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 General
Relativity
A F irst Examination
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 Second Edition

General
Relativity
A F i rs t Examination

Marvin Blecher
Virginia Tech, USA

World Scientific
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Title: General relativity : a first examination / Marvin Blecher, Virginia Tech, USA.
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July 27, 2020 12:54 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-fm˙chapters page v

I dedicate this work to Freda, the love of my life, the fount of my

happiness and contentment, and to my family whose love sustains me.

v
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Preface

Upon retirement, I sought a learning project. My career was spent as an

experimental physicist studying nuclei and particles. Throughout, I was
deeply impressed by the connection between my area and General Relativity
and cosmology. Now, I had the time to dig into the details of those subjects.
When I asked, the Virginia Tech Physics Department granted my request to
teach the introductory semester course in General Relativity. I did so three
times and found that nothing reduces knowledge deficiency like teaching
smart students.
Many excellent texts were available for my studies. However, there was
too much material in them for students to cover in a single semester. So I
developed my own set of notes, that explained the essentials of the subject
in the course time period. This text evolved from those notes. I’m grateful to
my students because their questions pushed me to explain difficult concepts
as transparently as possible. I’m also grateful to many of my colleagues who
participated in discussions, helped with proofs and critiqued some of my
material.
Einstein’s theory is now a century in age. It is well tested, but still
inspires significant theoretical and experimental work. And it definitely
intrigues students. Advanced undergraduate physics majors, first year
physics graduate and engineering students have taken the course. Physics
Department faculty and faculty from other departments have sat in on
many lectures. I thank them all for their comments and questions. They
helped me acquire a deeper understanding of the subject.

vii
July 27, 2020 12:54 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-fm˙chapters page viii

viii General Relativity: A First Examination

Much of the material in this book is found in various forms in other

texts. However, this text contains much that is novel, and many more steps
than usual are included in proofs.
In Chapter 2, the twin problem with acceleration is worked out by the
twin at rest. Later in Chapter 5, the accelerating twin uses the full power
of General Relativity to predict the same time ratio result.
The way gravity affects time is first discussed for weak gravity via con-
servation of energy using a Newtonian formulation with relativistic mass.
In Chapter 5, weak gravity in General Relativity is discussed and the
way gravity affects time is rigorously covered. The Schwarzschild metric
is obtained and in Problem 5 of that chapter, students are asked to solve
the Schwarzschild problem with the cosmological constant included. Then
they are asked to show that in weak gravity a very small repulsive Newto-
nian force arises.
In Chapter 7, gravitational waves are discussed. Just as the first edition
to this book was going to press, the LIGO experiment announced the first
direct detection of such a wave. Luckily, I was able to include this finding.
The theory behind the Nobel prize winning, gravitational wave indirect
detection results, from the Hulse–Taylor binary pulsar, is worked out with
elliptical orbits. Other texts that discuss this experiment have used circular
orbits. As the eccentricity is large, the latter orbits disagree with experi-
ment.
In Chapter 8 on black holes and Kerr space, an example, based on
the film “Interstellar”, is presented. The example discusses why a large
gravitational time dilation is possible near a spinning, but not a static
black hole. Geodesics in Kerr space are also worked out.
In Chapter 9 on cosmology, the results of numerical integrations using
the current data for all the energy densities are discussed. This allows the
students to peer into both the past and the future for values of the universal
scale factor, the Hubble parameter, the age of the universe and the horizon
distance.
July 27, 2020 12:54 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-fm˙chapters page ix

Acknowledgments

I’m grateful to colleagues N. Arav, P. Huber, J. Link, and D. Roper,

who participated in discussions with me, and read a chapter. I especially
thank Tatsu Takeuchi who helped with proofs, read, and critiqued many
of my chapters; and John Simonetti who cleared up many concepts, and
explained details of the astronomical experiments discussed in the text.
Eric Sharpe and James Gray welcomed many questions, and read a chap-
ter. I’m indebted to Ms Samantha Spytek, an undergraduate physics major
at Virginia Tech, and to Robin Blecher, for preparing many of the figures.

ix
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Contents

Preface vii

Acknowledgments ix

1. Review of Special Relativity 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Lorentz Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Physics Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Spacetime Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2. Vectors and Tensors in Spacetime 17

2.1 Metric Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Vector Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Tensor Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Forming Other Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Twin Problem Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Momentum and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.7 Doppler Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.8 Gravity Affects Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.9 The Pound–Rebka Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.10 Global Positioning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.11 Tensor Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

xi
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xii General Relativity: A First Examination

3. Covariant Differentiation, Equations of Motion 41

3.1 Differentiation of Invariants and Vectors . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Differentiation of Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Gravity and the Locally Inertial Frame . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 Local Flatness Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5 GR Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

4. Curvature 55
4.1 Geodesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 Parallel Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3 Curvature Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.4 Ricci Tensor, Bianchi Identity, Einstein Tensor . . . . . . 64

5. Gravity and General Relativity 69

5.1 Review of Newtonian Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.2 Weak Gravity in GR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.3 Gravitational Red Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.4 Einstein’s Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.5 Schwarzschild Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.6 Conserved Quantities: Massive Particles . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.7 The Twin Problem From the Rocket Observer’s View . . 80

6. Classic Solar System Tests of General Relativity 91

6.1 Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.2 Orbit Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.3 Light Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.4 Perihelia Advance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.5 Radar Signal Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

7. Gravitational Waves 107

7.1 The Weak Gravity Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.2 Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
7.3 The Graviton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.4 Gravity Wave Detection: LIGO Experiment . . . . . . . . 114
7.5 Wave Equation Solution With Sources . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.6 The Energy–Momentum Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.7 Quadrupole Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
July 27, 2020 12:54 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-fm˙chapters page xiii

Contents xiii

7.8 Gravity Wave Flux and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

7.9 Binary Neutron Star System Radiation . . . . . . . . . . 130

8. Black Holes and Kerr Space 141

8.1 Static Black Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.2 Black Holes with Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . 146
8.3 Frame-drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8.4 Calculation of the GP-B Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.5 Kerr Space Geodesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.6 An Interstellar Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

9. Cosmology 183
9.1 Robertson–Walker Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.2 The Red Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
9.3 Determining Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.4 Red Shift Versus Distance Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9.5 Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
9.6 Robertson–Walker Einstein Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . 202
9.7 The Early Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.8 Matter and Dark Energy Domination . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Bibliography 217

Index 219
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July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 1

Chapter 1

Review of Special Relativity

1.1 Introduction

The theory of Special Relativity (SR) was introduced by A. Einstein in

1905. It deals with the observations of inertial observers in the absence of
gravity. The theory of General Relativity (GR) that includes gravitation,
and thus acceleration, was published in 1915. For English translations, see
Einstein (1905). The latter theory predicted the deflection of light near a
massive body, like the sun. Shortly after the end of the first world war, a
British team, led by A. S. Eddington, confirmed this startling prediction.
This made Einstein world famous, even among people who had no particular
interest in science.
In relativity, an observation is the assignment of coordinates xμ , μ =
0, 1, 2, 3, for the time and space location of an event. Space is continu-
ous, and functions of the coordinates can be differentiated. Upon partial
differentiation with respect to one of the coordinates, the others are held
constant. This insures that the coordinates are independent,
∂xμ
xμ ,ν ≡ = δ μν = δνμ = 1, μ = ν, δ μν = 0, μ = ν. (1.1)
∂xν
As will be seen δ μν is the Kronecker delta tensor. The superscript, subscript
indexes are termed contravariant, covariant. Note the shorthand notation
for the partial derivative, by use of a comma. Such a shorthand will keep
some of the formulas of GR, with many partial derivatives, to a reasonable
length.

1
July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 2

2 General Relativity: A First Examination

Fig. 1.1 Rotation relations for changing unit vectors from one coordinate system to
another.

