ICE Module 1 and 2 Notes

Introduction to Civil Engineering – BESCK204A 2023
Module 1
Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science

Introduction to Civil Engineering
Engineering: It is a profession of converting scientific knowledge into useful practical

applications, where the materials & forces in nature are effectively used for the benefit
of mankind. An Engineer is aperson who plays a key role in such activities.
Civil Engineering: It is the oldest branch of professional engineering, where the civil
engineers are concerned with projects for the public or civilians.
 Various disciplines / branches of Civil Engineering

1. Surveying
2. Building Materials
3. Construction Technology
4. Structural Engineering
5. Geotechnical Engineering
6. Hydraulics & Water Resources Engineering
7. Transportation Engineering
8. Environmental Engineering
9. Construction planning &Project management.
1. Surveying:
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of various points
above, on or below the surface of the earth.
The relative positions in surveying are determined by measuring horizontal distances,
vertical distances (elevations}, horizontal angles and vertical angles accurately by using
various surveying instruments.
Important Objectives of Surveying:

1. To determine areas, volumes and other related quantities.
2. To layout or to mark the positions of the proposed structure on the ground.
3. To take measurements and to determine the relative positions of the existing features
on or near the ground.
Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 1

Primary Divisions of Surveying:

1. The actual shape of the earth is an oblate spheroid. It is ellipsoid of revolution,
flattened at the poles an bulging at the equator. It is taken as sphere approximately.
2. The length of the polar axis is about 12713.168 km and that of the equatorial axis is
about 12756.602 km, as computed by Clark in 1866. Thus the polar axis is shorter
than the equatorial axis by about 43.434 km. Relative to the diameter of the earth, the
difference in the lengths of the two axis is a very small quantity (about 0.34%).
3. Average radius of earth is taken as 6370 km for all calculations.
Surveying is Generally Divided into 2 types:
(a) Plane Surveying.
(b) Geodetic Surveying
(a) Plane Surveying:

 It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is neglected and it is
assumed to be a flat surface. Plane Surveying can safely be used when one is
concerned with small portions of the earth surface and the areas involved are less than
250 sq.km or so.
 It is worth noting that the difference between an arc distance of 18.5 km on the
surface of the earth and the corresponding chord distance is less than 10 mm.
 In plane surveying, the angles of polygons and triangles are considered as plane
angles. It is used for relatively small areas.
 A curved line on the surface of the earth is considered as mathematically straight.
 The directions of the plumb lines at various points are assumed to be parallel to one
another.
 The spherical angles are considered as plane angles and the standard of accuracy is
lower than that in geodetic surveying.
(b) Geodetic Surveying:
 It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken into
consideration and a very high standard of accuracy is maintained. It is to determine
the precise location of a system of widely spaced points on the surface of the earth.
The point so located is used as control station of the primary surveys.
 It is used for large areas and it is used for establishing precise points of reference or
control points. The surface of the earth is considered as curved. The directions of
plumb lines at various points are different. The earth’s mean sea level is perpendicular
to the direction of gravity indicated by plumb bobs. The standard of accuracy is very
high and very precise instruments are used.

Classification of Surveys:
Functional Classification of Survey
1. Control Survey:
It consists of establishing the horizontal and vertical positions of widely spaced control points
using the principles of geodetic surveying.
2. Land Survey:
It is used to determine the boundaries and areas of tracts of land. Surveys are also used to
provide data for making a plan of the area. A cadastral survey is done for marking legal
boundaries of land.
3. City Survey:
These surveys are conducted within the limits of a city for urban planning. These are required
for the purpose of layout of streets, building, sewers, pipes, etc.
4. Topographical Survey:
Topography is defined as the shape. These surveys are required to establish horizontal
locations of the various points as well as their vertical locations. It is carried out to describe
the existing natural features like rivers, mountains, forests and man-made features (villages,
building, roads & transmission lines) etc.
5. Route Survey:
These are special types of topographical surveys conducted along a proposed route for a
highway, railway, sewer line, etc. This also includes the staking out and calculations of the
earth work.
6. Mine Survey:
It will be carried out to determine the relative positions and elevations of mines, shafts, bore
holes etc. for underground works.
7. Hydrographic Survey:
It is carried out on or near the body of water, such as lakes, rivers, bays, harbours. Marine
surveys are special types of hydrographic Surveys. These cover a broader area near sea for
offshore structures, navigations, and tides etc.
8. Engineering Survey:
It is conducted to collect data for designing and planning of engineering works such as
buildings, roads, bridges, dams, reservoirs, sewers and water supply line.
9. Astronomic Survey:
It is carried out for determination of latitudes, longitudes azimuths, local time etc. for various
places on the earth by observing heavenly bodies (the sun or stars).

10. Satellite Survey:

It is conducted to obtain intercontinental, inter-datum and inter-island geodetic ties all the
world over by artificial earth satellites.
11. Geological Survey:
It is carried to obtain information about different strata of earth’s surface for geological
studies.
12. Construction Survey:
After the plans have been prepared and the structures designed, the construction survey is
conducted.
13. Miscellaneous Surveys:
a) Archaeological Survey: These are done to unearth relics of antiquity.
b) Military Survey: These are conducted to determine the routes and points of strategic
importance.
c) Gravity Survey: These are conducted to measure the intensity of the gravitational
force at various points.
d) General Survey: These are used to acquire and accumulate qualitative information
and quantitative data for a specific purpose by observing, counting, classifying and
recording according to the need. For example soil survey and traffic survey.
Classification Based on Instruments Used:

1. Chain Surveying:
This is the simple type of surveying in which only linear measurements are taken with a chain
or tape. It is generally used when high accuracy it required.
2. Compass Surveying:
Horizontal angles are measured with the help of a magnetic compass. The compass survey is
not very accurate.
3. Leveling:
It is used for determination of relative elevations (RL) of various points in the vertical plane
with leveling instruments.
4. Plane Table Surveying:
Map is prepared in the field while viewing the terrain after determining the directions of
various lines and taking the linear measurements with a chain or a tape. The accuracy of the
plane table surveying is low.
5. Theodolite Survey:
A theodolite is a very precise instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. These
can be broadly classified into Traverse and Triangulation.

