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Evaluation Technologies for Food
Quality
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science,
Technology and Nutrition
Evaluation Technologies
for Food Quality
Edited by
Jian Zhong
Xichang Wang
An imprint of Elsevier
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Contributors
Ali Aghakhani Department of Food Science, Engineering and Technology,

College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
D.A. Auñon-Calles Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM

Universidad Católica de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
M. Ayala-Hernández Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM

Cristiano Augusto Ballus Department of Food Science and Technology,

Federal University of Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Aastha Bhardwaj Department of Food Technology, Jamia Hamdard

(Hamdard University), New Delhi, India
Xiaojun Bian College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University,
Shanghai, China
Min-Jie Cao College of Food and Biological Engineering, Jimei University; Key
Laboratory of Marine Functional Food in Xiamen; Marine Functional Food
Engineering Technology Center of Fujian Province; National & Local Joint
Engineering Research Center for Deep Processing of Aquatic Products, Xiamen,
People’s Republic of China
S. Chandra Agri-Chemistry Group, School of Medical and Applied Sciences,

Central Queensland University (CQU), North Rockhampton, QLD, Australia
J. Chapman School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Xu Chen College of Biological Science and Technology, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou,

Bowen Chen Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic
Products on Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, College of Food
Science & Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
xvi Contributors
Shunsheng Chen Laboratory of Aquatic Products Quality & Safety Risk

Assessment (Shanghai) at China Ministry of Agriculture; College of Food Science and
Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
Raffaella Colombo University of Pavia, Department of Drug Sciences, Pavia, Italy
D. Cozzolino School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Mengzhen Ding Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic
Products on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture,
Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Aquatic-Product Processing &
Preservation, College of Food Science & Technology, Shanghai Ocean University,
Shanghai, China
R. Domı́nguez-Perles Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM

Tao Feng School of Perfume and Aroma Technology, Shanghai Institute of

Technology, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
M.I. Fortea Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM Universidad

Católica de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
J.A. Gabaldón Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM Universidad

Laleh Saleh Ghadimi Research Laboratory of Polymer, Department of Organic and

Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
A. Gil-Izquierdo Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM Universidad

T. Gomez-Morte Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM Universidad

Abdollah Hajalilou Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Materials

Engineering, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
Huan Han CAS.SIBS-ZJGSU Joint Center for Food and Nutrition Research,
School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University,
Hangzhou, China
Lili He Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA,

United States
Contributors xvii
Qingyan He College of Biological Science and Technology, Fuzhou University,

Fuzhou, People’s Republic of China
Bin Hong Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on
Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, College of Food Science &
Madhura Janve Department of Food Engineering & Technology, Institute of

Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India
Lakshmi E. Jayachandran Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian

Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
Yang Jiao Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
Lijing Ke CAS.SIBS-ZJGSU Joint Center for Food and Nutrition Research, School
of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou,
China
Igor Khmelinskii Universidade do Algarve, FCT, DQB and CEOT, Faro, Portugal
Anjineyulu Kothakota Agro-Processing and Technology Division, CSIR-National

Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram,
India
Lanying Li Laboratory of Biometrology, Shanghai Institute of Measurement and

Testing Technology, Shanghai, China
Duanquan Lin Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Ireland
Yuan Liu Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and
Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
Yi-Xiang Liu College of Food and Biological Engineering, Jimei University; Key
Guang-Ming Liu College of Food and Biological Engineering, Jimei University; Key
xviii Contributors
Gang Liu Laboratory of Biometrology, Shanghai Institute of Measurement and

Song Miao Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Ireland
Annu Mishra MD University, Rohtak, India; Amity Institute of Nanotechnology,

Amity University, Noida, India
M.N. Mohd Fairulnizal Cardiovascular, Diabetes and Nutrition Research Centre,

Institute for Medical Research, Jalan Pahang, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
M.N. Mohd Naeem Cardiovascular, Diabetes and Nutrition Research Centre,

Institute for Medical Research, Jalan Pahang, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Jagriti Narang MD University, Rohtak, India; Amity Institute of Nanotechnology,

Debasis Nayak Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Indian

Daniela Andrade Neves School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas,

Sao Paulo, Brazil
Qixing Nie State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang
University, Nanchang, People’s Republic of China
Shaoping Nie State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang
University, Nanchang, People’s Republic of China
E. Núñez-Delicado Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM

Wellington da Silva Oliveira School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas,

Sao Paulo, Brazil
Adele Papetti University of Pavia, Department of Drug Sciences, Pavia, Italy
A.C. Power Agri-Chemistry Group, School of Medical and Applied Sciences,

Central Queensland University (CQU), North Rockhampton, QLD, Australia
Soumya Ranjan Purohit Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian

Anu S. Raj Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of

Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
Contributors xix
Pingfan Rao CAS.SIBS-ZJGSU Joint Center for Food and Nutrition Research,
Hangzhou, China
P. Srinivasa Rao Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute

of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
D.N. Rathi Cardiovascular, Diabetes and Nutrition Research Centre, Institute for
Medical Research, Jalan Pahang, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Karamatollah Rezaei Department of Food Science, Engineering and Technology,

College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
Faisal Shah Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of

Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
Vasudha Sharma Department of Food Technology, Jamia Hamdard (Hamdard

University), New Delhi, India
Aimin Shi Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of

Cuiping Shi Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on
Storage and Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Engineering
Research Center of Aquatic-Product Processing & Preservation, College of Food
Ewa Sikorska Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics and

Business, Pozna
n, Poland
Marek Sikorski Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
Kaliramesh Siliveru Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State

University, Manhattan, KS, United States
Shiqing Song School of Perfume and Aroma Technology, Shanghai Institute of

Min Sun School of Perfume and Aroma Technology, Shanghai Institute of

Rohit Thirumdas Department of Food Process Technology, College of Food Science

& Technology, PJTSAU, Telangana, India
xx Contributors
Yongqi Tian College of Biological Science and Technology, Fuzhou University,

Fuzhou, People’s Republic of China
B. Vimala Cardiovascular, Diabetes and Nutrition Research Centre, Institute for

Medical Research, Jalan Pahang, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Xichang Wang Integrated Scientific Research Base on Comprehensive Utilization

Technology for By-Products of Aquatic Product Processing, Ministry of Agriculture
and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Laboratory of Quality & Safety
Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai),
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Shanghai
Engineering Research Center of Aquatic-Product Processing and Preservation,
College of Food Science & Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
Wenli Wang College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean

University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
Shaoyun Wang College of Biological Science and Technology, Fuzhou

University, Fuzhou, People’s Republic of China
Qiang Wang Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of

Siqi Wang Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic
Products on Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, College of Food
Yanli Wen Laboratory of Biometrology, Shanghai Institute of Measurement and

Qiyue Wu College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University,

Shanghai, China
Changhua Xu College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University,

Shanghai, China
Yang Xu CAS.SIBS-ZJGSU Joint Center for Food and Nutrition Research,

Hangzhou, China
Neelam Yadav MD University, Rohtak, India; Amity Institute of Nanotechnology,

Contributors xxi
Juan Yan College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University,
Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on
Storage and Preservation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the
People’s Republic of China, Shanghai, China
M.J Yánez-Gascón Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM

