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Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development

Haroun Chenchouni · Ezzoura Errami

Fernando Rocha · Luisa Sabato Editors

Exploring the Nexus

of Geoecology, Geography,
Geoarcheology
and Geotourism
Advances and Applications for Sustainable Development
in Environmental Sciences and Agroforestry Research
Proceedings of the 1st Springer Conference of the
Arabian Journal of Geosciences (CAJG-1), Tunisia 2018
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable
Development

Editorial Board Members

Hassan Abdalla
Md. Abdul Mannan
Chaham Alalouch
Sahar Attia
Sofia Natalia Boemi
Hocine Bougdah
Emmanuel Bozonnet
Luciano De Bonis
Dean Hawkes
Stella Kostopoulou
Yasser Mahgoub
Saleh Mesbah Elkaffas
Nabil Mohareb
Iman O. Gawad
Mieke Oostra
Gloria Pignatta
Anna Laura Pisello
Federica Rosso
Biswajeet Pradhan

Series editor
Mourad Amer
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation (ASTI) is a series of peer-reviewed books
based on the best studies on emerging research that redefines existing disciplinary boundaries in
science, technology and innovation (STI) in order to develop integrated concepts for
sustainable development. The series is mainly based on the best research papers from various
IEREK and other international conferences, and is intended to promote the creation
and development of viable solutions for a sustainable future and a positive societal
transformation with the help of integrated and innovative science-based approaches. Offering
interdisciplinary coverage, the series presents innovative approaches and highlights how they
can best support both the economic and sustainable development for the welfare of all societies.
In particular, the series includes conceptual and empirical contributions from different
interrelated fields of science, technology and innovation that focus on providing practical
solutions to ensure food, water and energy security. It also presents new case studies offering
concrete examples of how to resolve sustainable urbanization and environmental issues. The
series is addressed to professionals in research and teaching, consultancies and industry, and
government and international organizations. Published in collaboration with IEREK, the ASTI
series will acquaint readers with essential new studies in STI for sustainable development.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15883

Haroun Chenchouni • Ezzoura Errami
Fernando Rocha • Luisa Sabato
Editors

Exploring the Nexus

of Geoecology, Geography,
Geoarcheology
and Geotourism: Advances
and Applications
for Sustainable Development
in Environmental Sciences
and Agroforestry Research
Proceedings of the 1st Springer Conference
of the Arabian Journal of Geosciences
(CAJG-1), Tunisia 2018

123
Editors
Haroun Chenchouni Fernando Rocha
University of Tebessa Department of Geosciences
Tebessa, Algeria University of Aveiro
Aveiro, Portugal
Ezzoura Errami
Chouaïb Doukkali University Luisa Sabato
El Jadida, Morocco Università degli Studi di Bari
Aldo Moro
Bari, Italy

ISSN 2522-8714 ISSN 2522-8722 (electronic)

Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
ISBN 978-3-030-01682-1 ISBN 978-3-030-01683-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01683-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018958931

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic
adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not
imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed
to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
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affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

The valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services of natural and cultural heritage and
bioresources of many regions worldwide is still little known. The Mediterranean, Middle East
region as well as the surrounding area are ecologically unique due to large differences in
climatic, geographical and geological features, which offer countries of these region weighty
socio-economic potentials in terms of fertile agricultural lands, rich natural resources and the
existence of strategic resources such as crude oil and natural gas. Environmental degradation is
one of the largest threats that are being looked at in the world today, and this specific region is
no exception. Inappropriate and adverse human practices and activities such as disturbances
land damage, different forms of pollutions, overpopulation, landfills, deforestation, combined
with natural drivers are the main causes of land degradation and ecosystem destruction. The
destruction of the environment ravages large parts of the planet, in particular, heavily popu-
lated and/or exploited regions, and thus threatens the existence of all species, including ours.
Furthermore, economic companies maximize their profits by ignoring environmental protec-
tion, while governments encourage investment rather than strict regulations. These challenging
issues hamper the social welfare and sustainable development, which depends on three pillars
of sustainability: ‘Environment’, ‘Society’ and ‘Economy’. Public environmental conscious-
ness, however, keeps increasing with the increase of major global problems such as climate
change. Nowadays, people are interested in learning more about new advances in environ-
mental research initiatives in view of the ever growing environmental degradation. If efforts of
scholar ecologists and environmental activists are considered to have paid off socially, the
state of the environment of our planet has not improved as looked-for, yet.
This proceedings volume is based on the accepted papers for both oral and poster pre-
sentations during the 1st Springer Conference of the Arabian Journal of Geosciences
(CAJG-1), Tunisia 2018. The book offers a broad range of new studies that discuss latest
advances in geoenvironmental sciences from diverse backgrounds including agroecology,
climate change, environmental biotechnology, biodiversity, geotourism and geoarchaeology.
It shares insights of experienced scholars from, but not limited to, research institutes in the
Mediterranean and Middle East region on how the understanding of ecological processes is the
key for improving practices in environment management and conservation. The main topics
include Environmental Assessment and Monitoring, Agroforestry Systems-Environment
interactions, Environmental Impacts, Restoration Ecology, Investigations and Applications of
Environmental Biotechnology, Spatiotemporal Patterns of Biodiversity, Paleobiology, and
Socio-economics of Geotourism and Archaeology. With its diverse topics and new results, this
volume enhances the understanding of environmental impacts and the state of restoration
ecology in natural and agricultural habitats as it maximizes the readers’ insights into emerging
environmental issues and challenges. It provides new insights and practical information based
on the latest data reconstructed from (i) various environmental assessments and monitoring of

v
vi Preface

agrisilvicultural systems, (ii) applications of environmental biotechnology in plant breeding

and plant-product valuation, (iii) spatiotemporal patterns of biodiversity and terrestrial pale-
obiodiversity, and (iv) socio-economic assessments of sustainable development involving
geotourism and archaeological sites.

Tebessa, Algeria Haroun Chenchouni

El Jadida, Morocco Ezzoura Errami
Aveiro, Portugal Fernando Rocha
Bari, Italy Luisa Sabato
July 2018
Acknowledgements

Our appreciation is extended to the authors of the papers for their hard and diligent work and
producing high-quality contributions. We would like to thank the reviewers of the papers for
their in-depth reviews and great efforts in improving the quality of the papers. Also, thanks are
extended to Amjad Kallel who supervised and handled the evaluation process, to Sahbi Moalla
who handled the submission and evaluation system for the ten conference proceedings
volumes, and the publishing staff of Springer headed by Nabil Khélifi, Senior Editor for
their efforts and contributions in completing this conference proceedings volume. All the
above-mentioned efforts were very important in making this book a success.

vii
About the 1st Springer Conference of the Arabian
Journal of Geosciences (CAJG-1), Tunisia 2018

The Arabian Journal of Geosciences (AJG) is a Springer journal publishing original articles on
the entire range of Earth sciences in partnership with the Saudi Society for Geosciences. The
journal focuses on, but not limited to, research themes which have regional significance to the
Middle East, the Euro-Mediterranean, Africa, and Asia. The journal receives on average 2000
submissions a year and accepts around 500 papers for publication in its 24 annual issues
(acceptance rate 25%). It enjoys the participation of an editorial team of 100 international
associate editors who generously help in evaluating and selecting the best papers.
In 2008, Prof. Abdullah Al-Amri, in close partnership with Springer, founded the Arabian
Journal of Geosciences (AJGS). In this year, the journal celebrates its tenth anniversary. On
this occasion and to mark this event, the Founder and Editor-in-Chief of the AJGS
Prof. Al-Amri organized in close collaboration with Springer the 1st Conference of the
Arabian Journal of Geosciences (1st CAJG) in Hammamet, Tunisia, from November 12 to 15,
2018 (www.cajg.org).

ix
x About the 1st Springer Conference of the Arabian Journal of Geosciences (CAJG-1), Tunisia 2018

The conference was an occasion to endorse the journal’s long-held reputation for bringing
together leading authors from the Middle East, the Euro-Mediterranean, Africa, and Asia who
work at the wide-ranging fields of Earth sciences. The conference covered all crosscutting
themes of Geosciences and focused principally on the following ten tracks:

• Track 1. Climate, paleoclimate, and paleoenvironmental changes

• Track 2. Geoinformatics, remote sensing, geodesy
• Track 3. Geoenvironmental engineering, geomechanics and geotechnics, geohazards
• Track 4. Geography, geoecology, geoarcheology, geotourism
• Track 5. Geophysics, seismology
• Track 6. Hydrology, hydrogeology, hydrochemistry
• Track 7. Mineralogy, geochemistry, petrology, and volcanology
• Track 8. Petroleum engineering and petroleum geochemistry
• Track 9. Sedimentology, stratigraphy, paleontology, geomorphology, pedology
• Track 10. Structural/petroleum/mining geology, geodynamics, marine geology

The dynamic four-day conference provided more than 450 attendees with opportunities to
share their latest unpublished findings and learn the newest geoscience studies. The event also
allowed attendees to meet and discuss with the journal’s editors and reviewers.
More than 950 short contributing papers to the conference were submitted by authors from
more than 70 countries. After a pre-conference peer review process by more than 500
reviewers, 700 papers were accepted. These papers were published as chapters in the
conference proceedings by Springer.
The conference proceedings consist of ten edited volumes, each edited by the following
group of Arabian Journal of Geosciences (AJGS) editors and other guest editors:

Volume 1. Patterns and Mechanisms of Climate, Paleoclimate, and Paleoenvironmental

Changes from Low-Latitude Regions

Zhihua Zhang (AJGS Editor): Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

Nabil Khélifi (AJGS Editor): Earth Sciences Editorial Department, Springer, Heidelberg,
Germany
Abdelkader Mezghani (Guest Editor): Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Norway
Essam Heggy (Guest Editor): University of Southern California and NASA Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, Caltech, USA

Volume 2. Advances in Remote Sensing and Geo Informatics Applications

Hesham M. El-Askary (Guest Editor): Schmid College of Science and Technology at

Chapman University, USA
Saro Lee (AJGS Editor): Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources, Daejeon,
South Korea
Essam Heggy (Guest Editor): University of Southern California and NASA Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, Caltech, USA
Biswajeet Pradhan (AJGS Editor): University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia

