Grammar PDF
Grammar PDF
Grammar
Auxiliaries and Modals
The verbs be (am, is, was, etc), have and do, when used with ordinary verbs to
make tenses, passive forms, questions and negatives, are called auxiliary verbs or
auxiliaries. (Auxiliary = helping)
The verbs can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must and ought are
called modal verbs or modals. They are used before ordinary verbs and express
meanings such as permission, possibility, certainty and necessity. Need and dare
can sometimes be used like modal verbs.
Auxiliary - Be
You are to write your name at the top of each sheet of paper. Mother says you are to go to market at once.
5. Be is used in the past tense with the perfect infinitive to indicate an arrangement that was made but not carried out;
as,
They were to have been married last month but had to postpone the marriage until June.
Have
1. The auxiliary have is used in the formation of the perfect tenses; as,
He has worked.
4. In negatives and questions, have to and had to are used with do, does, did; as,
They have to go. They don’t have to go. Do they have to go?
(1)To form the negative and interrogative of the simple present and simple past tenses of ordinary verbs; as,
Compare ‘It cannot be true’ with ‘It may not be true’. Cannot denotes impossibility, while may not denotes improbability.
4. In very formal English, may is used to express a wish; as, May you live happily and long! May success attend you!
5. Could and might are used as the past equivalents of can and may; as,
6. Could, as in the first example above, expresses only ability to do an act, but not the performance of an act.
When the boat was upset, we were able to (or managed to) swim to the bank. (not: we could swim to the bank)
7. In negative statements, however, either could or was/were able to may be used. I couldn’t (or: wasn’t able to) solve the
puzzle. It was too difficult.
In present time contexts could and might are used as less positive versions of can and may; as,
I could attend the party. (Less positive and more hesitant than ‘I can attend the party’.)
Note: In present day English, however, there is a growing tendency to use will in all persons.
2. Shall is sometimes used in the second and third persons to express a command, a promise, or threat; as,
3. Questions with shall I/we are used to ask the will of the person addressed; as,
4. Will is used to express (1) Volition; as, I will (=am willing to) carry your books. I will (=promise to) try to do better
next time. I will (=am determined to) succeed or die in the attempt. In the last example above, will is strong-stressed.
(2) Characteristic habit; as, He will talk about nothing but films. She will sit for hours listening to the wireless.
(3) Assumption or probability; as, This will be the book you want, I suppose. That will be the postman, I think.
5. Will you indicates an invitation or a request; as,
6. Should and would are used as the past equivalents of shall and will; as,
She would sit for hours listening to the wireless. (Past habit)
8. In clauses of condition, should is used to express a supposition that may not be true.
If it should rain, they will not come. If he should see me here, he will be annoyed.
9. Should and would are also used as in the examples below.
(i) I should (or: would) like you to help her. (‘Should/would like’ is a polite form of
‘want’.)
(ii) Would you lend me your scooter, please? (‘Would you ?’ is more polite than
‘Will you’)
(iii) You should have been more careful. (Should+perfect infinitive indicates a past
obligation that was not fulfilled.)
(v) I wish you would not chatter so much. (Would after wish expresses a strong
desire.)
Must, Ought to
1. Must is used to express necessity or obligation.
To talk about the past we use had to (the past form of have to);
3. Must is often used when the obligation comes from the speaker. When the obligation comes from
somewhere else, have to is often used.
Compare: I must be on a diet. (It is my own idea.) I have to be on a diet. (The doctor has told me to be on a
diet.)
4. Must can also express logical certainty.
She must have left already. (I am sure she has left already.)
Today we normally used did in negatives and question (e.g. Did you used to swim?)
2. The auxiliary need, denoting necessity or obligation, can be conjugated with or without do.
When conjugated without do, it has no -s and -ed forms and is used with an infinitive without to only in negative
and interrogative sentences and in sentences that contain semi-negative words like ‘scarcely’ and ‘hardly’.
4. Compare: (i) I didn’t need to buy it. (=It was not necessary for me to buy it and I didn’t buy it.)
(ii) I needn’t have bought it. (=It was not necessary for me to buy it, but I bought it.)
5. The auxiliary dare (=be brave enough to), as distinct from the ordinary verb dare (=challenge), does not
take -s in the third person singular present tense. It is generally used in negative and interrogative sentences.
when conjugated with do, it takes an infinitive with or without to after it.
He dare not take such a step. How dare you contradict me?
10. He (need, dare, would) not ask for a rise, for fear of losing his job.
Rewrite each of these sentences, using a modal verb. (In 2 and 9, use another modal.)