Tianxi Yang Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts,

Amherst, MA, United States
Lingyun Yao School of Perfume and Aroma Technology, Shanghai Institute of

Zhaoshuo Yu CAS.SIBS-ZJGSU Joint Center for Food and Nutrition Research,

Hangzhou, China
Xinzhong Zhang Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural

Sciences, Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China
Hongcai Zhang Laboratory of Aquatic Products Quality & Safety Risk

Assessment (Shanghai) at China Ministry of Agriculture; College of Food Science and
Bin Zhao Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA,

United States
Yong Zhao Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on
Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, College of Food Science &
Jian Zhong Integrated Scientific Research Base on Comprehensive Utilization

Technology for By-Products of Aquatic Product Processing, Ministry of Agriculture
and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Laboratory of Quality & Safety
Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai),
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Shanghai
Engineering Research Center of Aquatic-Product Processing and Preservation,
College of Food Science & Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
Yaoguang Zhong National R&D Branch Center for Freshwater Aquatic Products
Processing Technology (Shanghai), Integrated Scientific Research Base on
Comprehensive Utilization Technology for By-Products of Aquatic Product
xxii Contributors
Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of

China, College of Food Science & Technology, Shanghai Ocean University,
Shanghai, China
Haining Zhuang Key Laboratory of Edible Fungi Resources and Utilization (South),
Ministry of Agriculture, Division of Edible Fungi Fermentation and Processing,
National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Institute of Edible Fungi,
Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
An introduction to evaluation
technologies for food quality 1
Jian Zhong, Xichang Wang
Integrated Scientific Research Base on Comprehensive Utilization Technology for
By-Products of Aquatic Product Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the
People’s Republic of China, Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic
Products on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs
of the People’s Republic of China, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Aquatic-
Product Processing and Preservation, College of Food Science & Technology, Shanghai
Ocean University, Shanghai, China
The era of food quality has come, and the price and brands of food depend on their
quality. In utilitarian terms, food quality can be defined as “fitness for consumption”
[1]. That is to say, food quality is the characteristics of food that are acceptable to
consumers. It is an important feature of food and decides food nutrition and food
safety. It includes external factors such as appearance (size, shape, color, gloss,
and consistency), texture, and flavor (taste and odor), and internal factors such as
chemical composition, physical characteristics, and microorganisms. Among these
factors, certain features such as appearance are observed or felt, and certain features
such as chemical components need to be analyzed with the aid of instruments.
Scientists in the field of food science and engineering need to evaluate their foods
and food-processing instruments. During this evaluation process, evaluation technol-
ogies are necessary to evaluate developed or processed foods using food-processing
instruments. Many evaluation technologies are being developed or have been widely
developed and applied to comprehensively evaluate foods. These evaluation technol-
ogies can be classified into five types: food sensory evaluation technologies, chemical
analysis technologies, physical analysis technologies, molecular analysis technolo-
gies, and novel micro/nanotechnologies. Some books have been published in these
fields. For example, a number of books focus on food sensory evaluation technologies
[2, 3]. The book Food Analysis focuses on chemical and physical analysis technolo-
gies [4], and the book Handbook of Food Analysis Instruments mainly focuses on
chemical analysis technologies [5]. Until now, there are no books that systematically
describe all food quality technologies.
The purpose of this book is to summarize and assess evaluation technologies for
food quality. All chapters are classified into five parts: Part I, “Food sensory evalu-
ation technologies for food quality,” mainly introduces food sensory evaluation tech-
nologies using the electronic nose technique, electronic tongue technique, and
electronic eye technique. In this section, the food sensory technique using human
Evaluation Technologies for Food Quality. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814217-2.00001-9

2 Evaluation Technologies for Food Quality
sense is not discussed because it has been reviewed in many other books. Interested
readers are referred to the classical books [2, 3]. Part II, “Chemical analysis technol-
ogies for food quality,” mainly describes evaluation technologies to analyze the chem-
ical properties of food. Typical examples include the basic chemical analysis methods,
ultraviolet–visible technique, infrared technique, Raman technique, atomic absorption
spectroscopy, atomic emission spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectros-
copy, gas chromatography, high performance liquid chromatography, high perfor-
mance capillary electrophoresis technique, supercritical fluid chromatography,
mass spectrometry, etc. Part III, “Physical analysis technologies for food quality,”
mainly discusses physical analysis technologies to analyze the physical properties
of food. Typical examples include the texture analyzer, rheology technique, fluores-
cence spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering technique, tribological technique, X-ray
diffraction technique, measurement technique of dielectric properties, etc. Part IV,
“Molecular biology technologies for food quality,” mainly analyzes the recent appli-
cation of molecular biology technologies to study food quality. Typical examples
include gene chip technique, nucleic acid probe technique, immunoassay technique,
etc. Part V, “Micro/nanotechnologies for food quality,” mainly analyzes the recent
application of micro/nanotechnologies to study food quality. Typical examples
include the microfluidics technique, atomic force microscopy, scanning electron
microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, electrochemical sensor methods,
nanoparticle-based methods, etc.
The unique feature of this book is that all the chapters cover the basic principles,
basic operational procedures, advantages and limitations, recent technology develop-
ments, and recent application progress in different types of foods, and summarize and
forecast evaluation technologies. This unique feature will help readers to rapidly learn
and understand the evaluation technologies for food quality.
This book provides an understanding of applications of evaluation technologies for
food quality in the field of food research and in the food industry. The target audience
of this book is broad. This book is especially ideal for scientists in the field of food
science and engineering. It is also ideal for undergraduate and postgraduate courses on
evaluation technologies for food quality. In addition, it is an invaluable reference for
professionals in the food industry. Finally, it is also useful for instrument developers
who want to develop instruments for food quality evaluation.
Acknowledgments
As the editors of this book, we wish to acknowledge the kind cooperation of the authors who
provided such grand writing. We also wish to acknowledge the kind cooperation of those pub-
lishers who provided copyrights for the figures to; individual accreditation is given in the rel-
evant figure captions. We wish to thank Elsevier for giving us the opportunity to edit this book,
and in particular Lindsay C. Lawrence, Sandhya Narayanan, Nina Bandeira, Brianna Garcia,
and Joy Christel Neumarin Honest Thangiah of the editorial staff for their almost limitless
patience. Finally, we acknowledge research grants from the National Key R&D Program of
China (No. 2016YFD0400202-8) and Shanghai Municipal Education Commission—Gaoyuan
Discipline of Food Science & Technology Grant Support (Shanghai Ocean University).
An introduction to evaluation technologies for food quality 3
References
[1] C. Peri, The Universe of Food Quality, Food Qual. Prefer. 17 (1), 2006, 3–8.
[2] H.T. Lawless, H. Heymann, Sensory Evaluation of Food: Principles and Practices, second
ed., Springer Science + Business Media, LLC, New York, USA, 2010.
[3] H.T. Lawless, Laboratory Exercises for Sensory Evaluation, first ed., Springer Science
+ Business Media, LLC, New York, USA, 2013.
[4] S. Nielsen, Food Analysis, fifth ed., Springer International Publishing, New York,
USA, 2017.
[5] S. Otles, Handbook of Food Analysis Instruments, first ed., CRC Press, FL, USA, 2008.
Electronic nose for food sensory
evaluation 2
Yaoguang Zhong
National R&D Branch Center for Freshwater Aquatic Products Processing Technology
(Shanghai), Integrated Scientific Research Base on Comprehensive Utilization Technology
for By-Products of Aquatic Product Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of
the People’s Republic of China, College of Food Science & Technology, Shanghai Ocean
University, Shanghai, China
2.1 Introduction
Food quality depends on the color, taste, nutrition, safety, and sensory characteristics
of foods. People choose foods according to these aspects. Some methods/techniques
such as total volatile basic nitrogen measurement, spectroscopies, and chromatogra-
phies are not usually suitable for online quality control of food products [1]. New
methods like electronic nose, electronic eye, electronic tongue, and their fusion have
been proposed for in-process and real-time evaluation and controlling of food prod-
ucts [2–7]. In 1982, the concept of an electronic nose system was suggested by Dodd
and Persuad from the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. The system was
engineered to mimic the human olfactory system. It is capable of detecting volatile
aromas, which are released from various sources [8]. The electronic nose is widely
used in meat, grains, tea and coffee, beer, milk, fish, fruits, vegetables, and so on
[9]. The typical electronic nose detection process is shown in Fig. 2.1 [9]. In food
research and the food industry, we use it to predict the shelf life and detect the fresh-
ness of food products [10]. There are also a number of studies on the identification of
aroma compounds [11], discrimination among different species of Chinese herbal
medicines [12], and quality control of Lonicera japonica during several months of
storage [13]. In this chapter, we first introduce the basic principles and procedures
of the electronic nose. Second, we discuss the advantages and limitations and recent
technology development. Third, we describe recent application progress of the elec-
tronic nose in different types of foods. Finally, we summarize and forecast electronic
nose technology for food quality evaluation.
2.2 Basic principles and procedures