6. Tacheometric Survey:
Horizontal angles, horizontal distances and elevations are measured with a tacheometer.
These are not very accurate but these are extremely convenient for determining topographical
details.
7. Photogrammetric Survey:
It is used for topographic mapping of vast areas. These are extremely useful for obtaining
topographical details of areas which are difficult to reach.
8. EDM Survey:
Trilateration is a type of triangulation in which all the three sides of each triangle are
measured accurately with EDM instruments. The angles are computed indirectly from the
known sides of the triangles. Thus all the sides and angles are determined.
Principles of Surveying:
1. Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference :
The relative positions of the points to be surveyed should be located by measurement from at
least two points of reference, the positions of which have already been fixed.
2. Working from whole to part :

It is very essential to establish first a system of control points and to fix them with higher
precision. It can be used to prevent the accumulation of errors and to control and localize
minor errors.
Necessity of Surveying:
1. It helps to collect field data.
2. To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed.
3. To set out field parameters at the site for further engineering works.
4. To establish boundaries of land.
5. To analyse and to calculate the field parameters for setting out operation of actual
engineering works.
2. Building Materials:
This deals with the study of materials used for construction. Brick, tiles, soil, cement,
stone, steel, aggregates, glass, wood, plastics etc. include construction materials. Some
are natural and many are man-made. This deals with the proper use of desired material
economically and safely. The mechanical properties of these materials shall be sufficient
to avoid failure and excessive deformation and provide durability. The chemical
properties shall be to maintain good environment.

3. Construction Technology:
Construction Technology deals with planning the different activities like
manpower, materials & machinery, so that the construction is completed in time and
in an economical manner.
Scope:
1. It gives guidelines regarding the execution of construction work to be carried out.
2. It helps in preparing construction schedule. Schedule is a systematic path of different
activities carried out one after another.
3. It helps in proper management of material, labour and equipments.
4. It helps in arranging for finance and due to proper construction management there is
financial and overall control on the work.
5. Deals with planning, scheduling and execution of construction activity related to a
project.
6. Construction of underground Tunnels using modern equipment's.
7. Construction of floating structures.
4. Structural Engineering:
It deals with the study of analysis and design of structures.
Scope:
1. Sections of structural elements like beams, columns, slabs, etc. are designed.
2. It includes design of reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and steel structures.
3. Structural analysis is done to calculate stresses in structural components on the basis
of loads, acting on structures.
4. Design of multi-storeyed buildings, towers, retaining walls, water tanks, bridges
requires skills and knowledge of structural engineering.
5. Analysis and design of Dams, Bridges, Stadiums, Auditoriums, Multi - storied
Buildings.
6. Analysis and design of power generation stations.
7. Analysis and design of steel industrial structures.
8. Repair, rehabilitation and maintenance of structures
5. Geotechnical Engineering:
The study of properties & behavior of soil under loads & changes in environmental
conditions is called Geo-technical engineering.
1. It deals with investigate the soil and bedrock
2. It helps to select the type of foundation
3. It helps to study the effect of soil

4. It deals with the design of foundation for buildings, dams, retaining wall, bridge, road
pavement.
5. It deals with the study of compaction of soil.
6. For design of underground structures such as Tunnels, Shafts, Conduits
6. Hydraulics & Water Resources Engineering:
Hydraulics:
It deals with the study of mechanics of water and its flow characteristics. It also deals
with the planning and manage the flow and storage of water.
Scope:
1. To measure the discharge of water in rivers for design of bridges.
2. Design of hydro power plants for generation of electricity.
3. Design of Pumps and turbines
4. Design of water supply schemes for the city which includes design of pipes and
pumps.
5. Design of canals to carry water to irrigation land from dams.
6. Design of Weirs for Dams
Water Resources Engineering:
Water resource engineering deals with study of planning, designing and developing water
resources
Scope:
1. To arrive the total discharge of water from rainfall from catchment areas.
2. To design the reservoir capacity to store the water.
3. Water quality management and pollution control.
4. Scope for usage of water for garden and recreational centers.
5. Design of water supply systems for the cities and industries.
6. Flood mitigation, land drainage and culverts for control of water.
7. Transportation Engineering:
Transportation engineering deals with the study of various transport system
includes roadways, railways, airways & waterways
Scope:
1. It involves planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of transportation
facility.
2. Planning and design of air strip runways, roads, harbors and railways.
3. Maintenance and up gradation of harbors, airports, railway system based on requirements.

4. It contributes economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any country.

5. Design of traffic signals for control of traffic.
6. It helps to develop the roads to remote places.
7. It involves accident study for safe and comfort transport system.
8. Environmental Engineering:
Environmental engineering is also called as water supply and sanitary engineering is
a professional discipline concerned with protecting people from adverse environmental
effects as well as protecting ecosystems and improving the quality of the environment.
Environmental engineering provides methods and facilities for wastewater
management, water and air purification, waste disposal and recycling, and other purposes
pertaining to human health and benefit.
Scope:
1. Involves collection of water, Purification and supply for drinking.
2. Waste water collection, treatment and disposal.
3. Air pollution control and treatments.
4. Solid waste management and control.
5. E-Waste management control and Treatment.
6. Construction waste management and control
7. Design of sedimentation tanks, filter beds, treatment plants etc. for water
purification.
8. Sewage should be systematically collect and then dispose into natural
environment after providing suitable treatment.
9. Construction planning & Project management:

Construction planning is the process of identifying the steps required to build a
structure. It involves defining what actions need to be completed, creating an ordered
timeline of events, staffing the project and determining the necessary materials and
equipment.
A well-crafted construction plan is important to keep the project on schedule and
within budget. It can also help ensure the overall quality of the project meets your client's
standards. Finally, having a construction plan can increase your team's productivity and
efficiency by streamlining communication.