Volume 3. Recent Advances in Geo-Environmental Engineering, Geomechanics and

Geotechnics, and Geohazards

Amjad Kallel (AJGS Editor): ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Zeynal Abiddin Erguler (AJGS Editor): Dumlupinar University, Kutahya, Turkey
Zhen-Dong Cui (AJGS Editor): China University of Mining and Technology,
Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
Ali Karrech (AJGS Editor): The University of Western Australia, Australia
Murat Karakus (AJGS Editor): University of Adelaide, Australia
About the 1st Springer Conference of the Arabian Journal of Geosciences (CAJG-1), Tunisia 2018 xi

Pinnaduwa Kulatilake (AJGS Editor): Department of Materials Science and Engineering,

The University of Arizona, USA
Sanjay Kumar Shukla (AJGS Editor): School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University,
Perth, Australia

Volume 4. Exploring the Nexus of Geoecology, Geography, Geoarcheology, and

Geotourism: Advances and Applications for Sustainable Development in Environmental
Sciences and Agroforestry Research

Haroun Chenchouni (AJGS Editor): University of Tebessa, Algeria

Ezzoura Errami (Guest Editor): Chouaïb Doukkali University, El Jadida, Morocco
Fernando Rocha (Guest Editor): University of Aveiro, Portugal
Luisa Sabato (AJGS Editor): Università degli Studi di Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari, Italy

Volume 5. On Significant Applications of Geophysical Methods

Narasimman Sundararajan (AJGS Editor): Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman

Mehdi Eshagh (AJGS Editor): University West, Trollhättan, Sweden
Hakim Saibi (AJGS Editor): United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
Mustapha Meghraoui (AJGS Editor): Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
Mansour Al-Garni (AJGS Editor): King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Bernard Giroux (AJGS Editor): Centre Eau Terre Environnement, Québec, Canada

Volume 6. Advances in Sustainable and Environmental Hydrology, Hydrogeology,

Hydrochemistry and Water Resources

Helder I. Chaminé (AJGS Editor): School of Engineering—ISEP, Polytechnic of Porto,

Portugal
Maurizio Barbieri (AJGS Editor): University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy
Ozgur Kisi (AJGS Editor): Ilila State University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Mingjie Chen (AJGS Editor): Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
Broder J. Merkel (AJGS Editor): TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany

Volume 7. Petrogenesis and Exploration of the Earth’s Interior

Domenico Doronzo (AJGS Editor): Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Spain

Emanuela Schingaro (AJGS Editor): Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro—UniBa, Italy
John S. Armstrong-Altrin (AJGS Editor): The National Autonomous University of Mexico,
Mexico
Basem Zoheir (Guest Editor): Benha University, Egypt and University of Kiel, Germany

Volume 8. Advances in Petroleum Engineering and Petroleum Geochemistry

Santanu Banerjee (AJGS Editor): Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
Reza Barati (AJGS Editor): The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
Shirish Patil (Guest Editor): Saudi Aramco and King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Volume 9. Paleobiodiversity and Tectono-sedimentary Records in the Mediterranean

Tethys and Related Eastern Areas

Mabrouk Boughdiri (AJGS Editor): University of Carthage, Amilcar, Tunisia

Beatriz Bádenas (AJGS Editor): University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
Paul Selden (AJGS Editor): University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA
Etienne Jaillard (Guest Editor): Université Grenoble Alpes, France
Peter Bengtson (AJGS Editor): Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
Bruno R. C. Granier (AJGS Editor): Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Brest, France
xii About the 1st Springer Conference of the Arabian Journal of Geosciences (CAJG-1), Tunisia 2018

Volume 10. The Structural Geology Contribution to the Africa-Eurasia Geology:

Basement and Reservoir Structure, Ore Mineralisation and Tectonic Modelling

Federico Rossetti (Guest Editor): Università Roma Tre, Roma, Italy

Ana Crespo Blanc (Guest Editor): University of Granada, Spain
Federica Riguzzi (Guest Editor): National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology, Roma,
Italy
Estelle Leroux (Guest Editor): IFREMER, Unité Géosciences Marines, Plouzané, France
Kosmas Pavlopoulos (Guest Editor): Paris Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, UAE
Olivier Bellier (Guest Editor): CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence, France
Vasilios Kapsimalis (Guest Editor): Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Centre for Marine
Research, Anavyssos, Greece
About the Conference Steering Committee

General Chair
Abdullah Al-Amri: Founder and Editor-in-Chief of AJGS,
King Saud University, Saudi Arabia

Conference Supervisor
Nabil Khélifi: Senior Publishing Editor, Springer Middle East
and North African Program Springer, a part of Springer Nature,
Heidelberg, Germany

xiii
xiv About the Conference Steering Committee

Scientific Committee Chair

François Roure: Guest of Editorial Board of AJGS, IFP—
Energies Nouvelles, France

Walter D. Mooney: Guest of Editorial Board of AJGS,

US Geological Survey Western Region, USA

Local Organization Chair

Mabrouk Boughdiri: Associate Editor of AJGS, University of
Carthage, Bizerte, Tunisia
About the Conference Steering Committee xv

Evaluation Chair
Amjad Kallel: Assistant Editor of AJGS, ENIS, University of
Sfax, Tunisia

Publication Chair
Biswajeet Pradhan: Associate Editor of AJGS, University of
Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia

Essam Heggy: Guest of Editorial Board of AJGS, University of

Southern California and NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Caltech, USA
xvi About the Conference Steering Committee

Program Chair
Hakim Saibi: Associate Editor/Assistant Editor of AJGS,
United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE

Domenico Doronzo: Associate Editor/Assistant Editor of

AJGS, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Spain

Communication Chair
Mohamed Ksibi: Guest of Editorial Board of AJGS, ISBS,
University of Sfax, Tunisia
About the Conference Steering Committee xvii

English Language Advisory Committee

Abdelmajid Dammak: ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Chokri Khalaf: FMS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Dhouha Mabrouk: FLSHS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Mohamed Elbahi: ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Sami Shami: ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Yasmine Basha: FLSHS, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Conference Manager
Mohamed Sahbi Moalla: Coordinator of AJGS, ISET,
University of Sfax, Tunisia
Contents

Part I Keynote
Using Water Chemistry to Understand Ancient Maya Land
and Water Use Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sheryl Luzzadder-Beach and Timothy Beach

Part II Environmental Assessment and Monitoring

of Agrisilvicultural Systems
Digital Diffusion for Inclusive Agroecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chandrashekhar Biradar, Jacques Wery, Fabian Löw, Khaled El-Shama,
Rajkumar Singh, Layal Atassi, Jalal Omari, Atef Swelam, Ashutosh Sarkar,
Mounir Louhaichi, Boubaker Dhehibi, Enrico Bonaiuti, Bao Le, Theib Oweis,
Yashpal Saharawat, Abdoul Aziz Niane, Ahmad Amri, Karan Nadagoudar,
Jawoo Koo, Xiangming Xiao, Hrishikesh Ballal, and M. H. Mehta
Climate and Territorial Suitability for the Vineyards Developed
Using GIS Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Matteo Gentilucci, Maurizio Barbieri, and Peter Burt
Projected Small-Scale Range Reductions of Cedrus atlantica Forests Due to
Climate Change at the Belezma National Park (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Abdelkrim Arar, Slimane Tabet, Yacine Nouidjem, Rabah Bounar,
and Haroun Chenchouni
Sinuosity of Meandering Channels in Upper Krishna River Basin, India . . . . . . . . 21
Suchitra Pardeshi, Sudhakar Pardeshi, and Pallavi Kulkarni

Part III Environmental Impacts and Restoration Ecology

of Natural and Agricultural Habitats
An Assessment of Environmental Impact on Agriculture
in the Indus Delta Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Gohar Ali Mahar, and Nayyer Alam Zaigham
Conservation of Wetlands on Tunisian Islands: Kerkennah and Kuriat
Islands as a Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Khouloud Ben Charfi, Amjad Kallel, Thanos Giannakakis, and Imen Rais
Vegetation Analysis of Chott Tinsilt and Sebkhet Ezzemoul
(Two Ramsar Sites in Algeria) in Relation to Soil Proprieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Adel Bezzalla, Moussa Houhamdi, and Haroun Chenchouni
Nabkha Morphometry and Properties of Aeolian Sediments
Around Native Plants in Kuwait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Ali Al-Dousari, Modi Ahmed, Noor Al-Dousari, and Safaa Al-Awadhi

xix
xx Contents

The Ecological Role of Cornulalca aucheri (Amaranthaceae) in the Stabilization

of Degraded Sandy Soils in Kuwait: The Case Study of Liyah Area . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Modi M. Ahmed, Noor Al-Dousari, and Ali M. Al-Dousari
Orchard Understory Species Diversity in Relation to Orchard Age
and Soil Factors (in Ibadan, Southwestern Nigeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Olutoyin Adeola Fashae, Adeyemi Oludapo Olusola, Arioluwa Aribisala,
and Aishah Oyeniyi

Part IV Investigations and Applications in Environmental Biotechnology

Effect of Climatic Factors on Essential Oil Accumulation in Two Lamiaceae
Species from Algerian Semiarid Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Souad Mehalaine, and Haroun Chenchouni
A Biotechnological Method for Breeding Grapes Using in Vitro
Growth Stimulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Abdulmalik Batukaev, Mukail Mukailov, Magomed Batukaev, Tatiana Minkina,
and Svetlana Sushkova
Effects of Inoculation with Rhizospheric Pseudomonas on Physiological
Responses in the Broad Bean (Vicia Faba) Grown Under Copper Stress . . . . . . . . 65
Boubaker Idder, Rachid Djibaoui, Abdelhakim Reguieg Yassaad El Hocine,
and Abdelhak Djoudi