The electronic nose is an apparatus that analyzes, recognizes, and examines complex
gases. It is an “intelligent” system and is designed to simulate human olfactory senses.
The mechanisms of odorous substances identification are similar to those present in
the human nose. The human olfactory system is composed of olfactory cells, an
Evaluation Technologies for Food Quality. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814217-2.00002-0
Sensor array
Signal preprocessing
Sensor response
S1
S2
S3
S4
O1 O2 Odorant
Training Knowledge base
Multivariate pattern
analysis techniques
New sample
Trained model Output decision
Fig. 2.1 Schematic diagram of an electronic nose for food quality evaluation.
Reprinted with permission from Alireza Sanaeifar, Hassan ZakiDizaji, Abdolabbas Jafari,
Miguel de la Guardia, Early detection of contamination and defect in foodstuffs by electronic
nose: a review. Trends Anal. Chem. 97 (2017) 257–271. Copyright Elsevier Publisher 2017.
Electronic nose for food sensory evaluation 9
olfactory neural network, and other elements. It consists of three parts: (1) headspace
sampler. This is an air sampling device that provides gas through a sealed bottle.
Proper sampling of the volatile fraction is a significant challenge in an electronic nose.
The common sampler could be classified into static headspace, dynamic headspace,
and solid-phase microextraction (Fig. 2.2) [14]. Static headspace is one of the earliest
and most basic methods of sampling in an electronic nose. Static headspace is mainly
used in electronic noses equipped with sensitive detectors such as fast gas chromatog-
raphy [15] and mass spectrometry [16]. Dynamic headspace has advantages such as
relatively short response time and faster recovery because the analytes are flushed
from the system. Solid-phase microextraction is seldom coupled with an electronic
nose because it is expensive, complicated, and time consuming. It can be used to
enrich analytes such as those from Spanish olive oil [17]. (2) Array of gas sensors.
These are gas sensors that detect smells from a sample. The gas sensors assimilate
the human olfactory cells, transforming different odor molecules on the surface into
Fig. 2.2 Common samplers used in an electronic nose. (A) Static headspace, (B) dynamic
headspace, and (C) solid-phase microextraction.
Reprinted with permission from Tomasz Majchrzak, Wojciech Wojnowski, Tomasz Dymerski,
Jacek Gębicki, Jacek Namiesnik, Electronic noses in classification and quality control of edible
oils: a review. Food Chem. 246 (2018) 192–201. Copyright Elsevier Publisher 2018.
a single group that can be measured by physical methods. A variety of different sensor
types have been developed based on different materials: metal oxides, conducting
polymer composites, and intrinsically conducting polymers. According to different
detection principles, the sensors can be classified into conductive sensors, optical sen-
sors, surface acoustic wave sensors, gas-sensitive field effect transistors, and quartz
microbalance sensors. In this field, microelectromechanical systems and nanotechnol-
ogies are the most promising emerging technologies. (3) Signal processing system.
This can process the information obtained and make a feature extraction [18]. It is like
the human olfactory nerve system and judges the obtained signals. Once the data from
the individual sensor from the array are collected, the signal processing system ana-
lyzes and classifies the data. Data processing techniques used in this system for post-
processing of pattern recognition routines include principal component analysis (PCA),
linear discriminate analysis (LDA), partial least squares (PLS), functional discriminate
analysis (FDA), cluster analysis (CA), fuzzy logic, or an artificial neural network
(ANN) such as a probabilistic neural network (PNN). These pattern analysis techniques
can be classified into biologically inspired methods and statistical chemometrics
(Fig. 2.3) [9]. These techniques can be classified into linear methods (PCA, LDA,
PLS, FDA, and CA) and nonlinear methods (fuzzy logic, ANN, and PNN) [19, 20].
Finally, we can obtain the composition and concentration of the mixture gases.
Basic operational procedures include three steps: sample preparation, data collec-
tion, and data analysis. The sample preparation step is simple. The food of interest is
placed in a sealed vial for a time to allow the volatile substances from the foods in the
vial to reach a balance. Then, an electronic nose is applied to detect the volatile sub-
stances. A standard operational procedure manual can be obtained from a commercial
electronic nose company. Because different gas sensors are sensitive to different vol-
atile organic substances, different gas sensors will show different signals and the com-
mercial software will record the important information. After this step, using the
commercial software, volatile substances can be analyzed and shown to the operators.
Fig. 2.3 Classification scheme of the multivariate pattern analysis technique applied for an
electronic nose.
Reprinted with permission from Alireza Sanaeifar, Hassan ZakiDizaji, Abdolabbas Jafari,
Miguel de la Guardia, Early detection of contamination and defect in foodstuffs by electronic
nose: a review. Trends Anal. Chem. 97 (2017) 257–271. Copyright Elsevier Publisher 2017.
2.3 Advantages, limitations, and recent technology