Scope:
The scope of construction planning and project management encompasses a wide
range of activities involved in the successful execution of construction projects. It covers the
entire lifecycle of a project, from its conceptualization and planning stages to its completion
and delivery. Here are some key areas within the scope of construction planning and project
management:
1. Project Initiation: This involves identifying the project's objectives, feasibility analysis,
preliminary budgeting, and securing necessary approvals and permits.
2. Project Planning: Developing a comprehensive project plan that includes defining project
scope, setting project goals, creating a work breakdown structure (WBS), estimating
resources and costs, and developing a project schedule.
3. Risk Management: Identifying potential risks and uncertainties, assessing their potential
impact on the project, and developing strategies to mitigate or manage those risks
throughout the project's lifecycle.
4. Procurement and Contracting: Identifying and procuring the necessary materials,
equipment, and services required for the project. This includes preparing and managing
contracts with suppliers, subcontractors, and vendors.
5. Resource Management: Allocating and managing resources effectively, including labor,
equipment, materials, and finances, to ensure efficient project execution.
6. Project Execution: Overseeing and coordinating the activities of various project teams,
including architects, engineers, contractors, and subcontractors, to ensure that the project
is executed according to the plans and specifications.
7. Quality Management: Implementing quality control measures to ensure that the project
meets the required standards and specifications. This involves conducting inspections,
testing, and quality assurance procedures throughout the construction process.
8. Communication and Stakeholder Management: Establishing effective communication
channels and managing relationships with project stakeholders, including clients,
regulatory authorities, local communities, and other interested parties.
9. Project Monitoring and Control: Continuously monitoring the project's progress,
comparing it to the project plan, identifying deviations, and implementing corrective
actions when necessary to keep the project on track.
10. Project Closeout: Managing the project's closure, including conducting final inspections,
obtaining necessary approvals, ensuring all contractual obligations are met, and
documenting lessons learned for future reference.

Basic Materials of Construction

Building materials are materials that are used in the construction and production of
various structures. A variety of materials are used in the construction of a building, whether
natural or artificial, raw or mixed, each with unique characteristics.
Every building material has unique properties that make it suitable for a variety of
applications.
1. Bricks:
A brick is a type of construction material used to build walls, pavements and other
elements in masonry construction. It is of rectangular in shape and of size that can be
handled conveniently by one hand. Brick may be of burnt clay or mixture of sand and
lime.
Constituents of a good Brick / Composition of a good Brick:
A good brick earth should contain the following constituents
1. Silica:
 Brick earth should contain about 50 to % of silica.

 It is responsible for preventing cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks.
 It also affects the durability of bricks.
 If present in excess, then it destroys the cohesion between particles and the brick
becomes brittle.
2. Alumina:
 Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.

 It is responsible for plasticity characteristic of earth, which is important in moulding
operation.
 If present in excess, then the raw brick shrink and warp during drying.
3. Lime:
 The percentage of lime should be in the range of 5% to 10% in a good brick earth.
 It prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying.
 It causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
 Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and brick looses its shape.
4. Iron oxide:
 A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron oxide.

 It gives red colour to the bricks.
 It improves impermeability and durability.
 It gives strength and hardness.
 If present in excess, then the colour of brick becomes dark blue or blakish.
 If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less, the brick becomes yellowish in
colour.

5. Magnesia:
 Good brick earth should contain less a small quantity of magnesia about1%)
 Magnesium in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick.
 It is responsible for reducing shrinkage
 Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.
Types of Bricks:
There are two types of bricks:
1. Traditional Bricks:
Those bricks which have not been standardised in size are called traditional or
conventional bricks. The dimensions of traditional bricks vary and depend on region and
place. The length varies from 210 mm to 250 mm, the width varies from 100 mm to 130 mm
and the thickness varies from 70 mm to 100 mm.
2. Modular Bricks:
Modular bricks are bricks made to a dimensional specification. Standard size of
Modular brick = 19 cm × 9 cm × 9 cm Nominal size of a brick with mortar = 20 cm × 10 cm
× 10 cm.
Classification of Bricks:
On the basis of quality, Bricks are of the following kinds:
1. First Class Brick:
The size is standard. The color of these bricks is uniform yellow or red. It is well burnt,
regular texture, uniform shape. The absorption capacity is less than 10%, crushing strength is,
280kg/cm2 (mean) where it is 245 kg/cm2 (minimum). It doesn’t have efflorescence. It emits
a metallic sound when struck by another similar brick or struck by a hammer. It is hard
enough to resist any fingernail expression on the brick surface if one tries to do with a
thumbnail. It is free from pebbles, gravels or organic matters. It is generally used-
in a building of long durability, say 100 years
for building exposes to a corrosive environment;
for making coarse aggregates of concrete.
2. Second Class Brick:
The size is standard, color is uniform yellow or red. It is well burnt, slightly over burnt is
acceptable. It has a regular shape; efflorescence is not appreciable. The absorption capacity is
more than 10% but less than 15%. Crushing strength is 175kg/cm2(mean) where the
minimum is 154 kg/cm2. It emits a metallic sound when struck by another similar brick or
struck by a hammer. It is hard enough to resist any fingernail expression on the brick surface
if one tries to do with a thumbnail. It is used for the construction of one-storied buildings,
temporary shed when intended durability is not more than 15 years.