In rectangular coordinates xμ = (t, x, y, z). In relativity, one may trans-

form to other coordinate systems, or to the rectangular coordinates of other

reference frames. These coordinates will be labeled by primes, xμ . Curvilin-
ear coordinates are particularly useful, and a rotation carries you from one

set of coordinates to the other. In cylindrical coordinates xμ = (t, ρ, φ, z)
because as illustrated in Fig. 1.1, the rotation changes the direction indi-
cating unit vectors (êx , êy ) → (êρ , êφ ). Similarly, for spherical coordinates

xμ = (t, θ, φ, r), (êρ , êz ) → (êθ , êr ). Other texts employ an extra renam-

ing, and take xμ =0−3 = t, r, θ, φ, but a rose by any name would smell
sweet. The reader can prove that the components of 3-vectors, when writ-
ten in terms of unit vectors V  = V x êx + V y êy + V z êz , are transformed by
rotations in the same way as the unit vectors.
The time of the event is read on a clock at rest with respect to the
observer, at the spatial coordinates of the event. In the inertial frames of
July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 3

Review of Special Relativity 3

SR, an observer may suppose that there are synchronized clocks at rest at
every point in space. This would not be the case when gravity is taken into
account, since clocks run at different rates, in a region of varying gravita-
tional strength. Simultaneous events for a given observer are those occurring
at the same time on the clocks nearest them, that are at rest with respect
to the observer.
As will be seen, we live in spacetime of four dimensions where space and
time mix with each other. Thus, spacetime vectors have four components.
By analogy with three space, take as the rectangular components of the
contravariant position vector rμ the coordinates xμ . Then dxμ must also
be the components of the displacement vector drμ , as the difference of two
vectors is also a vector. As of now, these are the only vectors known to us.
In later chapters, when gravity or acceleration may be acting, the symbol
for a set of coordinates may have a bar xμ̄ . This will indicate that these
coordinates are those of an inertial observer using rectangular coordinates.
This is the case for an SR reference frame that is arbitrarily large. When
gravity is present the bar will usually be absent. However, as will be shown,
even when gravity is present, at any point in space one can find a locally
inertial frame. That frame may need be arbitrarily small. The rectangular
coordinates of that frame will have the bar when the set of coordinates
is described. Other coordinate systems or rectangular coordinates of other
inertial reference frames will be represented by the bar and one or more

primes xμ̄ . In such cases, the components of vectors rμ̄ and higher order
tensors T μ̄ν̄ will also have bars.
Einstein developed SR from two postulates: (1) the laws of physics are
the same for all inertial observers no matter their relative velocities; (2) all
inertial observers measure the same speed of light in vacuum c = 3 ×
108 m/s. It is the second postulate that causes conflict with the Newtonian
concept of time flowing independent of everything else. This leads to the
observation, that events simultaneous to one observer may not be so to
another. Also c becomes the limiting speed in order to preserve causality.
In GR, the word “inertial” is removed, and the principle of equivalence:
that no gravitational effect is experienced when freely falling in a region of
uniform gravitational strength, must be taken into account.
In hindsight, it is easy to see where the postulates come from. Various
inertial observers, in empty space and in relative motion, perform electro-
magnetic experiments in their own rest frames. They find that the equa-
 B)
tions of Maxwell for the electric, magnetic fields (E,  explain the results.
July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 4

4 General Relativity: A First Examination

In vacuum, they use the empty space permittivity, permeability ( 0 , μ0 ).

In MKS units, each finds that they lead to a wave equation, with a unique
velocity,
 
∇
 ·E
 =0=∇
 · B,
 ∇  = − ∂B ,
 ×E ∇
 ×B
 = μ0 0
∂E
,
∂t ∂t
∂2B

0 = ∇2 B
 − μ0 0 , v = (μ0 0 )−1/2 = c.
∂t2
As c is so special in SR and GR, it is convenient to work in a system of
units where velocities are dimensionless and c = 1. Then time is expressed
in meters (m), like the other coordinates, and acceleration is expressed in
inverse meters:
c = 1 = 3 × 108 m s−1 ,
s = 3 × 108 m, (1.2)
−2 −16 −1
a=ms = 0.111 × 10 m .

Similarly in GR, Newton’s gravitational constant G is so special, that

it is convenient to also use G = 1. This leads to the natural system of
units. Here other mechanical quantities, like mass, energy, momentum, and
angular momentum, can be expressed in meters to the correct power:
G 6.674 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2
1= 2
=
c [3 × 108 ]2 m2 s−2
= 0.742 × 10−27 kg−1 m,
M = kg = 0.742 × 10−27 m, (1.3)
E = kg m2 s−2 = 0.824 × 10−44 m.
Suppose a result is obtained in naturalized units for  = h/(2π) =
2.612×10−70 m2 , where h is Planck’s constant. One can calculate the value
in MKS units by noting that in this system the units are those of angular
momentum kg m2 s−1 . Multiply the value in natural units by unity, with a
quantity that expressed in MKS units, will give the desired units,
 = 2.612 × 10−70 m2 [c/(G/c2 )]
(2.612 × 10−70 )(3 × 108 ) 2
= m (m/s)/(m/kg)
0.742 × 10−27
= 1.056 × 10−34 kg m2 s−1 .
July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 5

Review of Special Relativity 5

1.2 Lorentz Transform

Two observers O and O are considered. They use parallel axes and rect-
angular coordinates. Rotations, like those in Fig. 1.1, allow them to align
their z-axes along the relative velocity. O uses xμ , and says O is moving in

the z-direction with speed V (<1), while O uses xμ , and says O is moving
in the −z-direction with speed V .
When their origins overlapped, the clocks were synchronized t = x0 =
  
t = x0 = 0. In this geometry, (x, y) = (x , y  ) or x1,2 = x1 ,2 , as there is
no relative motion in these directions. However, c = 1 for both observers,
so space and time are interconnected, and now termed spacetime. If O says
 
that events led to changes in coordinates dz  = dx3 and dt = dx0 , the

components of the displacement vector drμ , then O would calculate from
the chain rule of differential calculus,
∂z  ∂z  ∂z ∂z 
dx3 = dz = dz +  dt +  dx +  dy  ≡ x3 ,μ dxμ
∂z  ∂t ∂x ∂y
 
= x3 ,3 dx3 + x3 ,0 dx0 , (1.4)
∂t  ∂t ∂t ∂t 
dx0 = dt = 
dz +  dt +  dx +  dy  ≡ x0 ,μ dxμ
∂z ∂t ∂x ∂y
 
= x0 ,3 dx3 + x0 ,0 dx0 . (1.5)
One notes that, similar to rotations, this transform can be represented by
matrix multiplication,
⎛ 0⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞
dx x ,0 0 0 x0 ,3 dx
⎜ dx1 ⎟ ⎜ 0 ⎟ ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1 0 0 ⎟ ⎜ dx ⎟
⎝ dx2 ⎠ = ⎝ 0 ⎜  ⎟.
0 1 0 ⎠ ⎝ dx2 ⎠

dx3 x3 ,0 0 0 x3 ,3 dx3
This is a linear transform. The vector components appear to the power
unity. The coefficients, the partial derivatives multiplying the O vector
components, are relations between the coordinates of the different frames.
They are independent of the vectors. Such a rule for vector transformation
is not limited to rotations. It works for any coordinate transformation, and
any vector. If each vector had a different transformation rule, there would
be no theory. If a set of four quantities V μ do not transform as above, then
they are not components of a vector.
This transformation does not yield vectors, written in terms of unit vec-
tors êμ , but in terms of basis vectors eμ . The relationship between basis and
July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 6

6 General Relativity: A First Examination

unit vectors, for rotations, is explored in Problem 3. There, the components

of the 3-vector dr in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates, in
terms of unit and basis vectors, lead to the relationship. In relativity, basis
vector components are used.
Note the summation over an index definition, in Eqs. (1.4) and (1.5),
requires the same index repeated as both contravariant and covariant. In
the case of the partial derivative, a covariant index results from the con-
travariant index in the denominator. Coordinates, by tradition, are always
written with contravariant indexes as opposed to tensors, vectors are ten-
sors of rank 1, that have both types of indexes.
Let both observers O and O concentrate on a light ray,
 1 2  2 2  3 2
dx dx dx
1= 0
+ 0
+
dx dx dx0
 2  2  2
dx1 dx2 dx3
= + + ,
dx0 dx0 dx0

(dτ )2 ≡ (dx0 )2 − (dx1 )2 − (dx2 )2 − (dx3 )2 = 0, (1.6)

   
(dτ  )2 ≡ (dx0 )2 − (dx1 )2 − (dx2 )2 − (dx3 )2 = 0. (1.7)

Thus,

(dτ )2 = (dτ  )2 ,
 
(1.8)
(dx0 )2 − (dx3 )2 = (dx0 )2 − (dx3 )2 .