developments
In recent years, electronic nose technology has developed quickly because of its wide
advantages such as easy operation, quickness, small sample requirement, low cost,
real-time detection, and quality control. Different types of electron nose systems have
been developed. Their advantages and limitations and potential applications are pres-
ented in Table 2.1. However, it is still in the initial development period. It has many
limitations. There is a big difference compared with the human olfactory system. The
application of an electronic nose is limited due to sensors and analytical methods. The
gas sensor array has limitations such as sensor poisoning, sensor drift, and sensitivity.
The sensor arrays are sensitive to environmental factors such as humidity and temper-
ature. The methods of analyzing the data in the signal processing system are not easy
for food scientists. In short, further research is needed to develop this technique to
make it more adaptable for food evaluation.
Several generations of scientists have been studying electronic noses. The demand
for an odor measurement technology is constant. There has been much work focused
on the development of a novel electronic nose. Kiani et al. [21] developed a portable
electronic nose as an expert system for aroma-based classification of saffron. Timsorn
et al. [22] developed a briefcase electronic nose to evaluate the bacterial population on
chicken meats. The results indicated that the developed electronic nose system could
be used as a cheap, quick, portable, nondestructive, and real-time controlled technique
to evaluate the samples with high accuracy.
Development of sensor materials such as nanomaterials for the electronic nose is
also a promising research hotspot. Carmona et al. [23] described a mixed array merg-
ing nanowire and thin film metal oxide technologies to develop the electronic nose as a
tool to monitor food pathogen microbiota. The proposed electronic nose could be
applied to discriminate between different blends of microorganisms and to follow
up microbiota growth. Liu et al. [24] developed single-walled carbon nanotube-
metalloporphyrin chemiresistive gas sensor arrays for volatile organic compounds.
The results demonstrated the great potential of single-walled carbon nanotubes in
the development of a cheap, portable electronic nose for the identification of volatile
organic compounds.
The pattern recognition components of an electronic nose are nontrivial because of
nonlinearity of the sensor response. Therefore it is necessary to compensate for sensor
drift. In addition, signal processing techniques should be able to recognize specific
patterns representing odors. Though there are many linear methods (PCA, LDA,
PLS, FDA, and CA) and nonlinear methods (fuzzy logic, ANN, and PNN) for elec-
tronic noses, there is still much room for improvement in this field. Many novel algo-
rithms have been developed and explored for the application of electronic noses such
as learning vector quantization, support vector machine, and extreme learning
machine [25].
An alternative method for the costly panels of human “sniffers” would be of great
interest. Primarily, the electronic nose is based on arrays of weak specific gas sensors.
Currently, gas chromatography [26], mass spectrometry [27, 28], and ion mobility
Table 2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of different electronic nose systems
Detection type Advantages Disadvantages Possible application
Semiconductor Variety of Sensor drift Cheapest solutions

sensors commercially Susceptible to Stationary devices
available models poisoning Most of the current
Relatively High power applications
inexpensive consumption Most common in
Humidity- prototype solutions
dependent
signal
Electrochemical Low power Little choice of Few commercially
sensors consumption commercially available solutions
High durability available Portable devices
High sensitivity sensors Dedicated solutions
Minimal impact of Bulky
humidity on the
signal
Piezoelectric Small sized Little choice of Portable devices
sensors Short response time commercially Miniaturized systems
High sensitivity and available Electronic noses
selectivity sensors dedicated to specific
Low signal-to- solutions
noise ratio
High
elaboration cost
Low
reproducibility
of measurement
Mass High sensitivity Large sized Laboratory screening
spectrometry Universal High power For complicated
based application consumption matrices
Large quantity of High cost Searching for
obtained variables Complex correlation with other
Quantitative and construction mass spectrometry
qualitative techniques
information
Universal detector
Gas Numerous Large sized Laboratory screening
chromatography application Complex In solutions where one
based possibilities construction or a few sensors are
Large amount of Need for carrier used
data collected gas Control of
Possibility of Relatively long technological
simple quantitative analysis time processes in industrial
and qualitative plants
analysis Analysis of selected
part of volatile fraction
spectrometry [29] have been applied in electronic noses to distinguish components

that are difficult to distinguish using a common electronic nose. These devices are
stable and sensitive. However, these combinations are stationary and expensive.
Moreover, they generally require appropriate measurement conditions. These factors
limit their wide application in the field of food evaluation.
2.4 Recent application progress in different types

of foods
The electronic nose plays an important role in the detection of the quality of food prod-
ucts. The electronic nose can make relevant analyses and judgments by gathering,
detecting, and analyzing the volatile gases of food products. Moreover, as a novel
detecting technology, the electronic nose can also classify food products according
to their quality and predict shelf life to ensure the safety of food products. In addition,
this instrument is widely used to detect food adulteration.
Every food product has its shelf life. Food products cannot be eaten once the shelf
life is passed. During food processing, storage, transportation, distribution, and con-
sumption, food products may be corrupted by enzymes, microorganisms, or other fac-
tors, which may have detrimental effects on the quality and shelf life of food products.
Traditional methods for predicting shelf life may be troublesome, fussy, and time
consuming. Volatile gases change during food storage, which may result in a substan-
tial difference compared to the initial product. Therefore an electronic nose is a good
choice for predicting the shelf life of food products [30, 31].
Food adulteration harms consumers and influences the development of the whole
food industry. Devising a rapid and accurate method to detect food adulteration is
important and impending. In the processing of meat, some companies may replace
high-cost meat with other materials that are cheaper and easier to obtain to make extra
benefits. What is worse, some companies even add illegal materials to products, which
heavily affects the quality of products and disrupts the development of the whole food
industry. Adulteration of milk, honey, and meat products is more common. Because
different raw materials have different flavors and can affect the final flavor of prod-
ucts, the adulteration of products by detecting different smells can be carried out using
an electronic nose [32, 33].
2.4.1 Meat
An electronic nose can make a quick and accurate detection of meat to ensure its qual-
ity and safety [34]. Electronic nose systems can be applied to detect meat freshness
(spoilage), and therefore can assess the shelf life of meat [35, 36]. Kodogiannis
[37] applied an electronic nose coupled to a fuzzy-wavelet network for the detection
of beef fillet spoilage. It can also be applied to classify beef samples in the relevant
quality class (i.e., fresh, semifresh, and spoiled). Huang et al. [38] integrated an elec-
tronic nose, near infrared spectroscopy, and computer vision to analyze the total vol-
atile basic nitrogen for evaluating pork freshness. The results demonstrated that
integration has potential in nondestructive detection of total volatile basic nitrogen