3. Third Class Brick:

The shape and size are not regular. The color is soft and light red colored. It is under burnt,
slightly over burnt is acceptable. It has extensive efflorescence. The texture is non-uniform.
The absorption capacity is more than 15% but less than 20%. The crushing strength is
140kg/cm2(mean) where the minimum crushing strength is 105kg/cm2. It emits a dull or
blunt sound when struck by another similar brick or struck by a hammer. It leaves fingernail
expression when one tries to do with the thumbnail.
4. Fourth Class Brick:
These are the over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour. These bricks are used as
aggregate in foundation, floors, etc.
Qualities of a good bricks / Characteristics of a good bricks:

1. Bricks should be uniform in color, size and shape. Standard size of brick should be
maintained.
2. They should be sound and compact.
3. They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone nodules
etc. with sharp and square edges.
4. Bricks should not absorb more than 1⁄5 of their own weight of water when immersed
in water for 24 hours (15% to 20% of dry weight).
5. The compressive strength of bricks should be in range of 2000 to 5000 psi (15 to 35
MPa).
6. Salt attack hampers the durability of brick. The presence of excess soluble salts in
brick also causes efflorescence. The percentage of soluble salts (sulphates of calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium) should not exceed 2.5% in brunt bricks.
7. Brick should not change in volume when wetted.
8. Bricks should neither over burnt nor under-brunt.
9. Generally, the weight per brick should be 6 lbs. and the unit weight should be less
than 125 lbs. per cubic ft.
10. The thermal conductivity of bricks should be low as it is desirable that the building
built with them should be cool in summer and warm in winter.
11. Bricks should be sound proof.
12. Bricks should be non-inflammable and incombustible.

2. Cement:
Cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and
adheres to other materials to bind them together.
OR
Cement is a building material that is a powder made of a mixture of calcium,
limestone and clay; used with water and sand or gravel to make concrete and mortar.
Ingredients of Cement:
The general percentage of the ingredients of which cement is made of is given below:
Ingredient Percentage in cement
Lime 60-65
Silica 17-25
Alumina 3-8
Magnesia 1-3
Iron oxide 0.5-6
Calcium Sulfate 0.1-0.5
Sulfur Trioxide 1-3
Alkaline 0-1
The main features of cement ingredients along with their functions and usefulness or
harmfulness are given below:
1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.
o The presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and

aluminates of calcium.
o Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of the property to the cement.
o Deficiency in lime causes the cement to set quickly.
o Excess lime makes cement unsound.
o The excessive presence of lime causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.
2. Silica: Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2.
o A sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and

tricalcium silicate.
o Silica imparts strength to cement.
o Silica usually presents to the extent of about 30 percent cement.
3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.
o Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.

o Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity of
alumina.
o Excess alumina weakens the cement.
o

4. Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. The chemical formula is MgO.
o Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.

o Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.
5. Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.
o Iron oxide imparts color to cement.

o It acts as a flux.
o At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical reaction with calcium and
aluminum to form tricalcium alumino-ferrite.
o Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.
6. Calcium Sulfate: Chemical formula is CaSO4
o This is present in cement in the form of gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O)

o It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.
7. Sulfur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3
o It should not be present for more than 2%.

o Excess Sulfur Trioxide causes the cement to unsound.
8. Alkaline:
o It should not be present more than 1%.

o Excess Alkaline matter causes efflorescence
Field tests on cement:
1. Date of Manufacturing: As the strength of cement reduces with age, the date of
manufacturing of cement bags should be checked.
2. Cement Color: The color of cement should be uniform. It should be typical cement
color i.e. gray color with a light greenish shade.
3. Whether Hard Lumps are formed: Cement should be free from hard lumps. Such
lumps are formed by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere.
4. Temperature inside Cement Bag: If the hand is plunged into a bag of cement, it
should be cool inside the cement bag. If hydration reaction takes place inside the bag,
it will become warm.
5. Smoothness Test: When cement is touched or rubbed in between fingers, it should
give a smooth feeling. If it felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.
6. Water Sinking Test: If a small quantity of cement is thrown into the water, it should
float some time before finally sinking.
7. The smell of Cement Paste: A thin paste of cement with water should feel sticky
between the fingers. If the cement contains too much-pounded clay and silt as an
adulterant, the paste will give an earthy smell.
8. Glass Plate Test: A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of a glass

plate and it is kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
9. Block Test: A 25mm × 25mm × 200mm (1”×1”×8”) block of cement with water is
made. The block is then immersed in water for three days. After removing, it is
supported 150mm apart and a weight of 15kg uniformly placed over it. If it shows no
sign of failure the cement is good.
Uses/Functions of Cement:
Some of the numerous functions of cement are given below.
1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.

2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3. It is used for the water-tightness of the structure.
4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, and roofs and constructing lintels, beams,
stairs, pillars, etc.
5. It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed surfaces of
structures against the destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or
inorganic chemicals.
6. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts, etc.
7. It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as bridges,
culverts, dams, tunnels, lighthouses, etc.
8. It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths, etc.
9. It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp posts,
telephone cabins, roads, etc.
3. Cement Mortar:
Cement Mortar is a homogenous mixture of cement, sand and water. Different types
of mortars are used in masonry construction based on their applications, binding materials,
strength, bulk density and their purposes.
Properties of Cement Mortar:
1. Well-proportioned and well laid mortar provides an impervious surface.
2. When water is added to dry mixture of cement and sand, hydration of cement occurs,
and it binds with sand particles and the surrounding surfaces of masonry and concrete.
3. A rich mortar of more than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage.
4. The leaner mix is not capable of closing the voids in sand, and hence the plastered
surface will remain porous.