Part V Spatiotemporal Patterns of Marine Biodiversity and Terrestrial

Paleobiodiversity
Arcellinida (Testate Lobose Amoebae) as Sensitive Bioindicators
of Arsenic Contamination in Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
R. Timothy Patterson, Nawaf A. Nasser, Braden R. B. Gregory, Melody J. Gavel,
Etienne Menard, Jennifer M. Galloway, and Helen M. Roe
Massive Molluscan Shell Accumulation on the Sea Side of Land Strips
of Amvrakikos Gulf Lagoon Complex (NW Greece) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Konstantinos Tsolakos, George Katselis, and John A. Theodorou
Vertical Distribution of Recent Benthic Ostracoda at Pullivasal
and Kurusadai Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Southeast Coast of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Kumari Deepali, Sithu G. D. Sridhar, Shaik M. Hussain,
and Subramanian Maniyarasan
Ecological Interactions of Miocene to Pleistocene Siwalik Bovids, Suids
and Giraffids Traced Out by Enamel Hypoplasia Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Abdul Majid Khan, Rana Manzoor Ahmad, and Ayesha Iqbal
Why Anthracotheroides had Faced Family Level Extinction: Enamel
Hypoplasia an Answer to the Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Rana Manzoor Ahmad, Abdul Majid Khan, Amtur Rafeh, Ayesha Iqbal,
and Ghazala Roohi

Part VI Socio-economics of Geotourism and Archaeology

Urban Accessibility and Its Economic Linkage Analysis: A Case Study
in Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei Region, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Chenxi Li
Contents xxi

An Assessment of Socio-economic Profile and Sustainable Development

in Tourism Potential Areas: A Case Study of Galiyat (Pakistan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Razzaq Ahmed, Shaukat H. Khan, and Khalida Mahmood
Archaeology and Archaeometry of Ceramics of the Roman City of Thaenae
(Tunisia): Between Inland Roman Africa and the Mediterranean Basin . . . . . . . . 103
Rémi Rêve, Jean-Paul Ambrosi, Claudio Capelli, Michel Bonifay,
and Abdelhamid Barkaoui
“Giallo Antico” in Roman Architecture of Lombardy: A Preliminary
Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Roberto Bugini, Luisa Folli, and Romina Marchisio
About the Editors

Dr. Haroun Chenchouni is Senior Lecturer and Research

Ecologist in The Department of Natural and Life Sciences at The
University of Tebessa (Algeria). He teaches Forest Ecology, Soil
Ecology, Biostatistics and Ecological modelling. He graduated
as an Engineer in Plant Ecology and Forest Ecosystems from the
Department of Biological Sciences (University of Batna, Alge-
ria). He holds an M.Sc. in Dryland Ecology from the University
of Ouargla (Algeria) and a Doctoral Degree in Ecology from the
University of Batna. His research interests are fairly broad, but
revolve around biological interactions and community ecology
of arid and semiarid lands of North African ecosystems. He is
using statistical modelling approaches to understand how natural
environments and anthropogenic perturbations affect biological
interactions, shape trends in population dynamics and influence
community diversity. He has published more than 50 papers in
international journals, six proceedings in international confer-
ences and two books. He is editor and/or editorial board member
of many international journals. In 2017, he joined the AJGS as an
Associate Editor responsible for evaluating submissions in the
fields of Biogeosciences, Geoecology, Climate Change, Plant
and Soil Science, Agricultural and Forest Environment, and
Environmental Science.

Prof. Dr. Ezzoura Errami is a Moroccan geoscientist with

more than 12 years of activities at the continental and interna-
tional levels, during which she has been actively involved in
bilateral cooperation with many international professional
organizations of Earth sciences. She is currently working as a
Full Professor at the Geology Department of Chouaïb Doukkali
University in Morocco. There, she has also achieved in 2001 her
Ph.D. project in collaboration with Ruprecht Karls University in
Germany. Her research focuses on petrology, geochemistry,
structural geology, geoheritage, geotourism, geoeducation,
sustainable development and gender-related studies in geo-
sciences. She is the author and co-author of many scientific
papers, conferences papers, books, reports and guidebooks. She
has chaired many organizing committees and/or scientific com-
mittees of international scientific events. She serves as AAWG
assistant general secretary, president and AGN and DESAME
coordinator, IUGS councillor, ArabU vice president, CIFEG
Managing Board member and IAPG Africa coordinator.

xxiii
xxiv About the Editors

Prof. Fernando Rocha is born in Lisbon on 7 January 1956.

He achieved degree in Geology from the University of Lisbon,
in 1984; Ph.D. in Geosciences (Geology) from the University
of Aveiro, in 1994; and D.Sc. (Habilitation) in Geosciences
(Clay Science) from the University of Aveiro, in 2000. He is
Full Professor (Mineral Resources, Geosciences Department)
since 1 August 2002 and Director of GEOBIOTEC Research
Centre since 2007. He has played several positions at the
University of Aveiro, including Head of the Department of
Geosciences (1998–2002, 2011–2015), Pro-Rector (infras-
tructures and Campus management, 2003–2007) and
Vice-Rector (research, innovation and technology transfer,
2008–2010). After a brief passage (1984/85) by the private
sector of public works as Engineering Geologist, he developed
academic career at the University of Aveiro since 1986, with
scientific and pedagogical activity in the fields of mineral
resources, marine and coastal geology, and medical and envi-
ronmental geology.

Dr. Luisa Sabato is Associate Professor of Stratigraphy and

Sedimentology at the University of Bari (Italy) and currently is
the President of the Master degree in Geological Sciences.
She is tutor of several Ph.D. students and teaches Geology
at the degree courses in Geological Sciences, Natural Sciences,
Environmental Sciences, Sciences and management of mar-
itime activities.
She is in the Management Board of the GeoSed (Italian
Association for Sedimentary Geology) and SGI (Italian Geol-
ogy Society).
She has chaired many scientific national and international
geological meetings and organized national and international
geological Congresses and field trips. She participated also as
coordinator to projects regarding sedimentary geology and
geosites, and is author and co-author of many scientific papers,
geological maps and field trip guidebooks.
Her main research fields regard sedimentary geology, with
particular attention to the facies analysis of continental and
shallow marine systems. Other topics deal with problems of
fluvial dynamics and human impact in alluvial and coastal
plains. She also deals with geological mapping within the
CARG Project (promoted by the Geological Survey of Italy)
and with the study of geological heritage.
 Part I
Keynote
 Using Water Chemistry to Understand
Ancient Maya Land and Water Use
Interactions

Sheryl Luzzadder-Beach and Timothy Beach

Abstract Program Blue Creek Study Area (Beach et al. 2015a;

A major goal of Geoarchaeology is to understand Luzzadder-Beach and Beach 2009).
complex societies and their relationship with the envi- It is also becoming clearer that wetland agriculture was
ronment. The Ancient Maya encountered numerous far more extensive than previously known in Northwestern
environmental challenges to live in the tropical landscape Belize, calling for more mapping, exploration, and ground
of Mesoamerica. This research was intended to provide validation of remote sensing results. In addition to our
insight into Ancient Maya Collapse and Resilience, and geochemical investigations, we have taken up this geospatial
provide environmental models for society now and in the challenge of testing hypotheses about the extent of Ancient
future. Here we focused on using geochemistry, with Maya agriculture and other land and water use impacts on
special attention to water, as a tool for geoarchaeological the environment through a campaign of airborne LiDAR
understanding of ancient Maya land and water use mapping of the region beginning in 2016.
potentials.

Keywords 2 Settings and Methods

Geoarchaeology Geochemistry Water resources
Mesoamerica Ancient Maya The geographic setting of this research is in Northwestern
Belize, Central America. Between 1993 and 2018 we have
conducted hydrologic and geomorphic studies of the Three
Rivers Region of Belize, to understand ancient Maya land
1 Introduction and water use (Beach et al. 2015a, b; Luzzadder-Beach et al.
2012; Luzzadder-Beach and Beach 2008, 2009). The Three
This paper synthesized and presented findings on ancient Rivers include the Rio Bravo, the Rio Azul, and the Booth’s
Maya land and water management in perennial wetlands of River watersheds, draining the La Lucha and Rio Bravo
the Maya Lowlands (Beach et al. 2015a, b; Luzzadder-Beach escarpments. This region is on the normally faulted limestone
et al. 2012; Luzzadder-Beach and Beach 2008, 2009). We platform of the southern Yucatan Peninsula. In the course of
presented prior background, then focused on regional studies our field work from 2000 to 2018, we have excavated scores
of water chemistry in the Three Rivers region of North- of trenches, and collected hundreds of soil and water chem-
western Belize, comparing surface and ground water results, istry samples thus far. This presentation will focus on syn-
and wetland results. These watersheds were studied in the thesizing the hydrologic and water chemistry portions of the
context of Ancient Maya land and water use, including fieldwork (Beach et al. 2015a, b; Luzzadder-Beach et al.
wetland field sites we have studied in Northwestern Belize. 2012; Luzzadder-Beach and Beach 2008, 2009) and their
The focus of our geoarchaeological investigations was relationship to other geoarchaeological results for the area.
centered on the Programme for Belize Rio Bravo Conser- Our analytical methods have been determining parallel
vation and Management Area, and in the Maya Research lines of proxy evidence at multiple spatial scales. These
methods include excavation to understand soil, geomor-
phological, and archaeological stratigraphy. We have also
engaged in over 2 decades of water quality monitoring to
S. Luzzadder-Beach (&)
T. Beach
The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
establish the regional waters’ geochemical background and
e-mail: [email protected] links to geologic parent materials. Other lines of evidence

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 3

H. Chenchouni et al. (eds.), Exploring the Nexus of Geoecology, Geography, Geoarcheology and Geotourism: Advances and Applications for Sustainable
Development in Environmental Sciences and Agroforestry Research, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01683-8_1
4 S. Luzzadder-Beach and T. Beach

include sampling artifacts and ecofacts that indicate past variation in water chemistry across a region influences the
environments and land use adaptations (e.g., soil chemistry geographies of ecology and human land and water use
and physics, water chemistry, pollen, phytoliths, carbon potentials (Beach et al. 2015a, b; Luzzadder-Beach et al.
dating of samples, micromorphology, and macrobotanicals). 2012; Luzzadder-Beach and Beach 2008, 2009).
The spatial extent of these findings was measured using
surface and aerial survey, and remote sensing imagery
analysis. 5 Conclusion