Applying Eqs. (1.4) and (1.5) to the above equation,

   
(dx0 )2 = (x0 ,0 dx0 )2 + (x0 ,3 dx3 )2 + 2x0 ,0 x0 ,3 dx0 dx3 ,
   
(dx3 )2 = (x3 ,0 dx0 )2 + (x3 ,3 dx3 )2 + 2x3 ,0 x3 ,3 dx0 dx3 ,
1 = (x0 ,0 )2 − (x3 ,0 )2 ≡ cosh2 α − sinh2 α
= −(x0 ,3 )2 + (x3 ,3 )2 ≡ cosh2 β − sinh2 β,
0 = cosh α sinh β − sinh α cosh β = sinh(β − α) → α = β.

The above results force Eq. (1.8) to also hold, for other than light travel.
So dτ is an invariant, a tensor of rank 0, numerically the same in all frames.
The invariant dτ is the proper time, that read on a clock at rest with respect
to the observer. For light travel, assumed in vacuum unless otherwise noted,
dτ = 0. So photons never run out of time, and some created in the very
July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 7

Review of Special Relativity 7

early universe, are still around. The interval (dS)2 ≡ −(dτ )2 . Although τ
is a member of the Greek alphabet, and could be used as an index, it is
reserved for the proper time.
In order to calculate sinh α and cosh α, O concentrates on the posi-
tion of O . In time period dt, O changes position dz = V dt. However,
O says, “I am at rest while my clock has advanced by dt .” Using Eqs. (1.4)
and (1.5),

dt = dt cosh α, V dt = dt sinh α,

V = tanh α,
γ ≡ cosh α = (1 − V 2 )−1/2 = x0 ,0 = x3 ,3 , (1.9)
γV = sinh α = x0 ,3 = x3 ,0 . (1.10)

The reverse transform from unprimed to primed coordinates just requires,

t ↔ t , z ↔ z  , V → −V,
   
(1.11)
γ = x0 ,0 = x3 ,3 , −γV = x0 ,3 = x3 ,0 .

Note that for low speeds (1 − V 2 )−1/2 → 1, and the Galilean transform is
recovered.

1.3 Physics Consequences

First, consider simultaneity. O and O are coincident. O says two events

occur at the same time so dt = 0, but at positions from the origin ±dz  .
O says that the time differences from zero of the two events are,

dt± = ±γV dz  , dt+ − dt− = 0.

In general, observers in relative motion do not agree on simultaneity.

Only if events are spatially coincident will observers so agree. Thus, to
compare times, clocks at the same spatial position have to be compared.
Also note, the present position of O , when all clocks are synchronized, is
connected with all points in the past, present, and future of O. In spacetime,
all space and time points are available. Time isn’t a special quantity, it’s
just a one-dimensional projection of spacetime.
Next consider causality. In the unprimed frame, observer O fires a bullet
at t = 0 from the origin. It hits a target at time dt and position dz = vb dt,
where vb is the speed of the bullet. O also says the bullet was fired from
July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 8

8 General Relativity: A First Examination

the origin at t = 0, as that’s where the clocks were synchronized. O says

the target was hit at

dt = γ(dt − V [vb dt]) = dtγ(1 − V vb ).

According to O , if dt < 0, the target is hit before the bullet is fired. That
would violate causality, and can happen only if vb > 1. Thus, c = 1 is the
limiting speed.
Now consider the comparison of clocks. Observer O and clock A are
spatially coincident. Other clocks B, C, . . . are at rest with respect to
O, and read the same time as A. Observer O and clock B are spatially
coincident. Other clocks A , C , . . . are at rest with respect to O , and read
the same time as B . All the clocks are synchronized, when A and B are
spatially coincident. Since O says A is at rest, when it has ticked off a time
period dt = dτ , as in Fig. 1.2, what will the clocks of O read? O concludes
that clock C is now spatially coincident with clock A. The times on these
two clocks can be compared. O says A has ticked off dτ , while remaining

Fig. 1.2 Comparison of clocks. The view of O.

July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 9

Review of Special Relativity 9

Fig. 1.3 Comparison of clocks. The view of O .

at rest. From the Lorentz transform, the time ticked off on C is

dt = γdτ > dτ.

This result is called time dilation. Time and all processes related to it
run slower for O, who considers herself at rest, as compared with those of
O , who O sees moving. So A ticks slower. Also the heart rate, and other
biological rates of O are slower.
Alternately, O considers B at rest, as in Fig. 1.3. When it has ticked off
time dt = dτ , what will the clocks at rest with respect to O read? According
to O , clock B has moved into spatial coincidence with clock B . The times
on these two clocks can be compared. From the Lorentz transform,

dt = γdτ > dτ.

Now time and all processes related to it run slower for O , who considers
himself at rest, as compared with those of O, who O sees moving. So B
ticks slower, and the biological rates of O are slower.
July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 10

10 General Relativity: A First Examination

Strange as it seems, both observers are correct about these particular

measurements. There is no third observer who could decide the case in favor
of O or O .
Time dilation has been experimentally verified in the laboratory with
particles called muons. Muons at rest have a mean lifetime of about 660 m.
Thus, if you begin with a large number of muons at rest N0 , the number
N left after time t m is N/N0 = exp(−t/660). Then, the half life for muons
t1/2 = 660 ln 2 m is the time when half of the starting muons remain. This
result must be interpreted as the probability of muon survival. After a time
t = nt1/2 experimenters expect N/N0 = (1/2)n .
In the laboratory, muons can be created with speed V ≈ 1, and almost
all are observed to travel far longer distances than 660 m. This means that
the clock attached to the muon (B ) has not yet ticked off even one mean
lifetime. The clocks (A, B, C) . . . attached to the laboratory, that the muon
sees moving, have ticked off a much longer time period.
One feature of SR that hasn’t been directly confirmed is length con-
traction. Suppose a rod of length dz  is at rest in O . That length could
be measured by O , by measuring the coordinate of each end at arbitrary
times. However, O sees the rod moving, and so must measure the coordi-
nates of the two ends at the same time dt = 0. This determines the moving
length dz,

dz  = γdz,
L(rest) = γL(moving) > L(moving). (1.12)

By considering the muons, confirmation of this result can be inferred. In

the laboratory, the speedy muons easily travel much more than 660 m.
This is the distance between points i and j in Fig. 1.4. However, according
to the muons, these points are moving, and the distance between them is
length contracted. The clock attached to the muon has not ticked off a
mean lifetime in the time these points travel past the muon.
These considerations lead to what is called the “twin paradox.” Identical
twins O and O are separated at birth. O remains fixed, while O moves away
at high speed, and then returns to the birth position. Each sees her sister
travel away at high speed, and then return to the position of birth. Due to
time dilation, you might think that each twin is correct in saying, “I am
younger.” For when time comparison was considered above, if O considered
clock B , the time on B was less than on A, while if O considered clock A,
the time on A was less than on B .
July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 11

Review of Special Relativity 11

Fig. 1.4 Travel distance of speedy muons: top, bottom are the lab, muon views.

However, at least one twin experienced acceleration in order to turn

around. An accelerating observer is not an inertial observer, and cannot
always use the Lorentz transform of SR. The trips are asymmetric. Both
twins seek to predict the trip time on the other’s clock, and test the pre-
diction, when they are again coincident. The simpler calculation, made by
the inertial twin, is reviewed in Chapter 2. In Chapter 5, the accelerated
twin’s calculation will use the full power of GR.

1.4 Spacetime Diagrams

Many GR texts stress the concept of spacetime diagrams. Analytic calcu-

lations are favored by this author. However, for completeness, the former
are briefly discussed in this section. One draws on a flat sheet, and must
be concerned with four coordinates. Thus, one-dimensional motion, in the
z-direction, is considered.
Draw a set of axes for frame O as shown on the top of Fig. 1.5.
The upward vertical axis represents increasing time t, while the rightward
July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 12

12 General Relativity: A First Examination

Fig. 1.5 Light cone physics, top for various travelers, bottom for separated galaxies.

horizontal axis represents increasing z. At some time t1 , particle A is at z1 .