Uses of Cement Mortar:

1. To bind masonry units like stone, bricks, blocks, cement
2. For Plastering on walls and slabs to make them impervious.
3. As a filler material in Ferro cement works and stone masonry.
4. To fill cracks and joints in the wall.
5. Use of cement mortar gives a neat finishing work to wall and concrete work.
6. For pointing the joints of masonry.
7. For preparing the building blocks.
4. Plain Concrete (PCC):

Plain cement concrete is the mixture of cement, fine aggregate(sand) and
coarse aggregate without steel. PCC is an important component of a building which is
laid on the soil surface to avoid direct contact of reinforcement of concrete with soil
and water.
Properties of PCC:
1. Compressive strength: The compressive strength of PCC lies between 200
to 500 Kg/cm2.
2. Tensile strength: The tensile strength of plain cement concrete lies between
50 to 100 Kg/cm2.
3. Density: The density of concrete ranges from 2200 Kg/m3 to 2400 Kg/m3.
4. Durability: It is more durable.
5. Workability: PCC should be very feasible. Mixing, handling, and
transporting it should be simple.
Mixing of plain cement concrete (PCC)

Mixing of PCC can be done either manually or by using machine.
1. Hand mixing:
 Plain cement concrete is allowed to be done by hand mixing only for small
works.
 The base must be clean, watertight slab, or a steel platform on which the
concrete is mixed.
 Sand and cement are mixed with coarse aggregate. Lastly, water is added and
the mixture is mixed properly

2. Machine mixing:
 The quantity of dry aggregate, fine aggregate, and cement is measured and
should be placed in their respective hoppers.
 The dry materials should be mixed in the mixture and water is added while
the drum is motion.
 The mixing should have a plastic mix of uniform color.
Advantages of PCC:
1. As a base below all types of foundations to provide a hard and level surface for laying
the foundation.
2. As b base below the floor on the ground floor. At the plinth level, PCC provides a
hard and level surface for laying floor tiles.
3. Below load-bearing walls as a foundation.
4. At plinth level to act as a damp proof course (DPC)
5. As coping over top of parapet walls to protect the wall from rain.
6. For pavement and roads
7. For mass concrete structure such as retaining walls
5. Reinforced Cement concrete (RCC):

Reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C) is the combination of ordinary concrete with the
reinforcement to increase its compressive and tensile strength to a great extent.
Concrete is a versatile material for modern construction which is prepared by mixing
well-proportioned quantities of cement (even lime in some cases), sand, crushed rock or
gravel, and water.
It has been used from foundations to the rooftops of buildings, in the construction of
highways roads traffic, and hydro-power tunnels, irrigation canals, drains, and all other
conceivable structures.
Purpose of providing Reinforcement in Concrete:
As you know that, Concrete has a very high compressive strength, but it is low in tensile
strength. Thus, when only the compressive loads are acting on the concrete surface, then
there is no need of using reinforcement in it. But where tensile forces are also involved, as in,
beams and slabs, there is a very high risk of its failure when plain concrete is used. Steel,
however, as we know, has a very high tensile strength (and also have good compressive
strength). Hence, when these two (concrete and steel) are combined together, a material of
construction is obtained that is capable of withstanding all the three types of forces likely to

act upon a structure, i.e., compressive loads, tensile stresses, and shear forces. Such a material
is known as Reinforced Cement Concrete. It has proved extremely useful and reliable in
engineering construction.
Advantages of RCC:
1. Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength compared to other building

materials.
2. Due to the provided reinforcement, reinforced concrete can also withstand a good
amount tensile stress.
3. Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is fair.
4. The reinforced concrete building system is more durable than any other building
system.
5. Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material, in the beginning, can be economically
molded into a nearly limitless range of shapes.
6. The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is very low.
7. In the structure like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is the most
economical construction material.
8. It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection.
9. As reinforced concrete can be molded to any shape required, it is widely used in
precast structural components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent
deflection.
10. Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less skilled
labor for the erection of the structure.
6. Pre-stressed Concrete (PSC):
Pre-stressed concrete is a form of concrete where initial compression is given in the

concrete before applying the external load so that stress from external loads are counteracted
in the desired way during the service period.
Need for Prestressing Concrete:
1. Concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. This is a weak point of

concrete that results in early flexural cracks mainly in flexural members like beams
and slabs. To prevent this, the concrete is induced with compressive stress
deliberately (prestressing) and this stress counteracts with the tensile stress the
structure is subjected to during service condition. Hence the chances of flexural
cracks are reduced.

2. The pre-compression that is induced as a part of prestressing helps to enhance the

bending capacity, the shear capacity and the torsional capacity of the flexural
members.
3. A compressive prestressing force can be applied concentrically or eccentrically in the

longitudinal direction of the member. This prevents cracks at critical midspan and
supports at service load.
4. A prestressed concrete section behaves elastically.
5. The full capacity of the concrete in compression can be used over entire depth under
full loading in the case of prestressed concrete.
Advantages of Prestressed Concrete:
The major advantages of Prestressed Concrete are:
1. The prestressing of concrete by using high tensile steel improve the efficiency of the
materials
2. The prestressing system works for a span greater than 35m.
3. Prestressing enhance shear strength and fatigue resistance of concrete
4. Dense concrete is provided by prestressing systems thus improving the durability
5. Best choice for the construction of sleek and slender structures.
6. Prestressing helps to reduce the dead load of the concrete structure
7. Prestressed concrete remains uncracked even at service load conditions which proves
the structural efficiency
8. Composite construction by using the prestressed concrete unit and cast-in-unit derives
the economical structure.
Methods of Prestressing:
The prestressing can be performed by two methods:
1. Pretensioning
2. Post-Tensioning
1. Pretensioning
In the pretensioning method, the stress is induced by initially tensioning the steel tendons.
These are wires or strands that are tensioned between the end anchorages. After this
tensioning process, the concrete casting is performed. Once the casted concrete has hardened
sufficiently, the end anchorages arranged are released. This releasing transfers the prestress
force to the concrete. The bond between the concrete and the steel tendons facilitates this
stress transfer

2. Post Tensioning
The procedure in post-tensioning is depicted in the figure-3 below. Here, the steel is
prestressed only after the beam is cast, cured and attain strength to take the prestress. Within
the sheathing, the concrete is cast. For the passage of steel cables, ducts are formed in the
concrete.
7. Structural Steel:
Structural Steel is a special kind of Steel. It is used for construction purposes. Due to
its rigidity and high strength-to-weight ratio, structural Steel is mainly employed in buildings.
Structural Steel is used in houses, warehouses, airplane hangars, educational facilities,
bridges, stadiums, etc.
Structural Steel is Steel that contains carbon, not more than 2.1%. These are also
called Carbon Steel, and structural Steel typically has a carbon content of less than 0.6%.
8. Construction Chemicals:
Construction chemicals are used along with various building materials at the
construction site to improve workability, to increase efficiency, add effectiveness and to
protect the part of any structure, or to accelerate the speed of construction work.
Most construction chemicals are used as hardening agents either for surface application,
coating or as repair materials and is also effective as a waterproofing chemical. Here below
are different types of construction chemical.

