with the help of perforated ladle. Moment of disappearance of effervescence,
appearance of finer air bubbles on the surface of the fat and browning of the curd particles
indicates to stop heating. At this stage typical ghee aroma is produced. Final heating
temperature is adjusted to about 114±2°C. Ghee is filtered via oil filter into the settling tank.
Pre-Stratification Method: Butter is produced from aged cream of 38 to 40% fat using
continuous butter making machine or batch churn. Butter is then transferred to butter melter,
and melt at 80°C. This molten butter is kept undisturbed in a ghee kettle or boiler at a
temperature of 80-85°C for 30 min. Here, in ghee kettle, stratification of mass takes place,
product stratifies into 3 distinct layers. Denatured protein particles (curd particles) and
impurities are collected on top layer and floats on surface. Middle layer consists of clear fat
and bottom layer consists of buttermilk serum carrying 80% of moisture and 70% of solods-
not-fat contained in butter. The bottom layer is then carefully removed without disturbing the
both top and middle layers. Middle layer, largely consists of fat is heated to 114±2°C along
with top layer of floating curd particles and denatured protein. This step is necessary to
develop characteristic ghee aroma. Milder flavour ghee can be produced, since most of the
curd content is removed before final clarification temperature of ghee. This method gives
better quality, higher yield and is more energy efficient method.