If particle A has rest mass, it can remain at rest with respect to O. Its
world line is just a vertical line upward from (z1 , t1 ). On the clock attached
to A, the coordinate time duration dt is just the proper-time duration dτ .
Photons B and C, starting from the same position and time, must move
with unit speed | dzdt | = 1. Events outside of the triangle, defined by world
lines B and C, are inaccessible starting from (z1 , t1 ). This triangle is called
the future triangle. If motion in two spatial directions is considered, the
triangle becomes a cone.
A massive particle D, that moves with constant speed V < 1 relative
to O, has a world line with | dz dt | < 1. Its proper-time duration, measured
relative to t1 , is dτ = dt/γ. Here, dt is the time on a clock at rest with
respect to A that, according to D, is coincident with D’s position. Let twins
O and O start at this spacetime point. O notes that her twin, moving with
accelerated motion, always stays within the future triangle, at first moving
away from O, but later returning. The gist of the twin “paradox” is that
it is only O that experiences acceleration. If not created at (z1 , t1 ), then
July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 13

Review of Special Relativity 13

A, B, C, D, and O can get there only from the past triangle, obtained by
extending B and C backwards in time.
Relative to the axes of O, the time and space axes (t , z  ) of frame O ,
in which D is at rest, can be drawn with hyperbolic angle α = tanh−1 V .
This is because the Lorentz transform requires,

t = t cosh α + z  sinh α = γ[t + V z  ],

z = z  cosh α + t sinh α = γ[z  + V t ].

The light cones of two observers, in separated galaxies at z1,2 = G1,2

are shown on the bottom of Fig. 1.5. Initially their light is non-interacting.
Only after time t1 will some light signals from the two observers be able to
interact. Only after time t2 will light signals originating from G1,2 be able
to form one side of a future triangle at G2,1 . Actually, the situation is much
more complicated because the universe is expanding. Space is being created
so that the distance between any pair of typical particles is increasing with
time. Moreover, the expansion is accelerating. There may be an observer
G2 , that observer G1 sees separating faster than the speed of light. This is
a phenomenon, discussed in a later chapter, that is not built into relativity.

Problems

1. Convert from MKS units to natural units where G = c = 1: (a) lumi-

nosity flux = 1010 J s−1 m−2 ; (b) density of water = 103 kg m−3 . Con-
vert from natural units to MKS units: rest energy density of a proton,
0.3 × 10−9 m−2 .
2. Consider the rotations that transform the unit vectors, êx,y,z ↔ êρ,φ,z ↔
êθ,φ,r , into one another. Show that the spatial components of an arbitrary
vector, written in terms of unit vectors, transform in the same way as
the unit vectors.
3. Let the 3-vector in Problem 2 be dr, with components (dx, dy, dz) in
either unit or basis vector notation. Use the transforms in Fig. 1.1 to
find the components in cylindrical and spherical coordinates in terms of
unit vectors. Use transforms similar to Eq. (1.4) to find the components
in terms of basis vectors. What is the relation of the unit vectors to basis
vectors in cylindrical and spherical coordinates?
4. O and O have parallel axes. According to O, O is moving with velocity,

 = (V 1 , V 2 , V 3 ) = |V
V  |(sin a cos b, sin a sin b, cos a).
July 27, 2020 12:52 General Relativity: A First Examination. . . 9in x 6in b3923-ch01 page 14

14 General Relativity: A First Examination

What is the Lorentz transform xμ ,ν  between these reference frames?


What is the relationship between xμ ,ν  and xν ,μ ? Prove that the proper
time Eq. (1.8) is an invariant. If O looks at a rod that formally had rest
length L that now is aligned with the velocity vector and moving with
velocity V  , what will O consider the length to be?
Do this problem as follows: find the rotation that takes O to O such

that ê3 is aligned with V . Then apply the Lorentz transform. This takes
you to system Ō, where Ō is obtained from O by the same rotation that
took O to O . Now apply the inverse rotation to get from Ō to O.
5. Consider three inertial observers O, O , and O . These observers could
be considered the origins of three frames of reference with parallel rect-
angular axes. The clocks at rest relative to themselves are synchronized
when they overlap. When the clock attached to O has ticked off a

time dx0 = dt , calculate the time dx0 = dt and position information
dxi=2,3 = (dy, dz) of O , according to O, for the following cases:
Case I: O moves with speed V 2 in the y-direction with respect to O ,
and O moves with speed V 3 in the z-direction with respect
to O.
Case II: O moves with speed V 3 in the z-direction with respect to O ,
and O moves with speed V 2 in the y-direction with respect
to O.
(a) Calculate Δf ≡ fI − fII , where f = dt, dz, dy, (dt)2 −
(dy)2 − (dz)2 and (dy)2 + (dz)2 .
(b) Show that these results agree with those of Problem 4.
6. Cosmic rays are composed mainly of high-energy protons. Neglect grav-
ity and assume the velocities of the protons are along a line passing
through the center of earth. Let protons (1, 2) move towards the earth’s
center with speeds (V, V̄ ), relative to earth’s center.
(a) What is the speed of proton 2 relative to proton 1 if the veloci-
ties relative to earth’s center are in the same or opposite direction?
Determine these speeds if V = 0.99, V̄ = 0.98.
(b) Suppose the protons are spaceships traveling in the same direction
and at one time were at the same position, where they could syn-
chronize their clocks. After a time T on the clock of the slower ship,
it emits photons at intervals ΔT on its own clock. These photons
travel to the faster ship. On the latter’s clock, what is the interval
between received photon bursts?
Another random document with
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returned. Upon their arrival on Kahakaloa: “Ua make o Kawelo
the top of Nounou hill, ia’u. I hoi mai nei au e ai a
Kahakaloa said: “I have downed maona, iho hou aku e hoomake i
Kawelo. I have returned to have kuu luahi.” A lohe o Aikanaka,
something to eat, and when I hoolale ae la ia i kana mau
have satisfied my hunger, I will aipuupuu elua, ia
then return and kill my Kapinaonuianio, a me
opponent.” When Aikanaka Nioiwawalu, elua laua, puholo i
heard this, he ordered his two ka moa a Kahakaloa. A ike aku
chief stewards, Kapinaonuianio la o Aikanaka, ua moku ka
and Nioiwawalu, to cook 51 a manea uuku o ko Kahakaloa
chicken for Kahakaloa. When wawae, ninau aku la ia: “I aha ia
Aikanaka saw that the small toe kou manea i moku ai?” I aku la o
of one of Kahakaloa’s feet was Kahakaloa: “Ae, moku no ia
cut off, he asked: “Why is your wahi, he kihikihi aia i waho.”
small toe cut?” Kahakaloa Ninau hou o Aikanaka: “Ko
replied: “Such a thing is bound to manamana lima iki hoi, i ahaia?”
be cut off sooner or later, for it “Ae, moku no ia wahi, he wahi
sticks out so.” Aikanaka again peleleu aia i waho.” “Ko
asked: “And your small finger, pepeiao?” “Ae, moku no he
what has become of it?” “Such a manamana aia i luna loa.”
thing too is bound to be cut off,
for it projects out so.” “And your
ear?” “That also is bound to be
cut off, for it curves out so at the
top.”

After the chicken was cooked, A moa ka moa, ai iho la o

Kahakaloa proceeded to have Kahakaloa a maona, pau ae la
his meal and he ate thereof until ka ai o ka umeke, papale iho la o
he was satisfied. After finishing Kahakaloa i ka umeke i ke poo,
the food in the calabash, he took a iho aku la. A hiki i lalo, ike mai
the empty calabash and placed it la o Kamalama, alaila, olelo aku
over his head and started on la ia ia Kawelo: “He kanaka
down the hill. When he reached ohule, e iho mai nei, hinuhinu
the bottom, Kamalama saw him launa ole ka lae.” I aku o Kawelo
and so he informed Kawelo of ia Kamalama: “Aole paha ia he
the fact saying: “Here comes a ohule, o Kahakaloa, hoi aku la ai
bald-headed man down the hill; a maona, pau ka ai o ka umeke,
his forehead is awfully shiny.” kau iho la i ka ipu i ke poo,
Kawelo then said to Kamalama: nolaila ka hinuhinu.”
“That is not a bald-headed man,
it is Kahakaloa. He went on back
to have something to eat, and,
after finishing the food that was
in the calabash, he has taken the
calabash and put it on his head.
That is the reason it is so shiny.”