Water chemistry is a major influence on the patterns of land

3 Results and water use of the ancient Maya of Central America
(Beach et al. 2015a, b; Luzzadder-Beach et al. 2012;
3.1 Water Quality Results Luzzadder-Beach and Beach 2008, 2009). While archaeo-
logical settlement models of the past have considered
Upland wetland sites including springs and canals show amount and accessibility of water as important variables, few
major geochemical differences from lowland or coastal plain have considered the quality of that water as a factor. While it
wetland field sites. This result mirrors the water quality is true that the water in any given river is fleeting, surface
differences in the upland versus lowland portions of the water mineral characteristics, and especially the geochem-
Three Rivers watersheds. The results are starkly different in istry of groundwater bodies, provide a window on the
mineral components such as gypsum. This finding supports long-term influence of underlying geology on water
an argument for anthropogenic origins for the rectilinear resources. We can therefore consider water quality con-
wetland field patterns across a broad range of geomorphic nected to those mineral inputs or components that change
and hydrologic conditions in Central America (Beach et al. less over human generations, and typically over much longer
2015a, b; Luzzadder-Beach and Beach 2008, 2009). The key geologic time frames. These provide insights into the pos-
result is that SO4 and Ca are at or near saturation in coastal sibilities and limitations of land and water use for ancient
plain wetland, surface water, and ground water samples, and human populations (Luzzadder-Beach and Beach 2008), and
not so in upland surface and ground water samples (Beach lessons from the past to guide modern and future societies
et al. 2015a; Luzzadder-Beach and Beach 2008, 2009). confronting similar hydrologic challenges, going forward.
Other cations and anions show similar magnitudes of con-
centration differences connected with location. We also
observed an elevational break point in the gypsum saturation References
in the Rio Bravo itself, significantly increasing downstream
from the Rio Bravo escarpment, indicating a potential Beach, T., Luzzadder-Beach, S., Krause, S., Walling, S., Dunning, N.,
change in groundwater chemistry contributions. Flood, J., Guderjan, T., Valdez, F.: ‘Mayacene’ Floodplain and
wetland formation in the Rio Bravo watershed of northwestern
Belize. The Holocene 25(10), 1612–1626 (2015a)
Beach, T., Luzzadder-Beach, S., Guderjan, T., Krause, S.: The floating
4 Discussion gardens of Chan Cahal: soils, water, and human interactions. Catena
132, 151–164 (2015b)
Water chemistry matters in both geomorphic and human Luzzadder-Beach, S., Beach, T.: Water chemistry constraints and
possibilities for ancient and contemporary Maya wetlands. J. Eth-
contexts. Water chemistry can be a factor in soil and wetland nobiol. 28(2), 211–230 (2008)
formation processes (Luzzadder-Beach and Beach 2009). Luzzadder-Beach, S., Beach, T.: Arising from the wetlands: mecha-
Domestic water consumption and use are influenced by nisms and chronology of landscape aggradation in the northern
water quality, and. water chemistry imposes potential agri- coastal plain of Belize. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 99(1), 1–26 (2009)
Luzzadder-Beach, S., Beach, T., Dunning, N.: Wetland fields as mirrors
cultural limitations (Luzzadder-Beach and Beach 2008). The of drought and the Maya abandonment. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 109,
mineral components of water provide a window on under- 3646–3651 (2012)
lying geology and hydrologic connectivity. When these
factors are considered together at the broadest scale, spatial
 Part II
Environmental Assessment and Monitoring
of Agrisilvicultural Systems
 Digital Diffusion for Inclusive
Agroecosystems

Chandrashekhar Biradar, Jacques Wery, Fabian Löw, Khaled El-Shama,

Rajkumar Singh, Layal Atassi, Jalal Omari, Atef Swelam,
Ashutosh Sarkar, Mounir Louhaichi, Boubaker Dhehibi,
Enrico Bonaiuti, Bao Le, Theib Oweis, Yashpal Saharawat,
Abdoul Aziz Niane, Ahmad Amri, Karan Nadagoudar, Jawoo Koo,
Xiangming Xiao, Hrishikesh Ballal, and M. H. Mehta

Abstract services and risk management. Recent advances in geoin-

The technological advancements in agriculture have formatics technology and big-data analytics enabled the
resulted in higher yields but lower ecological efficiency diffusion of ecological functions in farm production to
and nutritional value. Little innovations in later sectors such achieve the desired return (production follows functions).
as integrating ecological functions in the production The overarching goal of the ongoing effort was to build an
systems have crippled our agro-ecosystems to meet the integrated farming system by leveraging technological
ever-growing demands. The digitization of the agro- diffusion with sound ecological functions to design an
ecosystems has become the most essential entry point for ‘inclusive agro-ecosystem’ for sustainable development.
any large scale sustainable developmental entities whether Meta-analytics of farming systems dynamics in spatial
it is, crop diversification, sustainable intensification, input domains help quantifying changes, trajectories and drivers
use efficiency, agronomic practices, to restoring ecosystem under changing climate, demography and degradation
process to target site specific developmental interventions
and scaling the proven technologies, such as intensification
C. Biradar (&)
J. Wery
F. Löw
K. El-Shama
L. Atassi
of food legumes in rice fallows, adoption of conservation
J. Omari
A. Swelam agriculture, quantification of yield gaps, land/water pro-
International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas
ductivity and transboundary cooperation.
(ICARDA), Cairo, Egypt
e-mail: [email protected]

R. Singh
A. Sarkar Keywords

ICARDA, New Delhi, India Inclusive agroecosystems Digital diffusion
A. A. Niane Ecological intensification Big-data Scaling
ICARDA, Beirut, Lebanon
A. Amri
ICARDA, Rabat, Morocco
M. Louhaichi
B. Dhehibi
E. Bonaiuti
B. Le
T. Oweis
1 Introduction
ICARDA, Amman, Jordan
Y. Saharawat
Dry lands host an enormous variety of biophysical envi-
ICARDA, Kabul, Afghanistan ronments with extremely contrasting socio-economic and
K. Nadagoudar
demographic conditions. This complexity leads to a wide
Data Grokr, Bengaluru, India variability in agricultural functions and productivity across
J. Koo
spatio-temporal scales. Therefore, there is a definite need for
International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, an ecosystem-based approach for better managing natural
DC, USA resources to improve productivity in a sustainable way that
X. Xiao integrates three main goals—environmental health, eco-
University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA nomic profitability, and social equity. Enormous efforts are
H. Ballal underway to gather data and information on agricultural
Geodesign Hub, Ranelagh, Ireland production and related aspects at various scales (http://
M. H. Mehta bigdata.cgiar.org/). There are hundreds of data, tools, apps
Indian Council of Food and Agriculture, New Delhi, India

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 7

H. Chenchouni et al. (eds.), Exploring the Nexus of Geoecology, Geography, Geoarcheology and Geotourism: Advances and Applications for Sustainable
Development in Environmental Sciences and Agroforestry Research, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01683-8_2
8 C. Biradar et al.

and much knowledge available for the increasing produc- 3.1 Sustainable Intensification of Rice Fallows
tivity but in silos, often without much focus on the ecolog-
ical functions. There is need for meta-analysis of the best As agricultural production, supply-demand gap continues to
practices with diffusion of ecological functions for designing rise, the total arable land area is not expected to increase
demand-driven, location-based sustainable agro-ecosystems significantly, and future increase of agricultural production
for resilient livelihood in dry areas. will depend more upon sustainable intensification of crop
fallows. One such intensification opportunity lies in the use of
rice fallows. At present, nearly *11 million ha rice-fallows
2 Approach are left unproductive. Such large-scale agricultural intensifi-
cation needs up-to-date information on the dynamics of the
The dry areas represent a wide agro-biodiversity and the rice-based production systems, farm typology, crop and
origin of climate resilient crops. However, in the last few variety specific suitable areas, natural resource base and value
decades, the productivity was a major driver rather than chains. Such requirements have led to the development of
functional systems which resulted in the loss of agro- digital agricultural platform designed to help intensification
biodiversity in the farming systems. Production follows and crop diversification in crop fallows with food legumes.
function and functional agricultural systems are by far more The digital interactive platform help analyze the farming
productive and sustainable than dysfunctional systems such systems, patterns, dynamics of the crop fallows, length of
as few commodity oriented or mono-cropping systems over fallows duration, the start and end of the fallow periods, their
long term. This requires dramatic transformational changes seasonality, cropping intensity, etc. helping target sustainable
from mono systems to multi-cropping systems and re-design intensification of the legumes crops in the rice fallows with
of the present agricultural landscape with functional metrics. multiple benefits to farmers as well the environment (Fig. 1).
This entails the systematic quantification of the agricultural
production systems and farm analytics at multiple scale(s)
with a wide array of data sources to design science-based 4 Towards Restoring Lost Agro-Ecosystems
innovative strategies and principles for inclusive multifunc-
tional agro-ecosystems that are both sustained by nature and Loss of soil health coupled with increasing temperature and
sustainable in their nature (Tittonell 2014). The effective use water scarcity remain key factors for determining sustainable
of integrated data in geospatial domains help develop agricultural productivity and the agri-food systems future.
ecological-intensification design eco-zones with location Agriculture production at present relies solely on few crops
specific crops/varieties, crop sequence, rotation, intensity and predominantly under monocultures of industrial agriculture.
crop water productivity (Biradar et al. 2009; Low et al. 2017) However, there are still many traditional farming systems
under a variable and uncertain climate. Such ecologically with wide array of practices and production functions, which
balanced agricultural production systems (agro-ecosystems) supports the resilience of agro-ecosystems (Altieri et al. 2015;
contribute to the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals Mehta 2017). The diversified agro-ecosystems is found to be
(SDGs). more productive, helps in bridging the yield gaps, more
sustainable and resilient to extreme climate events (Astier
et al. 2012; Gaba et al. 2015; Low et al. 2018). A regular,
3 Use Cases accurate and cost effective spatial monitoring of rice-based
production systems with satellite data made it feasible to
Several ongoing efforts are made by leveraging the big-data target specific legume intensification. It provides spatially
analytics to build use-cases, quantify the agricultural explicit information retrieval about crop productivity, pattern,
dynamics and understand the variability and drivers for inter and intra seasonal as well as farm variability which helps
sustainable production systems. Project based site specific develop integrated agro-ecosystems. Such principles need to
studies have been undertaken in different agro-ecologies be embedded in various farm practices and agricultural
across the dry areas (http://geoagro.icarda.org/); such as development strategies, where each one has different effects
intensification of food legumes in rice fallows in South Asia, on productivity, stability and resiliency within the farm sys-
adoption of conservation agriculture practices in North tem. The digital technology would play key role in an effec-
Africa, quantification of yield gaps and land degradation in tive diffusion of sustainable agro-ecosystems and targeting a
central Asia, trans-boundary land/water productivity at river wider and faster adaptation to changing climate and demog-
basins. Here we presented one use-case on ‘sustainable raphy. Finally, only by creating policies endorsed diffusion of
intensification of the rice fallows in India as an example and digital technology that integrates ecological functions with
other use-cases can be found in the dedicated portal (http:// economic and social welfare can we promote the adoption of
geoagro.icarda.org/intensification). sustainable agricultural systems across the scales.
Digital Diffusion for Inclusive Agroecosystems 9