Structural elements of a building

1. Foundation:
Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct
contact with the soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely.
The foundation for each structure is designed such that:
 The underlying soil below the foundation structure does not undergo shear failure
 The settlement caused during the first service load or have to be within the limit
 Allowable bearing pressure can be defined as the pressure the soil can withstand
without failure.
Classification of Foundations: Based on the depth of foundation, foundation can be

classified as
1. Shallow foundation.
2. Deep foundation.
1. Shallow foundation:
A foundation that is placed near the surface of the earth or transfers the loads at a shallow
depth is called the shallow foundation.
Types of shallow foundation:
a. Individual Footing or Isolated Footing:
Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation used for
building construction. This foundation is constructed for a single column and also called a
pad foundation. The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads
from the structure is carried by the columns. Size is calculated based on the load on the
column and the safe bearing capacity of soil.

b. Combined Footing:
Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough and their
isolated footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated footings, but their
structural design differs. The shape of this footing is a rectangle and is used when loads from
the structure is carried by the columns.
c. Spread footings or Strip footings and Wall footings:

Spread footings are those whose base is wider than a typical load-bearing wall foundations.
The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the building structure over more
area and provides better stability. Spread footings and wall footings are used for individual
columns, walls and bridge piers where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the
ground surface. Soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the structure
over the base area of the structure.

d. Raft or Mat Foundations:

Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire area of
the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls. The use of mat
foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads from the structure on
columns and walls are very high. This is used to prevent differential settlement of individual
footings, thus designed as a single mat (or combined footing) of all the load-bearing elements
of the structure.
2. Deep foundation:
A foundation that is placed at a greater depth or transfers the loads to deep strata is called a
deep foundation.
Types of deep foundation:
a. Pile Foundations:
Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the
structure to a hard rock strata much deep below the ground level. Pile foundations are used to
transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard soil strata which is much below
ground level where shallow foundations such as spread footings and mat footings cannot be
used. This is also used to prevent uplift of the structure due to lateral loads such as earthquake
and wind forces.

b. Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation:

Drilled shafts, also called as caissons, are a type of deep foundation and has an action similar
to pile foundations discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It resists
loads from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance and/or combination of both of
these. The construction of drilled shafts or caissons is done using an auger.
Purpose of Foundation:
Foundations are provided for all load carrying structure for following purposes:
1. Foundation are the main reason behind the stability of any structure. The stronger is
the foundation, more stable is the structure.
2. The proper design and construction of foundations provide a proper surface for the
development of the substructure in a proper level and over a firm bed.
3. Specially designed foundation helps in avoiding the lateral movements of the

supporting material.
4. A proper foundation distributes load on to the surface of the bed uniformly. This
uniform transfer helps in avoiding unequal settlement of the building. Differential
settlement is an undesirable building effect.
5. The foundation serves the purpose of completely distributing the load from the
structure over a large base area and then to the soil underneath. This load transferred
to the soil should be within the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.

Functions of Foundation in Construction:
1. Provide overall lateral stability for the structure
2. Foundation serve the function of providing a level surface for the construction of
substructure
3. Load Distribution is carried out evenly
4. The load intensity is reduced to be within the safe bearing capacity of the soil
5. The soil movement effect is resisted and prevented
6. Scouring and the undermining issues are solved by the construction of foundation
Requirements of a Good Foundation

The design and the construction of a well-performing foundation must possess some basic
requirements that must not be ignored. They are:
1. The design and the construction of the foundation is done such that it can sustain as
well as transmit the dead and the imposed loads to the soil. This transfer has to be
carried out without resulting in any form of settlement that can result in any form of
stability issues for the structure.
2. Differential settlements can be avoided by having a rigid base for the foundation.
These issues are more pronounced in areas where the superimposed loads are not
uniform in nature.
3. Based on the soil and area it is recommended to have a deeper foundation so that it
can guard any form of damage or distress. These are mainly caused due to the
problem of shrinkage and swelling because of temperature changes.
4. The location of the foundation chosen must be an area that is not affected or
influenced by future works or factors.
2. Plinth:
A plinth level forms the foundation of a house. It is a rectangular block of stone on which
a column and pillar of a building stands. It is a wall between the ground level and the
ground floor level. Column bears the weight of the building’s structure but all this weight
presses down on the column. The main function of a plinth in construction is to distribute
the load of the columns over the foundation evenly.

Uses of plinth in the construction:
1. It evenly distributes and disperses the load of the columns to the foundation evenly.
2. It acts a barrier or a retaining wall that keeps the concrete filled ground floor below
the raised floor of the building.
3. The plinth doesn’t allow the dampness and moisture of the ground floor to reach
the building’s top structure.
4. In framed structure houses and buildings plinth beams are used as a barrier for
protection from water seepage. Plinth protects the rest of the house from dampness,
mold and mildew. It is a kind of waterproofing sheet laid above the ground floor
level to protect the house from any damage because of added moisture.
5. Gives strength and durability to the residential unit.
6. Provides a better aesthetic appeal to the building.
7. It also prevents cracks in the building when the foundation suffers from settlement.
3. Lintel:
A lintel is one type of beam which is provided to support the above wall or partition material
when openings like doors, windows, and so forth are necessary to provide a building
structure.
A lintel beam is a horizontal secondary structural element. It is mostly used above the
openings on windows, doors, portals, fireplaces, etc.
Lintel Construction Material:
For lintel construction, different building materials can be used. Some lintel beam materials
are listed below
1. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
2. Stone
3. Wood/timber
4. Bamboo
5. Steel
Uses / Scope of providing Lintel:
The followings are the uses of lintel:
1. The primary function of the lintel is to take loads originating from the wall directly
above the opening and transfer them to the side walls or stone pillar support.
2. Lintel also acts as a safeguard for the windows and doors.