Upon the arrival of Kahakaloa in A hiki o Kahakaloa i mua o

the presence of Kawelo, he Kawelo, nana aku la ia ia
discovered that Kawelo was Kawelo e noho mai ana i luna,
sitting up. Kaehuikiawakea then olelo mai la o Kaehuikiawakea,
said to Kahakaloa: “Kawelo has ia Kahakaloa: “Ola hou o
come to life again, therefore you Kawelo, nolaila, o oe ke make o
the soldier will be killed. I cannot ke koa, aole au e make ke
be killed, for I am a runner.” kukini.” Ku o Kawelo i luna, ku o
Kahakaloa i luna, alaila, kiko’u
When Kawelo saw Kahakaloa mai la o Kawelo i ka laau, a pa
approaching, he stood up and ma ka lae o Kahakaloa,
prepared for the conflict. nalowale iho la na maka o
Kahakaloa was also preparing Kahakaloa i ka umeke ana e
himself and stood on the papale ana i ke poo, alaila,
defensive. Kawelo then raised hahau hou o Kawelo i kana laau
his club and tapped the forehead palau, ia Kuikaa, a make loa iho
of Kahakaloa, and forcing the la o Kahakaloa. A make o
calabash down over his eyes; [53]Kahakaloa, hoi aku la o
before Kahakaloa could uncover Kaehuikiawakea i ka puu o
his eyes, Kawelo again raised Nounou, e hai ia Aikanaka i ka
his club Kuikaa and struck make o Kahakaloa. A hiki i luna,
Kahakaloa, killing him. [52] ninau mai la o Aikanaka: “Auhea
o Kahakaloa?” “Ua make.” Olelo
After the death of Kahakaloa, mai o Aikanaka: “Na wai no la ke
Kaehuikiawakea returned to the ola o ka mea i kau ke alina. I
top of the hill to report to waiho ia mai nei paha a ike au; o
Aikanaka the death of ka ke ’lii puaa ka hoi ua moku ka
Kahakaloa. Upon his arrival in pepeiao.”
the presence of Aikanaka,
Aikanaka asked him: “Where is
Kahakaloa?” “He is dead.”
Aikanaka then said: “How could
it be possible for a man that was
maimed 52 as he was to live? I
suppose he was allowed to
come back so that I could see for
myself that it was the king’s
pig, 53 for his ear was cut off.”

CHAPTER VI. MOKUNA VI.

Relating to Kauahoa. Hopohopo o Kawelo

—Kawelo Fears to no ka Paio ana Iaia.—
Attack Him.—Seeks to Imi i Wahi e Lilo mai ai
 Win Him by a Chant.— Oia ma ke Mele.—Pane
Kauahoa Replies. o Kauahoa.

Kauahoa was the most noted of O Kauahoa, oia ke koa kaulana

Aikanaka’s warriors in size and o Aikanaka i ka nui a me ke
stature, and it was this warrior kiekie, a oia hoi ke koa a
that caused the cold perspiration Kawelo, i li ai ka io i ke anuanu a
to ooze out of the body of me ka huihui o ka makau, a ua
Kawelo and for a moment fear apo ia mai o Kawelo e na
entered his breast, for Kauahoa kukuna weliweli o ko Kauahoa
was indeed good to look upon kulana ui, a me ke koa. A
and was a grand warrior to nolaila, ua kau ka weli.
behold.

When Aikanaka was telling of Ia Aikanaka e kamailio ana no

the death of Kahakaloa by Kahakaloa i ka make ia Kawelo,
Kawelo, Kauahoa heard it, and lohe aku la o Kauahoa. Iho aku
he took up his war club, called la ia me kana laau palau o
Kahehumakua, a first growth koa Kahehumakua ka inoa, he koa
tree from Kahihikolo, and makua ole no Kahihikolo. (Ua
proceeded on down the hill. (It is olelo ia i loko o keia moolelo he
said that this war club, laau nui loa o Kahehumakua, o
Kahehumakua, was a very large ke kumu no o ka lau, o na lala, i
one, for it was nothing else but a na e lawe o Kauahoa, kau no ka
tree with its branches and leaves manu i luna a kani no.) A ike o
still on; and when carried by Kawelo ia Kauahoa e iho mai
Kauahoa, the birds would perch ana mai ka puu mai o Nounou,
and sing in it.) nui launa ole, malu ka la ia
Kauahoa, no ke kiekie a me ka
When Kawelo saw Kauahoa nui launa ole. A hiki o Kauahoa i
coming down the hill and saw mua o Kawelo, ala mai la o
how large he was, casting a Kawelo a hopu aku la i kana
large shadow because of his laau o Kuikaa, a me ka wahine,
great height, he began to have o Kanewahineikiaoha, ma ka
some fear of his chances. When akau, a o ke kaikaina ma ka
Kauahoa arrived in the presence hema, o na keiki mahope.
of Kawelo, Kawelo picked up his
club and took his stand by the Ma keia ku ana a Kawelo me
side of Kanewahineikiaoha, his kana laau o Kuikaa, nona ka loa
wife, to the right of Kauahoa; his he umi anana, ua like kona loihi
brother stood to the left of mai ka manea wawae ae o
Kauahoa, and his adopted sons Kauahoa a ka piko i waena, koe
stood behind. As Kawelo stood ae o luna, me he mea la, he
up with his war club, which was iwakalua anana ke kiekie o
ten fathoms in length, the club Kauahoa. Ma keia ku ana, ua
with one end on the ground only hoopuni ia o Kawelo e ka
could reach to the middle of weliweli o ka makau ia Kauahoa.
Kauahoa, showing that Kauahoa No ka mea, elua wale no ano
was about twenty fathoms in laau i loaa ia Kawelo, malalo ae,
height. 54 In standing thus, a maluna iho, aole i loaa ia
Kawelo was almost overcome Kawelo ka laau hikau pea.
with fear of Kauahoa, for Kawelo Nolaila, noonoo iho la o Kawelo i
was only educated in two ways ke kaua e make ai o Kauahoa ia
of fighting with the war club; the ia, aole nae he loaa, a hopo iho
stroke from the ground upwards la ia. Ma keia ku ana a Kawelo,
and the one from above ua loihi loa ke ku ana e noonoo,
downwards. He was not taught a loaa iho la kona noonoo, e
in the side strokes. Therefore, kaua no a make mamuli o ke
Kawelo began to study how to kaua.
overcome his opponent, but for a
time he was undecided what to
do, which made him very
uncertain of the outcome. This
studying took him some time and
gradually his fears began to
vanish, as he decided to fight
until death ended the battle.

After the fear had disappeared, Hu ae la ke aloha o Kawelo ia

he began to take pity on his Kauahoa, i ko laua wa e noho
opponent; he remembered of liilii ana me ko laua kaikuaana
their childhood days and of their haku me Aikanaka. Nolaila, paha
lord and king Aikanaka, so he aku la ia me ka hoalohaloha aku
chanted a mele of love, hoping in no nae i ua hoahanau nei, aia
this way to put the matter of their hoi i kona manao ke kaua a me
fighting or not up to Kauahoa. ka ole; penei ka paha ana: [55]
Following is the chant: [54]

Swollen and enlarged is the Pehu kaha ka limu o Hanalei,

moss of Hanalei, Pehu ka limu i ka maka o ka
Swollen is the moss in the eyes opua,
of the pointed clouds. Hai hewa ka lima i ke kaua
The hand is uselessly broken in kamalii,
a mock fight between children, E’i aku ke kaua i ka hope,
For the main fight is yet to come, Me he ku la na ke kai hohonu,
Like the letting down of nets in a Me ka hiwahiwa a Kauakahi,
deep sea, He opuu oe, he kakala kela,
When the pride of Hanalei 55 is Na ka ole ka hue a ke kai e,
met. Ea Kauahoa ka ui o Hanalei,
Thou art but a mere bud, he is a Ala o Kamalama ka ui o Kualoa,
full grown cock, Ala o Kawelo ka ui o Waikiki,
For the sea is ceaseless in its Ala o Kaelehapuna ka ui o Ewa,
beating. Ala o Kalaumeki ka ui o
Kauahoa, the pride of Hanalei, is Waianae,
here; Huhue aku kaua moe i ke
Kamalama, the pride of Kualoa, awakea,
is risen; Kapae ke kaua e ka hoahanau
E waiho ia’u i kou hoahanau
Kawelo, the pride of Waikiki, is Aole hoi na la o kuu hoike,
risen; Kuu hoa hele o ka wa kamalii,
Kaelehapuna, the pride of Ewa, Hoa kui lehua o Waikaee,
is risen; A kaua e kui kane ai,
Kalaumeki, the pride of Waianae, I lei no ke kaikuaana haku o
is risen. 56 kaua,
Let us then cease fighting and E Kanewahineikiaoha,
rest in the noon of the day. Ko pikoi hoolei ia i luna.
Put away the fighting, my I helua, i hele lua,
brother, I kaupoku o Hanalei.
And leave me, your own kindred, E ala e Hanalei.
For these are not the days for
me to make myself known. 57
My companion in childhood’s
wanderings,
My companion in stringing the
lehua blossoms of Waikaee,
Where you and I as boys did
string them,
A wreath for our older brother
and lord. 58
Say, Kanewahineikiaoha, 59
Throw up your pikoi 60
To the top, to the very top,
To the ridgepole of Hanalei.
Arise thou, Hanalei.