content, and data fusion from the three techniques could significantly improve total
volatile basic nitrogen prediction performance. Górska-Horczyczak et al. [39] devel-
oped a technique using an electronic nose based on ultrafast gas chromatography to
differentiate chill-stored and frozen pork necks. The results demonstrated that the
technique allowed for effective recognition of chilled and frozen pork meats. It pro-
vided an effective method for the meat industry to rapidly and reliably assess meat
freshness.
Electronic nose systems can also be applied to detect the presence of pathogenic
microorganisms in meat. There are rich nutrients in meat, such as protein and fat,
which provide ideal conditions for microorganisms to survive and breed. Arnold
and Senter [40] found that an electronic nose could be used to detect the changes
in microorganisms in chicken by comparing the changes in the varieties and quantities
of microorganisms obtained from an electronic nose in the processing and microor-
ganism index of a total bacterial count.
In addition, electronic nose systems can also be applied to detect the adulteration of
meat. Nurjuliana et al. [41] used an electronic nose to detect different pork sausages
and compared this result with that obtained from gas chromatography. They found that
an electronic nose was able to detect the adulteration of pork in sausage. Tian et al.
[42] analyzed pork adulteration in minced mutton using an electronic nose and com-
pared several analysis methods. This work built on a previous method to predict
adulteration.
2.4.2 Grains
For grains, the electronic nose has been used to classify wheat based on storage age.
The first report was the use of electronic nose technology in the classification of grains
in 1993 [43]. In addition, it was reported that some Swedish researchers classified a
total of 235 samples of wheat, barley, and oats. Moreover, the percentage of moldy
barley in mixtures with fresh grains could be determined [44]. Mishra et al. [45] used
multivariate chemometrics and a fuzzy logic-based electronic nose to predict
Sitophilus granarius infestation in stored wheat grain. This work opened up a conve-
nient, rapid, yet nondestructive approach for quality determination of insect-infested
wheat grains at various stages during storage. Lippolis et al. [46] developed an elec-
tronic nose-based method to rapidly predict deoxynivalenol contamination in wheat
bran. The results demonstrated that the electronic nose-based method could be useful
for high-throughput screening of deoxynivalenol-contaminated wheat bran samples.
The samples could be classified as acceptable/rejectable at contamination levels
according to the European Union maximum limit for deoxynivalenol.
2.4.3 Tea and coffee

An electronic nose is one of the best solutions to analyze the quality of tea and coffee.
The extract of tea leaves has chemical components, including flavanol, caffeine, phe-
nolic substances, fats, amino acids, and volatile components. These are the sources
that determine the flavors and aromas. The electronic nose can be used to predict the
optimum fermentation time of tea. Sharma et al. [47] developed a quartz crystal micro-
balance sensor-based electronic nose method to monitor the fermentation process of
black tea. The results were in good agreement with the estimations of the ultraviolet–
visible spectrophotometer-based reference method. Ghosh et al. [48] also developed a
recurrent Elman network in conjunction with an electronic nose for fast prediction of
optimum fermentation time of black tea.
Coffee provides various flavors. Usually, roasted coffee contains more than 600
components. It is very difficult to discriminate the quality of adulterated coffee using
human sensory panels. Electronic noses have quantified the concentration levels of the
identified aromas in coffee [20]. Moreover, some researchers found that improve-
ments in equipment and design were necessary to obtain consistency of the system
[44]. Electronic noses can also be applied to analyze the changes in the aromatic pro-
file of espresso coffee as a function of the grinding grade and extraction time [49]. In
addition, electronic noses can be used to discriminate between washed arabica, natural
arabica, and robusta coffees [50].
2.4.4 Beer
Using an electronic nose, Zimmermann and Leclercq studied 50 samples of malt and
concentrated on the difference between malt types. It was expected that the electronic
nose could be used to develop new beer products and improve product quality [51]. An
electronic nose can be applied for beer recognition [52]. Men et al. [53] used an elec-
tronic nose to classify beer and the results showed that the developed method was a
reliable tool for accurate identification of beer olfactory information. Electronic nose
data can also be applied to build simple classification methods for machine learning
for the binary discrimination of beers [54]. It demonstrated the capability of the elec-
tronic nose for detecting and differentiating beer aromas.
2.4.5 Milk
Milk usually contains few bacteria. The bacteria will increase during processing and
storage. Bacterial growth leads to the spoilage of milk. An electronic nose can be used
to identify milk spoilage. For example, an electronic nose was used to determine the
shelf life of milk. The French electronic nose was also used to determine differences in
milk flavorings [34]. Using an electronic nose, Marsili et al. studied the off-flavors in
milk. Marsili [55] found that the headspace of milk from a cow bearing a genetic
defect contains trimethylamine. Eriksson et al. observed higher levels of ketones
and acids in milk from an unhealthy cow. For this experiment, an electronic nose
was used to detect milk and the milk data were analyzed. Among these, the dominating
components were trimethylamine, ethanol, and acetic acid, and in general the infected
milk had higher CO2 content than the healthy milk. Therefore mastic milk can be
identified [20].
2.4.6 Fish
The application of electronic nose technology to fish is one of the largest application
areas in the food industry. The main purpose of the electronic nose is quality assur-
ance. In addition, other applications are spoilage identification, detection of off-
flavors, and classification of bacterial strains. The recognition of fish freshness is
tested using an electronic nose. Han et al. [56] combined electronic nose and elec-
tronic tongue techniques to nondestructively detect the freshness of fish stored at
4°C. Shi et al. [57] used an electronic nose to predict tilapia fillet freshness during
storage at different temperatures. They built a promising method to predict changes
in the freshness of fillets stored from 0 to 10°C in the cold chain. Zhang et al. [58]
explored the discrimination of marine fish surimi using an electronic nose. The elec-
tronic nose can be successfully applied to distinguish four species of marine fish
surimi. G€uney et al. [59] used an electronic nose to discriminate three different fish
species.
2.4.7 Fruits and vegetables

An electronic nose can also be applied for identification, ripeness, and quality grading
of fruits and vegetables [60,61]. Chen et al. [62] confirmed the use of an electronic
nose to evaluate the freshness of fresh-cut green bell pepper. Hui et al. [63] built a
winter jujube quality forecasting method based on an electronic nose. The method
had a forecasting accuracy of 97.35% and showed a promising application prospect.
Sanaeifar et al. [64] applied an electronic nose to predict banana quality properties.
The results demonstrated that the electronic nose had the potential of becoming a reli-
able instrument to estimate chemical and physical properties of banana according to
the electronic nose signals. Feng et al. [65] explored the determination of postharvest
quality of cucumbers using nuclear magnetic resonance and an electronic nose com-
bined with chemometric methods. The results demonstrated that the developed
method was a promising technique to monitor cucumber quality. Ezhilan et al. [66]
built an electronic nose-based method for royal delicious apple quality assessment.
The results demonstrated that the electronic nose can be applied for real-time quality
estimation of apple samples.
2.4.8 Edible oil