3. Continuous lintels may provide support in masonry structures against lateral loads
like wind or earthquakes.
4. The chimney above the fireplaces can be supported by lintels.
5. Lintel can be used as a support for the canopy members.
6. It is possible to enhance the architectural beauty of a building by selecting decorative
lintels. Lintel architecture would be a good matter of concern here.
7. Lintels may support a small distance of a path. It could be referred to as a lintel
bridge.
4. Chejja:
Chejja is overhang or projection from the lintel which is provided to protect the doors and
windows from sunlight and rain. It is characterised with large support brackets with different
artistic designs. Variation is also seen in its size depending on the importance of the building
on which it features or the choice of the designer.
5. Masonry wall:
A masonry wall is a wall made from materials which have traditionally been
cemented together with the use of mortar. Masonry walls can be used as structural walls in
buildings, and they can also be utilized to create barriers between property lines or different
areas on a property.
Masonry walls render strengths, lastingness to the structure, and help to maintain
indoor and outdoor temperature as well as keeps protects the buildings from the outside
world. Depending on the motor mix materials, there are various types of Masonry Walls used
in building constructions.
Types of Masonry Wall:
1. Load-bearing masonry wall
2. Reinforced masonry wall
3. Hollow/Cavity masonry wall
4. Composite masonry wall
1. Load-bearing masonry wall:
A load-bearing wall is a wall that bears a load reposing upon it, which depends on weight
construction and the work of foundation structure. Usually, this type of wall is used for large
buildings. e.g. housing or tall buildings construction work. It is mainly made with brick,
concrete blocks, or stone. The load-bearing wall helps to transfer weight from the root to the
foundation.

2. Reinforced masonry wall:

A reinforced masonry wall is made with any type of brick, concrete, or other types of
masonry materials that strengthened the use of other building's materials to increase
resistance to deterioration due to weight-bearing or other forms of stress. This type of wall
could be non-load-bearing or load-bearing.
3. Hollow/Cavity Masonry Wall:
Hollow masonry walls are made with cement blocks. This type of masonry wall is used to
stop dampness from getting inside the building. It creates a hollow area between the outside
and inside of masonry walls. Cavity walls will also assist with climate control. Modern
masonry walls are constructed from hollow masonry units or combined hollow and solid
masonry units.
4. Composite Masonry Walls:
Composite Masonry walls are made with the combination of two or more building materials;
stones and bricks or hollow bricks and bricks. The purpose of this type of wall construction is
–reduce the overall cost of construction and make the structure durable by providing
materials of better quality and good workmanship in the faces. Composite masonry walls
work to improve the appearance of a structure by covering up the inferior works by the use of
superior quality material in the desired positions. This type of wall is better because it is cost-
effective and optically appealing.
6. Column:
Column is a vertical structural member that carries loads mainly in compression. It might transfer
loads from a ceiling, floor slab, roof slab, or from a beam, to a floor or foundations. Commonly,
columns also carry bending moments about one or both of the cross-section axes.
Functions of column:
1. Columns transfer the weight of the floors, walls, and roof to the foundation, ensuring
that the structure remains stable and secure.
2. Columns help maintain the vertical alignment of the building, ensuring that the floors
and walls are properly supported.
3. They resist horizontal forces and prevent the building from tilting or collapsing.
4. Columns also serve as architectural elements that divide the space within a building.
5. Columns can enhance the aesthetic appeal of a building by adding visual interest and
architectural character.
6. Columns provide flexibility in architectural design by enabling the creation of
different building shapes and configurations.
7. It improves durability of building.

7. Beams:
It is a horizontal structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by
resisting its bending forces. They are made of steel or reinforced concrete (RCC) or steel.
Beams are used in the structure to
1. Resist loads
2. Counter bending moment and shear forces.
3. Connect the frame.
4. Provide a uniform distribution of loads
Classification of beams:
According to the support conditions beams are classified as follows
1. Simply Supported Beams:
A simply supported beam is supported at both ends. These beams are primarily used in
general construction.
2. Continuous Beams:
A beam that has more than two supports this kind of beam is called a continuous beam. Two
or more two supports are used between these beams, and these beams are similar to the
simply supported beams.
3. Fixed Beams:
A beam that is fixed at both ends is called a fixed beam. Fixed beams are not allowed the
vertical movement or rotation of the beam. In this beam, no bending moment will produce.
Fixed beams are only under the shear force and are generally used in trusses and other
structures.
4. Cantilever Beams:
Its one end is fixed in-wall or column, and the other side is free. These beams are generally
used in bridge trusses and other structural members.
Functions of Beam:
1. The primary function of beam is to carry and transfer the loads imposed on a
structure.
2. Beams support the weight of floors, walls, roofs, and any other imposed loads such as
furniture, equipment, or people. They distribute these loads to the columns
3. Beams prevent sagging, deflection, or excessive bending of the structural members
they support.
4. They improve overall stability of the building.