As soon as Kanewahineikiaoha A lohe o Kanewahineikiaoha i

heard the order of Kawelo in his keia paha o Kawelo, o kona
chant, to throw up the pikoi, she manawa ia i hoolei ai i ka pikoi i
immediately threw it up, and luna, a lohe ae la o Kawelo i ka
Kawelo heard the noise of the nakeke ana o luna, nana ae la ia
ball as it entangled in the top of
the club. Kawelo then looked up, e lele ana ka pikoi, alaila, paha
and, when he saw that the pikoi hou ae la o Kawelo, penei:
was tangled, he continued
chanting:

Hanalei, the cold land, the wet Hanalei aina anuanu, aina
land, koekoe,
The land where the end is. Aina a ka pea i noho ai,
For Kauahoa, the stalwart youth Ea Kauahoa ka ui o Hanalei.
of Hanalei, is here.

Kauahoa replied: “This club will Olelo mai la o Kauahoa: “Aole e

never spare you in the day of kapae nei laau ia oe, i ka la o ke
battle. You have slain our men kaua; ua noke ia mai nei ka hoi
so that there are none left; how makou e oe a pau loa i ka make,
can you then expect this club to a pehea e kapae ai keia laau ia
spare you? As it has been your oe? Nau no hoi paha, he mai no
deal, you can see the result; and hoi kau e nana iho; a na’u aku
when it will be my deal, I will see no hoi, he mai no hoi ka’u e
the result.” nana iho.”

In this reply by Kauahoa, Kawelo Ma keia olelo a Kauahoa, ua

was filled with a great fear, but hoopuni ia o Kawelo i ka makau
when his mind went back to their a me ka weliweli no Kauahoa,
childhood days and remembered aka, hoomanao no nae o Kawelo
how his kite got tangled up with i ko laua wa kamalii, i ko laua wa
Kauahoa’s kite and how e hoolele lupe ana me Kauahoa.
Kauahoa’s kite broke away, and Moku ae la ka Kauahoa lupe ia
how Kauahoa was [56]afraid to Kawelo, aole nae he [57]huhu
fight him, he made up his mind aku o Kauahoa ia Kawelo;
that he would again be the nolaila, manao no ia e make ana
master this day; 61 so he again no ia ia. Nolaila, paha hou aku la
chanted to Kauahoa as follows: o Kawelo ia Kauahoa, penei:
Hanalei, the land of rain, O Hanalei aina ua,
The cold land, the wet land, Aina anuanu, aina koekoe,
The land where the end is. Aina a ka pea i noho ai,
Sitting there, delaying there, Noho ana e liu ana e,
For the anger of Honokoa is Maewa ana ka ukiukiu o
reviling. Honokoa,
At the cliff of Kalehuawehe I ka pali o Kalehuawehe;
Where the lama and wiliwili 62 Pua ka lama me ka wiliwili,
bloom, O ka ua lele ma waho o
Where the rain sweeps on the Mamalahoa,
outside of Mamalahoa. O Kauahoa o ka meeui o
Kauahoa, the stalwart youth of Hanalei,
Hanalei, O ke kanaka a Kamalama i hopo
The person of whom Kamalama ai o Kauahoa,
is afraid, Kauahoa, He mea e ka nui—e—a!
For he is indeed large. Eia ka hoi ua kanaka nui
He is the largest man O Kauai, o Kauahoa.
Of Kauai, Kauahoa.

CHAPTER VII. MOKUNA VII.

The Size of Kauahoa.— Ka Nui o Kauahoa.—

Is Killed by Kawelo in Pepehi ia e Kawelo me
a Club Encounter.— ka Newa.—Hee o
Kawelo Vanquishes Aikanaka ia Kawelo.
Aikanaka.
We will here give a description of Maanei e maopopo ai ia kakou
Kauahoa, his height and width. ka nui o Kauahoa, kona kiekie a
His height was eight times five me kona laula. Ewalu kahaku.
yards, or forty yards, or one Ewalu ka mana kahawai, ewalu
hundred and twenty feet. He was ka poe kaua. Eia ke ano o keia
also compared to the size of mau helu. Ewalu kahaku, ua like
eight streams, and his strength ia me na anana he iwakalua, oia
was equal to that number of na kapuai he hanele me
streams or to eight companies of iwakalua.
forty men each, or to three
hundred and twenty men. Pela na mana kahawai ewalu.
Ua like ka nui o Kauahoa me
After Kawelo had chanted to kekahi kahawai nui, ewalu ona
Kauahoa, he looked toward his mau manamana ma o a maanei,
wife Kanewahineikiaoha and pela hoi na poe kaua ewalu. Ua
chanted as follows: like ko Kauahoa ikaika a me
kona nui, me ka nui o na kanaka
i loko o na poe ewalu. Ina he
kanaha ka nui o na kanaka o ia
poe, pela a pau na poe ewalu, o
ia ko Kauahoa mea e like pu ai.
Ua like ia me na kanaka ekolu
hanele me iwakalua ke hoonui
ia. Ia Kawelo e paha ana imua o
Kauahoa, nana ae la ia i kana
wahine o Kanewahineikiaoha, a
paha ae la, penei:

Say, Kanewahineikiaoha, E Kanewahineikiaoha e;

Your pikoi, throw it up, Ko pikoi hoolei ia i luna,
At Helelua, at Helelua I helelua, i helelua,
At the ridge-pole of Hanalei. I kaupoku o Hanalei la.
Arise thou, Hanalei, E ala e Hanalei e,
Until Kauahoa thou hast killed, A make o Kauahoa ia oe,
When Hanalei thou shalt Ai ae ia Hanalei,
possess, Aahu ae i ka pawehe o Niihau,
And the mats of Niihau thou Ai la oe i ka manu o Kaula.
shalt wear,
And the birds of Kaula thou shalt
eat.

At the close of this chant, A pau ka paha ana a Kawelo,

Kawelo said to his younger olelo aku la ia i ke kaikaina ia
brother, Kamalama, and to his Kamalama, me na keiki
adopted sons Kaeleha and hookama o Kaeleha laua o
Kalaumeki: “Where you see the Kalaumeki: “E, ina oukou i ike i
sun shine, there you must stand, kahi e poha ai [59]ka la, ma laila
so that when Kauahoa strikes his no oukou e ku ai, i hahau iho no
club, you will not be under it, and o Kauahoa i ka laau ana, aole
[58]in that way escape death.” As oukou e loaa, puka no oukou ma
soon as this instruction was laila, a pakele no.”
given, as Kauahoa was raising
his club, Kawelo jumped back Mahope o keia olelo a Kawelo ia
out of its reach and stood behind lakou, ia wa i hoomoe ai o
Kauahoa, so that the club Kauahoa i ka laau ana, lele aku
dropped in front of Kauahoa. la o Kawelo ma waho o ka hua o
Kauahoa then reached down to ka laau a Kauahoa, a ku iho la,
pick up the club, and, while in a mahope mai o Kauahoa. Ia wa,
stooping position, Kawelo raised kulou iho la o Kauahoa i lalo, a
his club and struck Kauahoa a hoala mai la i ka laau ana. Ia
blow, cutting him in two and Kauahoa i hoala ai i ka laau ana,
killing him. As the body was ia wa o Kawelo i hahau ai i kana
almost severed, Kawelo’s club, laau palau Kuikaa ia Kauahoa, a
Kuikaa, was reluctant [to finish] nahae iho la o Kauahoa mai luna
on account of the bad odor of a lalo, a kokoke e lele loa,
Kauahoa’s body. Thus was makau e iho la ka laau a
Kauahoa killed, the last of Kawelo, i ka maea o ka honowa
Aikanaka’s great warriors. o Kauahoa. A make iho la o
Kauahoa, o ka pau no ia o na
koa o Aikanaka i ka make.