Fig. 1 Spatial Big-data based digital agricultural platform for ecological intensification of rice fallows in India

References drivers for providing multiple ecosystem services: from concepts to

design. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 35(2), 607–623 (2015)
GeoAgro Homepage. http://geoagro.icarda.org/. Accessed 14 May
Altieri, M., Nicholls, C., Henao, A., Lana, M.: Agroecology and the 2018
design of climate change-resilient farming systems. Agron. Sustain. Low, F., Biradar, C., Fliemanna, E., Lamers, J., Conrad, C.: Assessing
Dev. 35, 869–890 (2015) gaps in irrigated agricultural productivity through satellite earth
Astier, M., García, L., Galván, Y., González, E., Masera, R.: Assesing observations - A case study of the Fergana Valley, Central Asia. Int.
the sustainability of small-farmer natural resource management J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 59, 118–134 (2017)
systems. A critical analysis of the MESMIS program (1995–2010). Low, F., Biradar, C., Dubovyk, O., Fliemann, E., Akramkhanov, A.,
Ecol. Soc. 17(3), 25 (2012) Vallejo, A.N., Waldner, F.: Regional-scale monitoring of cropland
Biradar, C.M., Thenkabail, P.S., Noojipady, P., Yuanjie, L., Dheera- intensity and productivity with multi-source satellite image time
vath, V., Velpuri, M., Turral, H., Gumma, M.K., Reddy, O.G.P., series. GIScience Remote Sens. 55(18), 539–567 (2018)
Xueliang, L.C., Xiao, X., Schull, M.A., Alankara, R.D., Gunas- Mehta, M.H.: Eco Agri Revolution: Practical Lessons and The Way
inghe, S., Mohideen, S.: A global map of rainfed cropland areas Ahead. New India Publishing Agency—Nipa, New Delhi, India
(GMRCA) at the end of last millennium using remote sensing. Int. (2017)
J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 11(2), 114–129 (2009) Tittonell, P.A.: Ecological intensification of agriculture—sustainable by
Gaba, S., Lescourret, F., Boudsocq, S., Enjalbert, J., Hinsinger, P., nature. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2014(8), 53–61 (2014). https://
Journet, E., Navas, M., Wery, J., Louarn, G., Malézieux, E., Pelzer, doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2014.08.006
E., Prudent, P., Lafontaineet, H.: Multiple cropping systems as
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and the tendency to fatty degenerations and heart disease introduces
a special predisposition as it does in man, while the horse, inured to
an open air life and a vigorous muscular condition, is comparatively
immune. Bright’s disease is a common cause in the human subject,
with its resulting cardiac hypertrophy. The degenerations attendant
on these conditions and especially fatty change (atheroma) in the
walls of the cerebral arteries, pave the way for their rupture and for
blood effusion. Emboli also carried from the diseased heart not only
cut off the blood from the parts supplied by the plugged arteries, but
increase the blood tension on the cardiac side of the obstruction and
endanger rupture at any weak part. Thus they may cause apoplexy
from anæmia without rupture or apoplexy from the pressure of
effused blood.
Age which is such a notorious factor in man is not without its
influence in the lower animals. It is in the old that we mostly see
disease of kidneys and heart and the degenerations of the tissues,
including the brain and its vessels; in these, therefore, rupture and
extravasation are the most frequent.
The other causes are mostly connected with increased blood
tension with or without a debility of the vascular walls. Violent
exertions as in racing, coursing, dragging heavy loads up hill or on
heavy ground, severe excitement, cerebral concussion, insolation,
and intense congestion of the brain substance have all been
recognized as causative factors. The compression of the jugulars by a
small collar, the violent straining attendant on parturition, or
constipation, and even the retrocession of blood from the surface
when exposed to extreme cold, may contribute to the final rupture.
In infectious diseases in which the toxic products tend to produce
profound modifications in the blood and tissues, extravasations are
met with in the brain as in other organs. Thus they are seen in
anthrax, Texas fever, petechial fever, etc.
Then the formation of neoplasms in the brain may be the
occasion of the rupture of the vascular walls and apoplexy.
Hæmatoma of the dura in the dog (Friedberger and Fröhner),
cholesteatomata in the horse, and carcinoma may be apparent
causes.
The effect of mechanical injury must be admitted, as blows on
the head, injuries from an ox yoke, and concussions during the
battles of rams and bulls.
Lesions. Blood extravasations may be found at any part of the
brain: a. into the brain substance; b. into the ventricles; c. from the
pia mater; d. into the arachnoid sac; e. between the skull and dura
mater. It is especially common in connection with the ganglia
adjoining the ventricles; the corpus striatum, optic thalamus, the
corpora quadrigemini, the fornix. In other cases the crus cerebri,
pons, medulla oblongata, corpus calosum. In other cases the
convolutions of the cerebrum or cerebellum suffer. The amount of
effusion may be limited to a few drops or it may cover an extensive
area and cause considerable flattening of the brain substance.
When capillary hæmorrhages are present—the size of a millet seed
or a pea—Friedberger and Fröhner have usually found them
multiple, but when large enough to form distinct clots they are
usually single and confined to one side. If a clot, involving the brain
substance, is small, it merely separates the nervous fibres, but if
larger, the cerebral tissue is broken down in the mass of clot,
discolored, torn and softened. If the patient has survived the first
attack the clot passes through the different stages of discoloration,
brown, brownish yellow, yellow, and may become fibrous forming a
distinct cicatrix, with loss of brain substance. In connection with the
partial absorption of the effused blood, cavities may be filled with a
serous fluid (apoplectic cysts), and these may show multiple loculi.
The nerve fibres which lead to an old standing lesion are usually
degenerated.
When effused into a ventricle, blood is less readily absorbed and
tends to remain as a flattened discolored layer.
Extravasation between the dura mater and the cranium is probably
always the result of direct mechanical violence.
Symptoms. Premonitory indications of apoplexy are less
commonly recognized in the lower animals than in man, doubtless
largely because of the impossibility of appreciating subjective
symptoms. The first observed indications are usually dullness, some
lack of coördination of movement, swaying, unsteady gait, trembling
and a tendency to deviate to one side or to move in a circle. In the
majority of cases, however, the first symptoms noticed are a
complete loss of consciousness or nearly so, a sudden fall and often
more or less convulsive movements of the limbs aggravated by any
excitement. The eyes remain dilated, the pupils enlarged or
sometimes contracted, and in case of unilateral effusion the axis of
vision of both eyes is turned to the affected side, right or left. The
pupil of one eye is likely to be more widely dilated than that of the
other. Rolling of the eyeballs is not uncommon. Convulsions may
occur, the head and hind limbs being drawn back forcibly as in
oposthotonos, or the animal may lie flaccid and comatose from the
first. The nasal, buccal and orbital mucous membranes are usually
congested, deep red or livid, yet sometimes they are anæmic and pale
(Shock). The breathing is usually characteristic, being deep, slow,
labored, irregular and stertorous and accompanied by puffing out of
the cheeks at each expiration (except in solipeds). Yet there are cases
in which stertor is absent. The pulse is usually slow, full and soft,
and, in the carotids, throbbing, but it may be weak and
imperceptible. There may be complete unconsciousness, and again
from the first, or nearly so, there may be a slight response to a
stimulus, which cannot be referred altogether to reflex action. In
vomiting animals, emesis may ensue. Stupor and coma are more or
less marked, though liable to intermissions under any cause of
irritation.
Along with the above symptoms the spasms and sequent paralysis,
are significant. If confined to given muscles or groups of muscles
(monoplegia) it usually implies pressure on some special cortical
convolutions presiding over these muscles, and convulsions are to be
expected. If there is hemiplegia it is suggestive of implication of the
medulla or pons on the opposite side, or of a clot on the corpus
striatum or extensively on one side of the cerebrum. A clot in the
lateral ventricle tends to profound coma. So liable, however, is
pressure to be extended from one side of the brain to the other, and
irritation on the one side to rouse a corresponding condition on the
opposite side, or in related ganglia, that deductions of this kind
cannot always be implicitly relied on.
Though an animal should recover from an attack there is liable to
remain some modification of the nervous functions, partial
anæsthesia, circumscribed paresis, dullness, lack of energy,
irritability, or muscular atrophy.
Cerebral embolism and thrombosis and their sequelæ, infarction
and softening, give rise to corresponding symptoms, according to the
seat of the lesion, and like lesions of the blood vessels predispose to
subsequent attacks.
Diagnosis is based largely on the appearance, usually sudden but
sometimes slow, of a more or less profound unconsciousness,
attended or followed by paralytic troubles. The history of the case
may assist, any blow on the head, or sustained by falling, striking a
wall or post, or wearing a yoke, is to be noted. Any extraordinary
exertion or excitement must be considered. Any sign of injury about
the head; the congestion of the cephalic mucous membranes in
contrast with the pallor of shock; the onset of the attack without
convulsions (or with them as in epilepsy); the deep coma indicating
cerebral hæmorrhage or narcotic poisoning; the absence of the odor
of alcohol, opium, or other narcotic from the breath; the turning of
the eyes to one side and the inequality of the pupils on the two sides;
the turning of the head to the same side as the eyes; the slow,
labored, usually stertorous breathing; the slow, full, soft pulse; the
occasionally rigid condition of the muscles and finally the paralysis,
hemiplegic, and less frequently monoplegic or paraplegic, make up
the diagnostic picture.
Uræmia and diabetic coma may be excluded by examination of
the urine, pulmonary apoplexy or œdema by the predominance of
respiratory troubles, and fulminant anthrax by the examination of
the blood and by the fact that this disease does not prevail in the
locality.
Treatment is very unsatisfactory in the lower animals, as the
disease is very fatal, and unless recoveries are complete, they are not
pecuniarily desirable. It is only in the slighter cases, therefore, that
treatment can be recommended. At the very outset nothing is better
than a full bleeding in a large stream from the jugular vein or
temporal artery. Ice, snow, or cold water should meanwhile be
applied to the cranial region. Absolute rest should be given, any
harness that would impede circulation or respiration removed, and
hot water or stimulating embrocations applied to the limbs.
When consciousness returns and the patient can swallow, an active
purgative may be administered, or barium chloride or eserine may be
given subcutem. Any recurring heat of the head may be met by
renewal of cold applications, and the force of the circulation may be
kept in check by small doses of bromides or aconite. In case of the
formation of a clot, iodide of potassium and other alkaline agents
may be resorted to. Quiet and the avoidance of all excitement
together with a laxative non-stimulating diet must be secured
throughout. A course of vegetable or mineral tonics and an
occasional blister to the side of the neck may prove a useful sequel.
 CEREBRAL HYPERÆMIA.
MENINGO—ENCEPHALIC CONGESTION.