8. Slab:
A slab is a structural element, made of concrete that is used to create flat horizontal
surfaces such as floors, roof decks, and ceilings. Generally a slab is 100 to 150 mm thick and
supported by beams, columns, walls.
Types of Slab:
1. One-way slab:
 One-way slab is a slab in which the ratio of longer spans to shorter spans ratio is more
than or equal to 2.
 In a one-way slab, primary reinforcement is required and given only in one direction.
 In a one-way slab, the load distribution is in one direction for shorter spans
2. Two-way slab:
 Two-way slab is a slab in which the ratio of longer spans to shorter spans ratio is less
than 2.
 In a two-way slab, main reinforcement is needed and given in both directions
 In two-way slab, the load distribution takes place in four sides
Functions of Slab:
1. It provide flat surface.
2. It supports the load.
3. It is sound, heat and fire insulator
4. It offers privacy for occupants.
9. Staircase:
Staircase is an important component of a building providing access to different floors
and roof of the building. It consists of a flight of steps and one or more intermediate landing
slabs between the floor levels.
Stairs can be defined as series of steps suitably arranged for the purpose of connecting
different floors of a building. It may also be defined as an arrangement of treads, risers,
stringers, newel post, hand rails, and baluster, so designed and constructed as to provide an
easy and quick access to the different floors. Stairs can be made of concrete, stone, wood,
steel or combination of any of these.
Parts of Stairs:
 Step: It is a portion of stairs which permits ascent & descent.

 Tread: It is the upper horizontal portion of step upon which the feet is placed.
 Riser: The vertical portion between each treads on the stair.
 Handrail: A handrail is a rail that is designed to be grasped by the hand so as to provide
stability or support.

 Baluster: It is vertical member of wood or metal supporting the handrail.

 Newel Post: This is the vertical member which is placed at the ends of flights to connect
handrail.
 Run: It is the total length of stairs in a horizontal plane, including landings.
Types of Stair:
Generally stairs are of following types
1. Straight stairs
2. Quarter turn stairs
3. Half turn stairs
4. Three quarter turn stairs
5. Circular stairs
6. Spiral stairs
1. Straight Stairs:
These are the stairs along which there is no change in direction on any flight between
two successive floors. The straight stairs can be of following types.
2. Quarter turn stairs:

They are provided when the direction of flight is to be changed by 90 0. The change in
direction can be effected by either introducing a quarter space landing or by providing
winders at the junctions.

3. Half Turn Stairs:

These stairs change their direction through 1800. It can be either dog-legged or open
newel type.
In case of dog legged stairs the flights are in opposite directions and no space is
provided between the flights in plan.
On the other hand in open newel stairs, there is a well or opening between the flights
and it may be used to accommodate a lift. These stairs are used at places where sufficient
space is available
4. Three Quarter Turn Stairs:

These types of stairs change their directions through 2700. In other words direction is
changed three times with its upper flight crossing the bottom one. In this type of construction
an open well is formed.

5. Circular Stairs:
These stairs, when viewed from above, appear to follow circle with a single centre of
curvature and large radius. These stairs are generally provided at the rear of a building to give
access for servicing at various floors. All the steps radiate from a newel post in the form of
winders. These stairs can be constructed in stone, cast iron or R.C.C.
6. Spiral Stairs:
These stairs are similar to circular stairs except that the radius of curvature is small and the
stairs may be supported by a center post. Overall diameter of such stairs may range from 1 to
2.5 m.
Functions of Stairs:
1. Provide an access from one floor to another.

2. Provide a safe means of travel between floors.
3. Provide a degree of insulation where part of a separating element between
compartments in a building.
4. Provide a suitable means of escape in case of fire.
5. Provide a mean of conveying fittings and furniture between floor levels.

Requirements of a good stair:

A good stair should provide an easy, quick and safe mode of communication between
the various floors of the building. General requirements of good stairs are as mentioned
below
1. Location - it should preferably be located centrally, ensuring sufficient light and
ventilation.
2. Width of stair - the width of stairs for public buildings should be 1.8 m and for
residential buildings 0.9 m.
3. Length - the flight of the stairs should be restricted to a maximum of 12 and minimum
of 3 steps
4. Pitch of stair - the pitch of long stairs should be made flatter by introducing landing.
The slope should not exceed 400 and should not be less than 250.
5. Head room - the distance between the tread and soffit of the flight immediately above
it, should not be less than 2.1 to 2.3 m. this much of height is maintained so that a tall
person can use the stairs with some luggage on its head.
6. Materials - stairs should be constructed using fire resisting materials. Materials also
should have sufficient strength to resist any impact.
7. Landing - the width of the landing should not be less than the width of the stair.
8. Winders - these should be avoided and if found necessary, may be provided at lower
end of the flight.
9. Step proportions - the ratio of the going and the rise of a step should be well
proportioned to ensure a comfortable access to the stair way.

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Introduction to Civil Engineering – BESCK204A 2023

Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science

Engineering: It is a profession of converting scientific knowledge into useful practical

 Various disciplines / branches of Civil Engineering

Important Objectives of Surveying:

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 1

Primary Divisions of Surveying:

(a) Plane Surveying:

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 2

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 3

10. Satellite Survey:

Classification Based on Instruments Used:

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 4

2. Working from whole to part :

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 5

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 6

6. Hydraulics & Water Resources Engineering:

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 7

4. It contributes economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any country.

9. Construction planning & Project management:

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 8

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 9

Basic Materials of Construction

 Brick earth should contain about 50 to % of silica.

 Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.

 A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron oxide.

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 10

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 11

3. Third Class Brick:

Qualities of a good bricks / Characteristics of a good bricks:

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 12

Ingredient Percentage in cement

1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.

o The presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and

2. Silica: Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2.

o A sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and

3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.

o Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 13

4. Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. The chemical formula is MgO.

o Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.

5. Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.

o Iron oxide imparts color to cement.

6. Calcium Sulfate: Chemical formula is CaSO4

o This is present in cement in the form of gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O)

7. Sulfur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3

o It should not be present for more than 2%.

o It should not be present more than 1%.

Field tests on cement:

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 14

Some of the numerous functions of cement are given below.

1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 15

Uses of Cement Mortar:

4. Plain Concrete (PCC):

Mixing of plain cement concrete (PCC)

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 16

5. Reinforced Cement concrete (RCC):

Department of Civil Engg. CIT Gubbi Page 17

1. Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength compared to other building

6. Pre-stressed Concrete (PSC):

Pre-stressed concrete is a form of concrete where initial compression is given in the

1. Concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. This is a weak point of