At sundown that day, Kawelo A po ua la nei, olelo aku o

said to Kamalama and to the rest Kawelo ia Kamalama ma: “Ke pii
of his men: “My wife and I are nei maua i luna o ka puu o
going to climb the Nounou hill. Nounou; ina oukou i nana ae a a
When you see a fire burning on ke ahi i keia po i luna o ka puu,
the hill this night, Kauai is ours.” ua puni o Kauai nei ia kakou.” Pii
Kawelo and his wife then aku la o Kawelo me kana wahine
climbed the hill until they came i luna o ka puu o Nounou. A hiki
to the ladder, where Kawelo laua i ka hulili, alaila, paha aku la
chanted as follows: o Kawelo, penei:

Say, Aikanaka, chief of this E Aikanaka, alii o luna nei,

height, E noho ana i ka puu o Nounou;
Who lives on the hill of Nounou, E hele mai oe e ike kaua,
Come and let us make friends, A ai no kaua ia Kauai,
When we will together take A e moe i ka moena.
possession of Kauai, 63
And sleep on the mats.

When Aikanaka heard the chant, A lohe o Aikanaka i keia paha a

he said: “That is Kawelo.” The Kawelo, olelo aku la ia: “O
rest of the people denied this, Kawelo keia.” Hoole kekahi poe:
saying: “He cannot come as he “Aole ia e hiki mai, ua luhi i ke
must be weary from the fight of kaua i ke ao, nolaila, ua hiamoe
this day; therefore he must be aku la kona po.” I aku o
sleeping.” Aikanaka said: “That Aikanaka: “O Kawelo no keia leo
is Kawelo’s voice that I hear e paha mai nei.” Ia lakou e
chanting.” While they were
disputing over this, Kawelo again hoopaapaa ana, paha hou mai la
chanted as follows: o Kawelo, penei:

Are you the only people? O oukou wale no e—a.

Are there none others there Aohe mea e ae o luna e?
above?

When Aikanaka heard this, he A lohe o Aikanaka, hai aku la ia:

replied: “There are some people “He mau kanaka no ko ka puu
yet left on the hill, their names nei i koe. Eia na inoa o ia poe:
are:

Kaehuikiawakea, Wakea 1, O Kaehuikiawakea, o Wakea 1,

Wakea 2, o Wakea 2,
Kamakaokahoku, Paoa 1, Paoa O Kamakaokahoku, o Paoa 1, o
2, Paoa 2,
Hilinuiwawaeahu, Ahua 1, Ahua O Hilinuiwawaeahu, o Ahua 1, o
2, Ahua 2,
Kapinaonuianio, Koinanaulu 1, O Kapinaonuianio, o Koinanaulu
Koinanaulu 2. 1, o Koinanaulu 2.

“These are all the men that are Olelo hou mai o Aikanaka: “O na
left on the hill,” continued kanaka iho la no ia o ka puu i
Aikanaka. “Not very many. All the koe, aohe mahuahua, ua pau loa
men are dead.” After Aikanaka na kanaka i ka make.” A pau ka
had told Kawelo of this, he then hai ana aku a Aikanaka ia
addressed his priests, fortune- Kawelo, olelo aku la ia i kana
tellers and astrologers: “I must mau kahuna, a me na kilo, ke
go down and meet Kawelo.” 64 kuhikuhipuuone: “E iho au e ike
Said Aikanaka to the priests: “I me Kawelo.” Wahi a Aikanaka i
thought this land that Kawelo is na kahuna: “Kai no paha no
battling for belonged to him, but Kawelo nei aina e kaua mai nei,
[I see] it is not. It is my own; I am aole ka! No’u no. Owau no
above, he is underneath.” The maluna, oia no malalo.” I mai na
priests then said to Aikanaka: kahuna ia Aikanaka: “Pehea oe
“How can you go and meet e hele aku ai e ike, he ’lii oe, he
Kawelo, for you are a king and kauwa ia, he helu elelu kona
he is a servant. His grandfather kupuna, no ka uka ae nei o
was nothing but a counter of Kulahuhu la, o Nahanaimoa ka
cockroaches who lived in the inoa.”
uplands of Kulahuhu,
Nahanaimoa by name.”

When Kawelo heard the remarks A lohe o Kawelo i keia olelo a na

made by the priests, he rolled kahuna, kaa aku la ia i ka pali, a
down the cliff. 65 When ike o Kanewahineikiaoha i ke
Kanewahineikiaoha saw Kawelo kaa ana o Kawelo i ka pali,
roll down the cliff, she threw out hoolei aku la ia i kana pikoi, a
her pikoi [60]which Kawelo paa [61]mai la o Kawelo. I aku o
caught hold of. His wife asked Kanewahineikiaoha: “Heaha iho
him: “What is the matter with nei keia ou e Kawelo?” I mai o
you, Kawelo?” Kawelo replied: “I Kawelo: “I hilahila au ia oe, i kuu
was ashamed for you, 66 because olelo ia mai nei i ke kauwa.” I
they said I was a born servant.” aku o Kanewahineikiaoha:
Kanewahineikiaoha then said: “Kupanaha oe! Kai no e noonoo
“How strange of you! You must mua oe a maopopo he kauwa io;
first consider whether you are a e ole au e ike aku nei ia oe, ina
born servant. Had I not seen ua make oe.” Alaila, noonoo iho
you, you would have been la o Kawelo a paha aku la,
killed.” Kawelo then thought for a penei:
while, and chanted as follows:

The chicken is the king, He ’lii ka moa,

The chicken roosts on the Kau ana ka moa i luna o ka hale,
house, A hiia ko poo e Aikanaka
O ka moa kou mea e ala ai,
And sits over your head, He ’lii ka moa e, he ’lii.
Aikanaka.
The chicken wakes you up in the
morning.
The chicken is a king, it is a king.

At the end of this chant, Ma keia paha ana a Kawelo,

Aikanaka said to his priests: olelo aku o Aikanaka, i na
“Kawelo says that a chicken is a kahuna: “Ke olelo mai nei o
king.” The priests said to Kawelo, he ’lii ka moa.”
Aikanaka: “You tell Kawelo that
chickens are servants.” When I mai na kahuna ia Aikanaka: “E
Kawelo heard these remarks olelo aku oe ia Kawelo he kauwa
repeated by Aikanaka, he again ka moa.” A lohe o Kawelo i keia
chanted as follows: olelo a Aikanaka, paha aku la ia
penei:

The feathers of the chickens are Haku ia nae hoi ka hulu o ka

plaited moa,
Into kahili, that stand in the I kahili i mua o na ’lii,
presence of kings. Kahili ia nae hoi ko kua e
Your back, Aikanaka, is brushed Aikanaka;
by the kahili. Nolaila, he ’lii ka moa.
Therefore chickens are kings, He lii ka moa e Aikanaka,
Chickens are kings, Aikanaka, Aohe kauwa e.
And not servants.

At the close of this chant, Mahope o keia paha ana a

Kawelo heard no more replies Kawelo, aohe walaau hou mai o
from the top of the hill. 67 This luna o ka puu o Nounou, no ka
was because they were afraid of mea, ua makau lakou ia Kawelo,
Kawelo, and they had secretly a ua hele malu mai ka puu aku o
left the hill and had proceeded to Nounou, a uka o Hanapepe ma
the uplands of Hanapepe, at Koula, a malaila o Aikanaka i
Koula, where Aikanaka took up noho ai.
his residence.

When Kawelo and his wife A hiki o Kawelo i luna pono o ka

arrived on the top of the hill, they puu o Nounou, me kana wahine
saw no one, not even Aikanaka me Kanewahineikiaoha, aohe io
the king. Kawelo then lighted a no he kanaka, aole hoi ke ’lii o
fire 68 which was seen by Aikanaka. Ia wa pupuhi laua i ke
Kamalama and the adopted ahi, a ike mai la o Kamalama,
sons, Kaeleha and Kalaumeki. me na keiki, oia o Kaeleha me
Kalaumeki.