Passive and active hyperæmia. Causes: passive: obstacles to return of blood:

anæmia: active: brain excitement, sun-stroke, violent exertion, fear, abdominal
tympany, ptomaines, narcotics, lead, darnel, millet, leguminous seeds partly
ripened, tumors, parasites. Symptoms: horse: variable, vertigo, stupor,
convulsions, apoplexy, irritability, disorderly movements, strong, hard pulse,
congested mucosæ, heat of head, dulness, drowsiness, lethargy, coma, alternating
periods of violence, aggravated by what tends to increase vascularity of brain,
congested optic disc: cattle: parallel, with special heat of horns: dogs: similar, with
desire to move, or wander, or has nausea, howls, snaps. Treatment: cold to head,
derivation to limbs and bowels, chloral, bromides, ergot, bleeding, darkness,
coolness, non-stimulating food.

Congestion of the encephalon is treated here as a pathological

entity, though it cannot always be distinguished clinically from some
forms of vertigo on the one hand and from the milder types of
apoplexy or encephalitis on the other. It has been divided into
passive or venous hyperæmia and active or arterial hyperæmia.
Passive hyperæmia, as shown under vertigo and apoplexy is a
common result of a tight collar, a tight strap used for cribbiting, a too
short bearing rein, dilation or valvular disease of the right heart, or
disease of the lungs, violent efforts in running, draught, etc. It tends
to be associated with arterial anæmia on the principle that the closed
cranial cavity can only admit a certain amount of blood and if an
excess accumulates in the veins and capillaries, this must be
compensated first by the movement backward to the spinal canal of
the cerebro-spinal fluid, and second by the diminution of the blood
in the cerebral arteries.
Active hyperæmia may be brought about by any excitement which
especially affects the brain. This has been already noted in
connection with insolation (sun-stroke). It may result from severe
exertion during hot weather, in a violently contested race, in drawing
a heavy load up hill, or in harsh training. Violent exertion just after a
meal is especially injurious. Also the excitement of travelling by rail,
or that caused by proximity to locomotives, to discharges of firearms
and to other causes of great fear; encreased blood tension in the
cerebral vessels in connection with hypertrophy of the left ventricle,
or obstruction in other vessels (of the limbs) so as to direct the force
of the current into the carotids, the expulsion of blood from the
splanchnic cavities by gastric or intestinal tympany, or overloading of
the paunch, and irritation of the brain by ptomaines and toxins in
certain infectious diseases (rabies, canine distemper, etc.). In the
same way vegetable narcotics (opium, etc.) produce congestion.
Among the most common causes of congestion are lead, poisoning
by lolium temulentum, partially ripened lolium perenne, millet,
Hungarian grass, and partially ripened seeds of the leguminosæ
(chick vetch, vicia sativa.). Other causes are the presence of tumors
(cholesteatoma) and parasites (cœnurus, cysticercus) in the brain.
Symptoms. Cerebral hyperæmia, like other brain disorders may
give rise to a great variety of symptoms, according to the condition of
the animal and the susceptibility of its nerve centres. Some cases
have the characteristic seizures of vertigo, others the manifestations
of heat stroke, and others, epileptic explosions or apoplectic
symptoms. For these see under their respective headings. In other
cases the symptoms are those of encephalo-meningitis but moderate
in its type and often tending to a transient duration, or to prompt
resolution and recovery.
Horse. There is manifest change of the nervous and intellectual
conditions, which may show itself by irritability or restlessness, by
pushing against the wall, by hanging back on the halter, by
trembling, shaking the head, neighing, pawing and, in exceptional
cases, by rearing, biting or kicking. The pulse is hard and full, the
heart’s impulse strong, the beats in the carotids and temporal
arteries being especially forcible, and the buccal, nasal and orbital
mucosæ are strongly congested. Heat of the head is usually a marked
feature. While usually very sensitive to touch, noise or light, the
animal may be dull or drowsy, and in spite of its marked
sensitiveness, it is then inert or lethargic and indisposed to any active
exertion. Freidberger and Fröhner say that the habitual comatose
condition alternates at intervals with periods of violent excitement
during which the animal pushes or dashes against the wall, grinds
the teeth, rears, paws, kicks, bites, etc., and then relapses into the
state of coma. When the disease reaches this stage it may be
questioned whether we are not dealing rather with acute
encephalitis.
In active congestion the symptoms are always aggravated by
whatever tends to increase the vascular tension in the brain. Active
exertion, draught, the pendent position of the head, the recumbent
position on the side with the head as low as the body or lower,
aggravate all the phenomena and render the animal more helpless.
The following table slightly modified from Spitzka serves to point
out the distinctions between anæmia and hyperæmia:
Symptoms. In Cerebral Anæmia. In Cerebral
Hyperæmia.

Pupils. Usually dilated and mobile. Usually small or

medium.
Respiration. Often interrupted by a deep breath Normal or nearly so.
or sigh, even when at rest.
Activity. Lassitude. Restless, but
indisposed to
exertion.
Temperament. Lethargic with exceptions. Irritable with
exceptions.
Intelligence. Senses impaired. Impaired.
Elevation of Aggravates symptoms. No effect, or
head. improvement.
Recumbent, Amelioration. Aggravation.
dependent
head.
Straining. Not necessarily aggravated. Aggravated.
Cattle show the same general congestion and heat of the head,
ears and horns, congested mucosæ, fixed eyes, and pupils,
indisposition to follow the herd, irritability, and dulness with often a
disposition to lie down. This may go on to violent bellowing, pushing
against the wall, grinding of the teeth, working of the jaws, rolling of
the eyeballs, and violent dashing in different directions regardless of
obstacles.
 Dogs show the same restlessness and excitability, congested head,
eyes and nose, frequent movement from place to place, a desire to
wander off, and it may be spasms. If there has been any gastric
disturbance vomiting usually supervenes. As in the larger animals
the disease may go on to more violent symptoms, and the animal
howls, rushes in different directions, and may snap at imaginary
objects, or at any one who interferes with him. His movements are
liable to be unsteady, uncertain and swaying.
In all cases the ophthalmoscope reveals a congestion of the optic
disc.
In the different animals too, acute cerebral hyperæmia tends to
merge early into encephalitis with exudation and pressure, attended
by stupor, coma, somnolence or profound lethargy.
Treatment. In slight cases of cerebral hyperæmia, it may be
sufficient to apply cold to the head with a stimulating fomentation to
the limbs, and an active purgative, with chloral or bromides. Ergot in
full doses has often an excellent effect.
In the more acute types of the disease, bleeding is the first and
most efficient measure. A full abstraction from the jugular will
relieve the vascular tension and relieve the circulation on the brain.
It has been counselled to avoid this when comatose symptoms have
set in, and in some prostrate conditions a large and rapid abstraction
of blood may fatally increase the prostration. In other cases,
however, the less rapid abstraction will improve at once the
intracranial circulation and nutrition, and solicit the reabsorption of
the exudate which produces sopor and coma.
A purgative is one of the most efficient derivatives, the
determination of an excess of blood to the bowels and of an
abundant serous discharge into their interior acting as a valuable
depletion, and abstraction of blood from the over-excited brain. At
least a half more than the usual dose must be given, and may be
supplemented by an injection of glycerine or a hypodermic
exhibition of eserine. It is best to avoid too drastic or irritant
purgatives as the cerebral congestion may be aggravated by the
irritation, as it often is induced in severe indigestions. For the horse,
aloes and podophyllin, or for ruminants, omnivora and carnivora
castor oil may be resorted to.
 The patient must be placed by himself in a dark, cool, well aired
building, and when able to resume feeding must receive an easily
digested, non-stimulating diet; for horses or cattle gruels, wheat bran
mashes, pulped roots, or green food; for dogs and pigs, gruels, mush
or milk.
Any sequent paralysis must be treated on general principles.
 MENINGO—ENCEPHALITIS. STAGGERS.