The electronic nose technique may be applied in the classification, geographical
origin determination, oil adulterations, and oxidation assessment of edible oils
[14]. Compared with other analytical techniques (chemical analysis, gas chromatog-
raphy, sensory analysis) in the quality evaluation of edible oils, the electronic nose
technique has several advantages such as rapid analysis, no sample preparation stage,
low cost, ease of use, and capability to be applied in portable devices. Park et al.
[67] used an electronic nose to differentiate volatiles of sesame oils prepared with
diverse roasting conditions. It demonstrated that it was possible to classify the oils based
on the roasting temperature using the electronic nose. Melucci et al. [68] used a flash gas
chromatography electronic nose and chemometrics for rapid and direct analysis of the
geographic origin of extra olive oils. The results demonstrated that the developed
method was suitable to verify the geographic origin of the oils based on PCA and dis-
criminant analysis of the volatile profiles. Wei et al. [69] used an electronic nose for
rapid detection of oil adulterations in peony seed oil. The results demonstrated that
the electronic nose was suitable for oil adulteration analysis. Xu et al. [70] developed
a qualitative method for the analysis of edible oil oxidation using an electronic nose.
The methods were rapid, noninvasive, and sensitive for the quality control of edible oils.
Buratti et al. [71] combined electronic nose, electronic tongue, and electronic eye to
characterize edible olive oil and assess shelf life. The results demonstrated the combined
application of three types of methods that can be applied to assess the decay of oils.
2.5 Summary
The electronic nose is an important tool in many different fields such as protein engi-
neering, electronics, processing methods, and so on. At present, the electronic nose is
widely used in many areas, especially the food industry, due to its low cost, high sen-
sitivity, simple operation, and real-time controlling compared with traditional
methods, which are destructive, time consuming, fussy, and expensive. We usually
use electronic noses to detect the freshness and adulteration of products, as well as
set models to predict the shelf life of different products. However, electronic nose
technology is still at the developing stage. There are still many problems. We need
to perfect the instrument and technology to make greater use of it for food science
and technology. In the near future, scientists and academics should try their best to
optimize the sensor array by studying sensor material with high specificity and sen-
sitivity according to the physicochemical feature of the sample. We also need to select
suitable methods according to the items we want to analyze. It is expected that
dynamic improvements to electronic noses will be forthcoming.
With the development of sensor technology, the biological chip, and biological infor-
mation, the function of the electronic nose will be infinitely close to the human olfactory
system so that it will be good enough to replace it and be widely used in a wider range of
applications. There is no doubt that the electronic nose will be designed and fabricated
into smaller and more portable devices at low cost. One day, every person will be able to
use an electronic nose instrument to detect food products to ensure quality and safety
and to make their lives more convenient, efficient, and healthy.
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he so expanded them and filled them with his poetry and emotion
that no further growth was possible to them. These are the fugue
and the suite.
V
Most of Bach’s predecessors and many of his contemporaries
regarded the fugue as the highest form of instrumental music. It was
the form in which they put their most serious endeavor. The
harmonic basis of music was generally accepted and skill in weaving
a contrapuntal or a polyphonic piece out of a principal motive or
theme, and two or three subsidiary ones, was more or less common
to all musicians. Yet fugues up to the time of Bach lacked a logical
unity of construction. Excellent as the craftsmanship displayed in
them might be, the effect was not satisfactory. There seemed, for
instance, to be no very clear reason why a fugue should end except
that the composer chose to end it. There was no principle of balance
governing the work as a whole. It was architecturally out of
proportion, or it failed to impress its proportions upon the listener.
Bach alone seems to have given the fugue a perfectly balanced
form, to have endowed it not only with life but with organization as
well.
The secret of this is that at the bottom of his fugues lies a broadly
conceived, well-balanced and firmly constructed harmonic plan. It
must be granted, besides, that the subjects out of which he builds
them have a singular vitality and are full of suggestion. But Bach,
with his fertility in highly charged musical ideas and his apparently
unlimited power to weave and ravel and weave musical material in
endless variety of effects, rarely let his skill or his enthusiasm betray
his sense of proportion. There is a compactness in nearly all his
fugues which results from the compression of expressive ideas
within the well-defined limits of a logical, harmonic plan.
Doubtless, the definiteness of this harmonic plan is more or less

concealed from our modern ears by the uninterrupted movement of
the voice parts, which was part of the conventional ideal of
polyphonic writing. We are used to the pauses or stereotyped
repetitions of the more modern style, which throw harmonic goals
into prominence whereon the mind may perch and rest for a
moment. Such perches are for the most part lacking in the Bach
fugues. The subject takes flight and flies without rest until the end.
Moreover, the art of playing Bach which brings out more than the
regular and mechanical march of the voice-parts is unhappily
extremely rare. Evenness of execution, that unhappy bête-noire of
the striving student, is exalted far above any really more difficult,
subtle variation of touch which may veil the flow of the various
independent melodies in order to bring out the beautiful changing
harmonies, arising from them like colored mist. But a simple analysis
of any fugue will reveal the clear, well-balanced plan underneath it.
Pause for a moment at one or two of those that are better known.
Take, for example, the fugue in C-sharp major from the first book of
the ‘Well-tempered Clavichord.’ There is the conventional opening
section, in which the theme and secondary themes are announced.
We have tonic, dominant, and a clear cadence again in the tonic.
Then begins the strong pull toward the dominant, so nearly inevitable
in most kinds of musical form, and finally the dominant triumphant
with the main theme strong and clear, and a solid cadence.
Here, on the basis of harmony, the first broad part ends, and the
music goes on to explore and develop through other keys. The
harmonies are rich, the counterpoint melodious, the theme
whispered as a recollection from the first land of familiar tonic and
dominant. Then clearly we are held for a moment to enjoy E-sharp
minor before we play back again, with fragments of the theme, to our
well-known dominant and tonic. Off again on motives we cannot fail
to recognize, as if we were again to wander afield in harmonies. But,
no; we sink firmly upon a swelling G-sharp, our dominant again, the
best known note of our theme. The captive harmonies rise and fall.
Movement they have, but escape is impossible. The return home is
inevitable, it is imminent, it is done. Cheerfully our theme traces its
old ground. It pauses a moment as if contemplating further flight, but
the tonic key is all-powerful and the flight is ended and with it our
fugue.
It is all lucid and logical: the first broad section with its twice-told
tonic and its accustomed urge to the dominant; the many measures
of wandering that yet pause to make harmonies clear; the long
struggle against the anchoring G-sharp that pulls ultimately home.
Or take, for example, the more complicated fugue in G minor (Book

I). We find, with few exceptions, the same plan. There are four
voices to enter, and the exposition of the theme and counter-subjects
is consequently longer. But they come in regularly, one after the
other, tonic, dominant, tonic, dominant; and then the irresistible sway
of the whole fabric to the relative major, made clear by an unusually
obvious cadence. There follows the development section and the
various episodic modulations, all held intimately together by
recurrences of the main theme. The keys are well-defined. Then,
instead of a firm anchoring of all this variety on a pedal point, we
have a descending, regular sequence which inevitably suggests an
objective point to be reached—the return of the music at last to the
keys in which it was first made known to us. And now in this final
restatement, instead of retracing step by step the opening measures,
we hear the entrances of the theme pressed close together,
overlapping, a persistent leading F-sharp from which there is but one
escape, the final chords settling majestically into G minor.
Both these fugues are built upon a well-balanced and yet varied
harmonic groundwork. The art of Bach shows especially in the
middle or developing section in the clearness with which he brings
out the various harmonic stages through which he leads his music,
and in the manner in which, by the unmistakable method of a
persistent pedal point or a regular sequence, he brings back the final
restatement of his material in a section balancing the opening
section.
Other fugues in the same collection, such as those in C-sharp minor

and in B-flat minor, are more architectural. But, though the
marvellous building up of themes and counter-themes, as in the C-
sharp minor fugue, seems to outline a very cathedral of sound, we
shall find none the less the same tri-partite harmonic base
underneath the work as a whole.
In longer fugues, such as the great one in C minor coupled with a