CHAPTER VIII. MOKUNA VIII.

The Division of the Ka Mahele ana o na

Lands of Kauai.— Aina o Kauai.—Lilo o
Aikanaka Becomes a Aikanaka i Mea Mahiai.
Tiller of Ground.

After the conquest of Kauai by A lilo o Kauai ia Kawelo a puni,

Kawelo, he proceeded to divide alaila, mahele maikai aku la ia i
the lands equally between his ka aina i kona mau kokua a
followers and companions in hoalawehana ma ke kaua ana;
arms. 69 He did not act greedily aole oia i alunu a makee i ka
and take all the best lands and aina a me ka waiwai. Penei ka
the riches that came with the mahele ana o Kawelo ia Kauai,
conquest. The following division no Kamalama, Kaeleha [63]a me
of Kauai was made by Kawelo, Kalaumeki: O Koolau no
to Kamalama, Kaeleha and Kalaumeki; o Puna no Kaeleha;
Kalaumeki; Koolau to Kalaumeki; o Kona no Kamalama; o Kauai a
Puna to Kaeleha; Kona to puni no Kawelo.
Kamalama; the whole of Kauai to
Kawelo. [62]

After the conquest of Kauai, Ma keia puni ana o Kauai ia

Kawelo and his wife Kawelo, noho iho la ia ma
Kanewahineikiaoha took up their Hanamaulu, me kana wahine o
residence in Hanamaulu. 70 Kanewahineikiaoha. O Aikanaka
Aikanaka on the other hand lived hoi, noho iho la ia ma Hanapepe
in the uplands of Hanapepe 71 me ka ilihune, aohe aina, aohe
and in great poverty. He had no hanohano, aohe ai, aohe ia,
lands, no honors, no food, no aohe kapa, aohe hale. Hookahi
meat, no kapas and no home. All a Aikanaka hana, o ka mahiai i
that Aikanaka did was to till the ai na lakou.
ground to raise food for their
future use.

While Aikanaka was living there, Ia Aikanaka e noho ana i laila,

Kaeleha started out one day hele aku la o Kaeleha mai
from Kapaa, on the east side of Kapaa aku, ma ka aoao hikina o
Kauai and traveled westward to Kauai, a hiki ma ke komohana o
Hanapepe where Aikanaka was Kauai ma Hanapepe, kahi o
living. It was at Wahiawa that Aikanaka e noho ana. Ma kahi a
Kaeleha first met Aikanaka, at Kaeleha i hiki mua ai, ma
the home of Ahulua. Aikanaka Wahiawa, i kahi o Ahulua e noho
had come down from Koula to ana, i laila laua i hui ai me
Wahiawa to fish and to take a Aikanaka; ua hele mai ia mai
swim in the sea. When Aikanaka Koula mai a laila, i ka lawaia a
saw Kaeleha, he called him in me ka auau kai. Ike mai la o
and set food and meat before Aikanaka ia Kaeleha, hookipa
him and Kawelowai, his mai la ia i kahi ai a me kahi ia, a
daughter. 72 After partaking of me kana kaikamahine o
Aikanaka’s hospitality, Kaeleha Kawelowai. Ma keia mau mea a
was ashamed, because he had Aikanaka i haawi mai ai ia
nothing to repay Aikanaka for his Kaeleha, ua kuia kona manao,
kindness. When Kaeleha left no ka hilahila i kana uku ole e
Aikanaka and continued on his uku ai ia Aikanaka.
journey, this thing dwelt on his
mind for several days.

After reaching Mana and he had Nolaila, hele makaikai aku la o

decorated himself with the Kaeleha a hiki i Mana, a lei i ka
pahapaha 73 wreath of Polihale, 74 pahapaha o Polihale, hoi mai la
he retraced his steps and again a hiki i Wahiawa. Ma keia hoi
lingered at Wahiawa. On this ana o Kaeleha, aole i kipa i ko
return, he did not call in to see Kamalama wahi, no ka mea, ua
Kamalama, for the reason that komo kona makemake i ke
he was anxious to get back and kaikamahine a Aikanaka, oia o
to again look upon Kawelowai. Kawelowai. Hoi aku la o Kaeleha
So in returning, he and Aikanaka me Aikanaka i uka o Koula, ma
went up to Koula in the uplands uka o Hanapepe. Ma keia noho
of Hanapepe, where Aikanaka ana, ua loihi ko lakou manawa i
made his residence. In this noho ai. Nolaila, ua hilahila o
return to Koula, Kaeleha made a Kaeleha i kona makuahunowai
long visit and was therefore, to ia Aikanaka.
his idea, greatly indebted to his
father-in-law, Aikanaka.
 CHAPTER IX. MOKUNA IX.

Kaeleha and Aikanaka Ke Kipi ana o Kaeleha,

Rebel Against Kawelo. a me Aikanaka ia
—Their Battle and Kawelo.—Ko Lakou
Supposed Death of Kaua ana a me ka
Kawelo. Manaoia ana ua Make o
Kawelo.

When Kaeleha saw how Ike aku la o Kaeleha i ka

Aikanaka his father-in-law toiled hooikaika o kona
by day and by night, he took pity makuahunowai, o Aikanaka, i ka
on him and asked Aikanaka: po a me ke ao, hu ae la kona
“Are there many people who still aloha. Ninau aku la o Kaeleha ia
think of you as king 75 and who Aikanaka: “He nui no ka poe
would help you in case you mahope ou, e kokua ana ia oe?”
started an uprising?” 76 Aikanaka I mai la o Aikanaka: “He nui no.”
replied: “Yes, many.” 77 When A lohe o Kaeleha, olelo aku la ia
Kaeleha heard this, he said: “I ia Aikanaka: “Eia ko Kawelo
will tell you how you can beat kaua e make ai ia oe. Ke kaua, o
Kawelo and how to fight him that ke kaua pohaku, no ka mea,
you might win. If you fight him aole i ao ia o Kawelo i ka alo.” A
with stones, you will beat him, for lohe o Aikanaka i keia olelo a
Kawelo was never taught the art Kaeleha, lana hou kona manao
of avoiding stones thrown at e kaua hou me Kawelo. Alaila,
him.” When Aikanaka heard this, olelo iho o Aikanaka i kana olelo
he again entertained the idea of kaena, penei: “Ola na iwi i ka
taking up another fight against hunona.” [65]
Kawelo. He then made the
boasting remark: “My bones are
saved by my son-in-law.” [64]
The cause of the uprising then O ke kumu o keia kipi ana, o ka
was because Kaeleha was hilahila o Kaeleha i kona
ashamed on account of his makuahunowai i kana waiwai ole
father-in-law for not having e uku aku ai. Maanei e ike kakou
anything with which to repay his i ke aloha ole o Kaeleha ia
great kindness. In this we can Kawelo, a me kona hilahila ole,
see how ungratefully Kaeleha aloha ole i kona mea nana i
acted toward Kawelo, and how malama kupono a lilo ai i alii
he lacked all sense of honor and aimoku no Kauai.
good feeling toward the one who
had brought him up to his
present high station and esteem,
a chief of one of the districts of
Kauai.

After the above conversation had Ma keia mau olelo a Kaeleha me

taken place between Kaeleha Aikanaka, ua kui aku la ia olelo a
and Aikanaka, rumors of an lohe o Kawelo ma Hanamaulu,
uprising were carried to Kawelo ma ka hikina o Kauai. Hoouna
at Hanamaulu, on the east of aku la o Kawelo i ka elele, e hele
Kauai. Kawelo thereupon sent a a loaa o Kamalama ma Kona, e
messenger to Kamalama in hele mai e nana, e hoolohe, i ka
Kona with instructions to go and oiaio a me ka ole o keia lohe. A
see, 78 and to find out for himself hiki ka elele i mua o Kamalama,
as to the truth of these rumors hai aku la i na olelo a kona
that had come to him. As soon kaikuaana, a Kawelo; a lohe o
as the messenger arrived in the Kamalama, hele mai la ia a hiki i
presence of Kamalama, the Waimea, a Hanapepe, Wahiawa.
message of his brother, Kawelo, Nana aku la o Kamalama i ke
was repeated to him. When kula o Kalae, ua lehulehu loa na
Kamalama heard the kanaka e hoiliili pohaku ana; o
instructions, he proceeded to na kane, o na wahine, o na keiki.