Divisions. Causes: traumas, faulty diet, highly nitrogenous, leguminous seeds,

undergoing ripening, cotton seed, gluten meal, forced feeding, buckwheat,
ryegrass, lupins, cryptogams, trefoil, equisetum, narcotics, microbian ferments,
experiments with spoiled food and epizootics in wet years, high temperature,
violent exercise, railroad travel, climatic change, complex causes, embolisms,
infections, lead, phosphorus, tumors, parasites. Symptoms: with meningitis, fever,
hyperæsthesia, active delirium and convulsions predominate: with encephalitis,
dullness, stupor, somnolence, muscular weakness, anæsthesia, paralysis, coma;
usually complex, hyperthermia, periods of benumbing, followed by excitement;
drowsy, stupid, semi-closed eyelids, drooping lips, ears, and head, latter resting on
manger or wall, walks unsteadily, limbs out of plumb, hangs on halter, won’t back,
turns in circle, costive, indigestion, tympanies, rumbling, abnormal (often slow)
pulse and breathing, congested optic disc; alternate with trembling, excitement,
pawing, rearing, plunging, pushing against the wall, trotting motions, etc.:
uncontrollable violence; severity and frequency of paroxysms indicate gravity;
recovery: sequelæ. Duration: death in 24 to 36 hours: or weeks. Prognosis: one-
quarter recover, with increased susceptibility; nervous animals worst. Lesions:
extravasation, congestion, exudates, pus, thickened meninges; choroid plexus:
brain matter gray or red, puncta, infiltrated, softened, excess of leucocytes, red
softening, yellow softening, sclerosis, cicatrix, abscess. Diagnosis: from rabies,
cerebral congestion, immobility, influenza. Cattle. Symptoms: evidence of trauma,
indigestion, lead poisoning, narcotism, parasitism; dullness, stupor, somnolence,
stertor, grinding teeth, spasms, twitching, restless movements, blindness, violent
actions, bellowing, hebetude, palsy. Relation to causation. Sheep: Symptoms.
Swine: Symptoms. Dog: Symptoms. Diagnosis from rabies. Treatment: quiet,
darkness, coolness, restraint, ice or cold irrigation, elimination, derivation,
depletion, diuretics, potassium iodide, antipyretics, laxative diet, cool water,
evacuate abscess. Cattle, similar, saline laxatives, for lead sulphuric acid, for
cœnurus, operation, for œstrus, benzine. Dog, parallel treatment, milk diet or
gruels, for linguatula, benzine.