toccata and that in D minor which is associated with the ‘Chromatic
Fantasy,’ the balance between the opening and closing sections is
somewhat obscured by the long free section in between. But even
here a unity is maintained by the skillful repetition of striking
passages and the return to the final section is always magnificently
prepared.
Bach did not bind himself to rules in writing his fugues. He handled
his material with great freedom. Witness many fugues like that in F
minor in the second part of the ‘Well-tempered Clavichord,’ in which
he often subdued the main theme to a capricious, obvious second
theme. Such a treatment of the fugue approaches the dramatic; and
this, together with the division, quite clear in so many, into three
sections of exposition, development and restatement, cannot but
suggest some sort of kinship between the fugue as Bach conceived
it and the movement in so-called sonata form which grew to such
splendid proportions in the half-century after his death. At any rate,
we are compelled to recognize that in spite of the contrapuntal style,
inherited from an age in which harmonic sequence was a secondary
element in music, the Bach fugues owe their imperishable form to
the same principles of harmonic foundation as those upon which the
sonata-form of Mozart and Beethoven is known to rest.
VI
Though in the matter of musical form the name of Bach at once
suggests the fugue, he brought the suite to no less perfection and
significance. It must, however, be granted that the suite suffers by
comparison with the fugue as a great form in music. First, the
convention that all its movements be in the same key is more than
likely to make the work as a whole monotonous. Secondly, the more
or less obligatory dependence upon dance rhythms tends to restrict
emotional vivacity and subtlety. Thirdly, since there can be but little
contrast and variety among the separate movements, the suite lacks
organic or internal life.
On the other hand, the emphasis laid upon rhythm may give the
individual movements more obvious charm than the fugue is likely to
exert. Furthermore, though the scope of the movements is more
restricted than that of the fugue, the form is freer. And the neat
balance of structure, with its two repeated sections, is undoubtedly
more sympathetic to our modern ear than the involved architecture
of the fugue. Lastly, though the sequence of allemande, courante,
bourrée, gigue and other conventional movements may give us too
much of a good thing, the sarabande does afford that striking point of
contrast which is the precious asset of the great cyclic forms,
whether sonata, string quartet, or symphony.
Bach wrote three complete sets of suites: the so-called French

suites, which seem to have been written for his second wife during
the time of his stay at Cöthen; the English suites,[20] and the
‘Partitas,’ which we may call the German suites. Both the English
suites and the Partitas were written at Leipzig, and the latter were
among the few works engraved and printed during his lifetime.
Inasmuch as the form of the suite, its sequence and normal number
of movements, had been clearly defined both by Froberger and
Kuhnau some time before Bach began to write, he cannot be said to
have assisted in its creation, as he did in the creation of the fugue.
From the point of view of form he neither added anything nor, strictly
speaking, improved upon what he inherited. What he did do was to
expand the limits of the various movements to great and noble
proportions, and to fill them with a wealth of musical vigor and
imagination hardly suggested before his day in any instrumental
music except Corelli’s.
The French suites are the simplest and the most conventional. The
style of them is unquestionably lighter than that of the later suites;
but this may well be due less to an attempt to write in the style galant
of Couperin, than to a desire to compose music technically within the
grasp of his young and charming second wife. The sequence of the
movements is conventional. All six have as their first three
movements the normal allemande, courante and sarabande. All
close with a gigue. Between the sarabande and the gigue he placed
a number of extra dances, two minuets in the first suite, an air and
minuet in the second, two minuets and an Anglaise in the third. The
fourth and fifth have each three of these intermezzi, including
gavottes, a bourrée and a loure; and the last has an odd group of
four, consisting of a gavotte, a polonaise, a bourrée and a minuet.
Only two of the courantes follow the French model with its
complicated shifting rhythm. The others are of the more rapid Italian
style.
The movements are all short and in the now familiar binary form,
with its first section modulating from tonic to dominant, and repeated;
and its second section going by way of a few more complicated
modulations back again from dominant to tonic. There is little trace of
a marked differentiation between the musical material given first in
the tonic, and that given later in the dominant.
The hand of Bach is, however, not to be mistaken even here in these
relatively simple pieces. The style is firm and for the most part close
upon the organ style; the melodies—and there are melodies—are
surprisingly sweet and fresh; the rhythm, delightfully crisp and
vivacious. It is to be regretted that these early suites have generally
dropped from the concert stage.
In looking over the English suites, which are undoubtedly the

greatest works of their kind, one is first struck by the magnificent
preludes. Each of the six suites has its prelude, longer by far and
more powerful than any of the subsequent movements. In breadth of
plan, in all-compelling vigor and vitality, in a magnificent, healthy
emotion, these preludes may hold their places beside any single
movements which have since been written. It cannot be denied that
their style is more the style of organ than pianoforte music. A certain
severity must also be admitted, which may leave something lacking
to the modern ear that in a relatively long movement craves
something of sensuous warmth. But their power is truly immense.
The style is highly contrapuntal and with few exceptions follows the
convention of uninterrupted movement. This tends, as in many of the
fugues, to hide the formal outline. The listener hears the music
flowing on page after page and may be pardoned if, being able to
recognize in the torrent of sound only one distinctly recurring theme,
he thinks he is hearing music akin to the fugue. As a matter of fact,
however, with the exception of only the first, the structure of these
preludes is astonishingly formal and astonishingly simple. The
second, fourth, fifth and sixth are fundamentally arias, on a huge
scale.
The aria form is one of the simplest in music, one of the most
effective as well, and was the first to develop under the influence of
the Italian opera of the seventeenth century. It has frequently been
called the A-B-A form. This is because it is made up of three distinct
sections of which the first and last, predominantly in the tonic key,
are identical, and the middle in some contrasting key or keys and of
contrasting musical material. To spare themselves the trouble of
writing out the last section, composers adopted the convention of
merely writing the Italian words da capo (from the beginning) at the
end of the second section, and of placing a double bar at the end of
the first, over which the singer or player was not to pass upon his
second performance of this section. Bach could have adopted this
economical device, had he so desired, in the four preludes just
mentioned; for each of them proves, upon examination, to be
composed of three distinct sections, the middle more or less the
longest, the first and last note for note the same.
We have already remarked how most of Bach’s fugues, especially

the shorter ones, can be divided into three sections based upon
harmony. In the preludes to the English suites the question of
musical material enters into the division. Take for analysis the
prelude in A minor to the second suite. The first section ends at the
beginning of the fifty-fifth measure. It will be seen to open with a bold
figure, the first notes of which are at once imitated in the left-hand
part. There follows then a constant flow of figure work over a
relatively simple harmonic foundation and through orderly
sequences, the hands frequently imitating each other. Fragments of
the opening phrase are heard five times. In the thirty-first measure a
very distinct phrase is introduced, still in the tonic key, it will be
observed, though in dominant harmony; and this is repeated in
purely conventional manner in three registers, giving way to formal
passage work which, falling and rising, leads to a good stout
reiteration of the opening motive. With this the first section ends, in a
full tonic cadence.
The second section begins at once with a wholly new figure which
dominates the music from now on up to the one hundred and tenth
measure. At this measure the second section ends, and here Bach
might have written the words da capo; for what follows is but a
repetition of the first fifty-five measures.
It must be noticed that, although the middle section is decidedly