The inflammatory affections in the cranial cavity have been

divided primarily into the following:
 1. Meningitis. Inflammation of the coverings of the brain, and
2. Encephalitis (Cerebritis). Inflammation of the nervous substance. These are
further subdivided into:
A. Pachymeningitis. Inflammation of the dura Mater.
B. Leptomeningitis. Inflammation of the pia Mater.
C. Purulent Meningitis.
D. Serous Meningitis.
E. Tubercular Meningitis.
F. Traumatic Meningitis, etc.
G. Cerebro-Spinal or Infective Meningitis.
H. Acute Meningitis.
I. Chronic Meningitis.
J. Polioencephalitis Corticalis. Inflammation of the brain cortex.
K. Polioencephalitis Superior. Inflammation of convolutions around the Sylvian
fissure, palsy of the eyeball.
L. Polioencephalitis Inferior. Inflammation of the Medulla, bulbar palsy.
M. Interstitial Inflammation of the Brain. Resulting often in sclerosis.
In the lower animals, however, where we cannot avail of subjective
symptoms, such fine distinctions can rarely be made in diagnosis and
except in case of an uncomplicated meningitis, or a circumscribed
encephalitis, which affects only a limited group of muscles like those
of the eye, arm, or leg, we have to fall back upon a more general
diagnosis. Again meningo-encephalitis is more common than the
uncomplicated affection of the brain, or the membranes, and
therefore, we shall follow Trasbot in dealing with the combined
affection, and noting incidentally the distinctions that can be made
in the more purely limited affections.
Causes. Mechanical Injuries. Pachymeningitis occasionally
results from blows or other injuries upon the head, especially in
stallions and vicious horses struck with a heavy whip or club, cattle
and sheep injured in fighting, and oxen hurt by the yoke. These
injuries may also affect the brain as in concussion, or by the
extension of the disease into the nervous tissue. In the cranium of a
stallion in the New York State Veterinary College Museum the whole
of the meninges are greatly thickened by a traumatic meningitis of
old date and the subjacent cerebral convolutions of the right
hemisphere are deeply encroached on, flattened and absorbed over
an area of 1¾ inches in the longest diameter.
 Diet. Among the most common causes of encephalitis in horses is
an injudicious dietary. Overfeeding with grain, but especially with
grain and seeds that are rich in albuminoids deserve the first
mention. The various leguminous seeds, peas, beans, tares, vetches,
and the ripened leguminous fodders, clover, alfalfa, and sainfoin, are
especially to be incriminated. These are usually most dangerous
when in the stage of advanced ripening and yet not fully matured,
evidently indicating the development of narcotic poison at this stage.
Such poisons are found habitually in certain species, like the chick
vetch (vicia cicera) which produces paralysis when fed to the extent
of more than one-twelfth part of the ration. This danger is not,
however, confined to the leguminosæ; an over abundant ration of
cottonseed meal has a similar effect, and indeed this rich alimentary
product has been practically discarded from pig feeding, and largely
as the main constituent from the ration of dairy cows. Gluten meal,
another product rich in proteids, is attended by similar dangers. But
it is not alone the seeds that are rich in nitrogen that are to be
dreaded, forced feeding even on the carbonaceous maize induces
disorder of the digestion and brain, especially in dairy cows.
Buckwheat, also, and indeed all the heating carbonaceous grains
tend to similar disorders, and are especially injurious in internal
ophthalmia (recurring ophthalmia) which is so closely related to
brain congestion. With sound judgment and in well balanced rations,
all such agents can be fed to advantage; it is only when fed
exclusively or to excess as the heavy ration that they are to be feared.
Narcotics. Next must be noted those alimentary matters which
are hurtful by reason of narcotic constituents. At the head of this list
may be placed the lolium temulentum or intoxicating ryegrass. like
the vicia sativa or cicera, the seeds of this are always poisonous,
hence its significant name. Then the other ryegrasses, perennial and
annual (Italian), though perfectly safe in ordinary circumstances,
develop at the period of ripening a narcotic principle, which
produces cerebral congestion or inflammation in whole stables of
horses at a time. The lolium temulentum is poisonous to man and
animals alike. Baillet and Filhol obtained from the seeds an etherial
extract containing a bland oil to the amount of two fifths and a
yellow extract to the extent of three-fifths. The amount of this extract
derived from three ounces of the seeds often developed the most
violent symptoms in the dog, while that furnished by six pounds of
the seeds proved fatal to the horse. Pigs and cattle seemed to be
unaffected by the agent when given by the mouth. Sheep suffered
more but required large doses. Ducks and chickens were practically
immune, being affected only by very large doses. Rabbits were not
poisoned by the yellow etherial extract, but succumbed to a watery
extract. Brydon found that lambs suffered extensively from eating
the heads of the ryegrass.
Lupins on certain lands produces an icteric disorder accompanied
by cerebral symptoms but the result is not the same under all
conditions and it has been suspected that the symptoms were caused
by cryptogams and their products. The same remark applies to the
brain symptoms sometimes produced by trefoil, equisetum and other
plants.
A great number of narcotic and narcotico-acrid plants produce
nervous symptoms indicating cerebral congestion or inflammation
such as ranunculus, wild poppy, digitalis, fennel, œnanthe crocata,
hellebore, veratrum, conium, yew, tobacco, box, aconite, cicuta
virosa, even buckwheat at the time of flowering, vetch and flax.
Fodders affected with cryptogams or bacterial ferments are
undoubtedly at times the cause of encephalitis. Veterinary records
furnish many instances of wide spread attacks of stomach staggers,
abdominal vertigo, and cerebro-spinal meningitis in wet seasons,
when the fodders have been harvested in poor condition, or when
from inundation or accidental exposure they have become permeated
by cryptogams and microbes. Among comparatively recent accounts
of this are those of Martin and Varnell (musty oats), Lombroso,
Depre, Erbe, Pellizi, and Tireli (smuts), Bouley and Barthelemy
(musty fodder), and Ray (fermented potatoes). One of the most
extended local outbreaks of cerebro-spinal congestion I have seen,
occurred in the pit mules of the Wilkesbarre coal mines, while fed on
Canadian hay which had been soaked with rain in transit and had
undergone extensive fermentation. It should be noted that there
were the attendant factors of overwork, in anticipation of a strike,
and a Sunday’s holiday above ground in a bright summer sunshine.
The experimental administration of moulds, smuts and microbes,
have in the great majority of cases led to little or no evil result
(Gamgee, Mayo, Dinwiddie, etc.) and there is a strong tendency to
discredit the pathogenic action of these agents in reported outbreaks.
The safer conclusion perhaps would be, to recognize the fact that
they are not equally pathogenic under all conditions of their growth
and administration. The oft-recurring epizootics of brain disease in
connection with wide spread spoiling of the fodders in remote and
recent times, probably imply that cryptogams or microbes and their
products, plus some condition not yet fully understood are efficient
concurrent factors. If we can discover this as yet unknown factor and
demonstrate that it operates with equal power in the absence of the
cryptogams and ferments, as in their presence, it will be logical to
pronounce these latter as nonpathogenic under all circumstances.
Until then cryptogams and bacteria must be held as probable factors.
A continuance of high temperature is an undoubted factor and
becomes more potent, if conjoined with a close, damp, ill-aired
stable.
Violent exertion especially in hot weather produces active
congestion of the brain and occasionally merges into meningo-
encephalitis. If the animal has been for sometime confined to the
stable on rich aliment the condition is aggravated.
Railroad travel is another recognized cause.
Any considerable change of the conditions of life may operate
in the same way. A sale and transport to a distance with change of
feed, water, work, stabling and even of climate is at times a potent
factor. Prietsch has seen a horse attacked three times in a single year,
and on each occasion after a change of ownership and locality.
Trasbot quotes an Algerian veterinarian to the effect that many of the
percheron horses imported into the Mitidja are attacked by
encephalo-meningitis during the extreme heats of summer.
A careful observation of cases will however show that in the
majority of cases an attack comes not from one individual factor
alone but from a concurrence of several operating together.
Other cases are caused by embolisms and infections from
diseases localized in other parts of the body. Thus we have cerebral
abscess in pyæmia, strangles and omphalitis, and cerebral
congestions and inflammation in canine distemper, equine
contagious pneumonia, laminitis, and angina.
Among mineral poisons, lead is notorious as a cause of acute
cerebral disorder often leading to inflammation. Other mineral
poisons like arsenic and phosphorus may lead to encephalitis
symptomatic of gastro intestinal irritation, or caused by the toxic
products of indigestion.
Rapidly growing tumors, like cholesteatomata, are liable to
induce recurrent attacks of encephalitis in connection with periodic
irritation.
Finally parasites in the cranium are sufficient causes of attacks.
In the New York State Veterinary College Museum is the brain of a
cat with a nematoid wound round the hypophysis. In equine subjects
suffering from the strongylus armatus the larval worm or clots
caused by its presence in other arteries sometimes invade the
encephalic blood vessels causing disturbances of the circulation,
embolism, inflammation or degeneration. (Albrecht, Von Heill). The
larvæ of the œstrus has also been found in the brain substance
producing inflammatory or degenerative foci (Brückmüller, Megnin,
Siedamgrotzky). Their presence in the nasal sinuses at times cause
encephalitis by contiguity. The cestoid worms, cœnurus in sheep and
other ruminants, and cysticercus in swine, find their natural larval
habitat in the brain and by their movements produce more or less
congestion and inflammation. Cases of cœnurus in the horse have
been described by Rousset, Frenzel, Zundel, and Schwanefeldt.
Symptoms. The symptoms of uncomplicated meningitis on the one
hand and encephalitis on the other are rarely seen, the disease
usually implicating more or less both brain and meninges, in a
common inflammation or the symptoms of the one involving those of
the other through proximity or interdependence of function. And yet
in traumatic lesions of the cranial walls, the symptoms may be those
of pure meningitis, and in thrombosis, embolism or parasitism of the
brain, and in certain tumors they may be those of simple
encephalitis. The distinction consists largely in the predominance of
fever, hyperæsthesia, active delirium and convulsions in meningitis,
and especially in its earlier stages; and the prominence of dullness,
stupor, somnolence, muscular weakness, paralysis, anæsthesia,
coma, and the clouding of special senses, with much less pronounced
febrile reaction, or vascular excitement in encephalitis.
There is usually, however, a mixing of symptoms so that the
benumbing or paralysis of the nervous functions alternates with
periods of their exaltation, and with both conditions hyperthermia
exists, though usually higher with meningitis.
The manifestations of benumbing or paresis may be continuous or
interrupted, and are exhibited in stupor, coma, somnolence,
lethargy, paresis or paralysis. The manifestations of excitement are
not continuous but occur in paroxysms or at least exacerbations,
which may show in visual or mental illusions, active, violent
delirium, trembling, rigors, clonic or tonic spasms. The onset is
usually abrupt, the animal passing in a few hours from apparent
health, to pronounced nervous disorder. The horse seems drowsy
and stupid, standing with semi-closed eyes, often drooping lower lip
and ears, head pendent and resting in the manger or against the wall
in front, the back arched and the limbs drawn together. When
moved, it walks unsteadily and often the limbs are left out of plumb,
one extending unduly forward, backward or to one side, and often
crossing over its fellow. Some cannot be made to back, others back
spontaneously hanging on the halter. Turning short in a circle is
difficult or impossible and tends to throw the patient down. Yet some
exceptional cases will turn around spontaneously to the right or left,
and an animal tied to a post goes around it at the end of its halter in
its effort to pass straight forward. The circling movement may be due
to the irritation on the one side of the brain or to irritation of
particular ganglia and nervous tracts as noticed under cerebral
hyperæmia.
Appetite is usually lost, or, more properly, the animal no longer
takes notice of surrounding things, not even of its food. In some
cases, however, in which stupor or coma is not extreme the animal
will eat a little during his quiescent intervals. In ryegrass and other
dietetic poisoning, the animal may still eat and fall asleep with the
month full. The digestion is impaired or suspended, the bowels
costive, and fermentations with tympanies and rumbling are
frequent complications. When originating from poisonous food this
often contributes to these abdominal complications.
Respirations in the comatose condition are deep and slow,
sometimes not more than four or five per minute. The heart usually
beats strongly, often tumultuously, and the pulse varies greatly—
infrequent or frequent, strong or weak, full or small. With cerebritis
it is often abnormally slow.
 Hyperthermia is always present to a greater or less extent, being
often more marked in the more violent forms or those in which
meningitis appears to predominate than in the purely cerebral forms.
The temperature may vary from 101° to 106°.
The optic disc is congested.
Probably in all cases or nearly all there is a preliminary stage of
excitement, in which the eye is clear, the eyelids open, the aspect
alert and the whole skin affected by a marked hyperæsthesia. In
some cases the symptoms of excitement are much more violent at the
outset of the disease, as marked by trembling, nervous movements,
pawing, pushing the head against the wall while the motions of
walking or trotting are performed by the limbs, or those of plunging
forward, rearing up, drawing back on the halter, etc.
But even when the disease seems to have started with stupor and
coma, these paroxysms of excitement almost invariably appear at
intervals as it advances. Some, however, plunged in stupor or coma
at the first, remain in this condition until they end in paralysis or
death, or start in convalescence.
During one of the paroxysms the trembling animal may push his
head against the wall as if pulling a heavy load; at other times he will
plunge with his feet in the manger and recoiling, fall to the ground,
where he struggles violently in an apparent effort to rise; others rear
up, pulling on the halter or breaking it and falling back over; some
pull back on the halter and throw themselves down; some grind the
teeth, or seize the manger, or strike blindly with the fore limbs.
When seized out of doors the horse may be quite uncontrollable and
refuse to return to the stable even when led by two men with double
halters. In all such cases the eye has a fixed, glaring aspect which is
the more pronounced when the pupils are dilated, the conjunctiva is
deeply congested, of a deep, brownish red with a tinge of yellow. This
is usually greatly enhanced by the bruises and extravasations caused
by pushing or knocking the head against the wall. The same violence
may lead to serious bruises and injuries elsewhere, even fractures of
the orbital process or zigoma, of the ilium or ischium, of the poll or
the base of the brain; also of the incisor teeth.
These paroxysms may be so frequent that they seem to be subject
to remissions only, and not separated by complete intermissions.
During the paroxysms breathing and pulsations are both greatly
accelerated.
The gravity of the attack may be judged in part by the violence and
frequency of the paroxysms. Yet some cases, marked by profound
coma from the first, prove the most rapidly fatal, and the paroxysms
of excitement and violence are not incompatible with recovery.
Improvement may usually be recognized by the increased length of
the intervals between the paroxysms, and by the shortening and
moderation of the periods of excitement. After the paroxysms have
ceased the drowsiness or stupor gradually disappears, and the
hyperthermia subsides.
Even after recovery from the acute or violent symptoms there is
liable to remain some aberration or perversion of function, due to the
persistence of some encephalic or meningeal lesion. The general
hebetude known as immobility may bespeak dropsy of the ventricles,
pressure of a tumor or clot, or degeneration of ganglionic centres.
Diseases of the eyes (amaurosis, glaucoma, cataract), or of the ear
(deafness, disease of the internal or middle ear) are less frequent
results.
The supervention of general or facial paralysis or of hemiplegia
during the active progress of the malady, is an extremely unfavorable
symptom.
Duration. A fatal result may take place at any time by self inflicted
injuries (dashing the head against a wall, or falling backward and
striking the head on a solid body). Apart from this, death may come
within twenty-four or thirty-six hours. If the animal survives two to
seven days recovery is more probable. Hering records a case of
recovery after five weeks illness. Hot weather hastens a fatal result,
while cool, cloudy weather is favorable.
Prognosis. Under rational treatment about one-fourth recover.
One-half of the victims make a partial recovery but remain in a
condition of dementia or hebetude, blindness, deafness, local or
general paralysis which renders them more or less useless. Not more
than one-fifth or at most one-fourth of all cases recover. Even in
these there is left an increased predisposition to recurrence. It is
noted by Trasbot that the mortality is higher in highbred, nervous,
irritable animals, which show a tendency to greater frequency, force
and duration of the paroxysms of excitement. When decubitus is
constant, death may take place from septic poisoning starting from
bed sores, and gangrenous sloughing. In other cases there is fatal
starvation from inability to eat.
Lesions. In pachymeningitis due to mechanical injury there is
usually cutaneous and subcutaneous, blood extravasation, and there
may be fracture of the cranial bones. The dura mater is dark red,
hyperæmic, thickened, covered with exudation and small blood clots
mixed with pus cells, and has contracted strong adhesions to the
cranial bone. Bony spicula may project into the fibrous neoplasm.
Leptomeningitis usually coexists from extension of the
inflammation into the adjacent arachnoid and pia mater. There is
then a reddish serous effusion into the arachnoid and beneath it, and
the substance of both membranes is thickened by exudate, and
discolored by congestion and minute hæmorrhages. Whenever the
pia mater is thus inflamed, the superficial layer of the brain is
implicated, œdematous, soft and doughy. The extension is also made
into the ventricles and a serous effusion takes place often to two,
three or more times the normal amount (82 grammes Schütz). The
choroid plexus forms a yellowish gelatinoid mass, and the ganglia
(corpora striata, optic thalamus, etc.), are flattened.
In encephalitis the affected superficial gray matter of the ganglia
or convolutions, is deepened in color, usually in limited areas
corresponding to the disease of the meninges. Sometimes the color
becomes of a distinctly reddish tinge, and when cut into shows
unusually prominent red points where the capillaries have been cut.
Somewhat larger areas of blood staining indicate hæmorrhagic
extravasations. The nervous substance is more or less infiltrated with
liquid and softened. The nerve cells are swollen, and in process of
granular degeneration and the same is true of the myelin, while the
axis cylinder is uneven in its outline. Apart from the numerous
minute petechial hæmorrhages there is an abundant migration of
leucocytes which are found scattered in the degenerating and
softened nervous tissues.
The softening of the nervous tissue may result in a pulpy material,
which in the comparative absence of blood is grayish (gray
softening), if abundantly infiltrated with blood is red (red
softening), if older and discolored is yellow, as in an old
extravasation, (yellow softening), if thick and viscous is