dominated by a figure which does not appear in the first, still the first
theme is not allowed to be forgotten. It may be found five times in the
course of the middle section, dividing, as it were, the new material
into distinct clauses, and serving as well to impress upon our ears
the unity of the piece as a whole.
This device is not truly germane to the aria form. It is suggestive of

the rondo in general; and in particular of the modified rondo form of
the Vivaldi violin concerto, of which we know Bach made a minute
study.
In the splendid prelude to the third suite, in G minor, this concerto

form is far more in evidence than the aria form. But the fourth, fifth,
and sixth (barring the slow introduction) are like the second in
superbly simple three-part aria form. This fact is well worth
recollecting in connection with the development of the sonata form of
a later period.
The remaining movements of the suites present no irregularities.
These are the dignified allemandes, the Italian or French courantes,
the elusive, sad sarabandes, always one or two Intermezzi, a
Gavotte, a Bourrée, a Passepied or a Minuet, and the final Gigues
with their conventional contrapuntal tricks and turns.
The Partitas are far less regular in structure. The opening

movements are called by various names. There is a prelude for the
first, short and in simple, rich style; a Sinfonie for the second, with
three distinct parts, suggesting the French overture; a Fantasie for
the third; and for the fourth, fifth, and sixth, respectively, an Overture,
a Preamble, and a Toccata. The second and third have odd
movements, such as a Rondo, a Caprice, a Burlesca, and a
Scherzo. On the whole, in spite of the technical perfection never
absent in Bach’s work, and some movements such as the closing
Gigue of the first partita, these suites are inferior to the English
suites. There is something tentative about the new styles of preludes
and about the interpolation of freakish intermezzi, which rather mars
them from the point of view of unity and balance in the cyclic forms.
But the English suites stand out as magnificent specimens of

vigorous and yet emotional music, great and broad in scope, perfect
in detail—keyboard music which in many ways has never been
surpassed.
VII
Besides the fugues and the suites there is a great deal of other and
less easily defined harpsichord and clavichord music. We are not
wanting in titles. We have Preludes, Toccatas, and Fantasias, also
some Capriccios. These are, on the whole, of free and more or less
whimsical structure. The preludes, and one thinks of the forty-eight
little masterpieces of the ‘Well-tempered Clavichord,’ are usually
simple and short. They are for the most part clearly harmonic music.
Some are nothing more than a series of chords, notably those in C
major, C minor, D minor, in the first part. The origin of this simple
form of music has already been discussed; but the origin of the
particular and well-nigh matchless beauty of these of Bach’s
preludes can be found only in the great depths of his own genius,
which here more almost than anywhere else, is incomprehensible.
The subtlety of the modulations, the great tenderness and poetry of
the chords, the infinite suggestion of feeling—all these within little
pieces that might easily be printed on half a page, that have no
definite outline, no trace of melody: we can but close our eyes and
wonder.
Other preludes which are far more articulate, so to speak, are still
fundamentally only harmonic music. So we may reckon the preludes
in C-sharp major, in C-sharp minor, in E-flat minor, in G minor, in E
major, in the first book. In these there is but a faint network of
melody, usually contrapuntally treated, thrown over the profoundly
moving harmonies underneath. Some others are little studies in
fleetness or brilliancy of playing, such as those in D major and B-flat
major; and still others are lyrical, suggesting Couperin, or even the
Preludes of Chopin. It may be mentioned in passing that there is little
internal relationship between preludes in the ‘Well-tempered
Clavichord’
and the fugues which follow them. Nor is there evidence to show that
the ones were composed for the others. Rather there is in many
cases reason to believe that the preludes were composed often
without any consideration of a fugue to follow. Still one cannot fail to
observe, or rather to feel, a subtle affinity between most of the little
pieces so united, which must have guided Bach in his selection and
pairing.
Fac-simile of Bach's Manuscript of the Prelude in C major (Well-
Tempered Clavichord).
The toccatas and the fantasias are on a much broader plan than the
preludes. The former are essentially impressive, if not show pieces.
They are usually built up upon a series of brilliant runs, oftenest
scales or close arpeggios, with slower moving passages of chords
and contrapuntal weavings scattered here and there. The fantasias
are, as the name implies, quite free and irregular in form. Both
fantasias and toccatas are for the most part distinctly in organ style.
Their glory is, like the beauty of the preludes, a glory of harmony.
The long, rapid runs may have lost their power to thrill ears that have
heard the studies of Liszt; but the chords which lie under them have
a majesty that seems to defy time.
There are several ‘concertos’ and ‘sonatas’ of which to say much is

to repeat what has already been said of other forms of his music.
Both are obviously indebted to Vivaldi for style, or the external
features of style, as well as for form.
The idea of the concerto in Bach’s day was not the idea which
Mozart planted firmly in the mind of musicians. To show off the
special qualities of the harpsichord against the background of an
orchestra is not often evident as a purpose in Bach’s concertos. He
wrote for the harpsichord much as he wrote for the orchestra; or for
the orchestra as he wrote for the harpsichord. To the solo instrument
he allotted passages which required a fineness in execution of
details, or passages which he wished to be softer than the general
run of the music. There is a clear intention to get contrast between
the group of instruments and the solo instrument, but apparently little
to write for the two in a distinct style.
One may take the D minor concerto for harpsichord and a group of
instruments, or even better, the Italian Concerto, for a single
harpsichord, preferably with two manuals, as the perfect type. The
arrangement and number of movements is well worth noticing. There
are three, of which the first and last are in the same key and of about
the same length and style. The middle movement is in a contrasting
key, is shorter and nearly lyric in character. The scheme is perfectly
balanced as a whole, and, it will be noticed, shows little kinship with
the suite.
The first and last movements are in the same rapid tempo and both
are treated contrapuntally throughout. Their internal structure is
fundamentally tri-partite, like the fugues and the preludes in the
English suites, the opening and closing sections being the same.
The middle section brings out new material, but also retains
suggestions of that already announced; the new material tending to
take on an episodic character, like the couplets in Couperin’s rondos.
This is unusually clear in the middle section of the last movement of
the Italian Concerto, in which there are three very distinct episodes,
one of which appears twice, quite after the manner of the Beethoven
rondo. But one feature, which Bach probably acquired from Vivaldi,
makes the whole procedure different from Couperin’s. This is that the
main theme, either the short or long part of it which may be restated
between the episodes, appears in different keys. The same feature
is evident in the preludes to the English suites.
The slow movements in both the D minor and the Italian concertos
are written upon a favorite plan of Bach’s. The bass repeats a certain
form or ground over and over again, above which the treble spins an
ever varied, rhapsodical melody, highly ornate in character. The plan
is an exceedingly simple and a very old one. It may be traced in the
old motets of the mensuralists of the thirteenth century, with their
droning ordines; and in the favorite ‘divisions’ of the early English
composers. The Chaconne and the Passacaglia are but variants
from the same root. It is, of course, a simple form of variations.
This leads us, at last, to a brief consideration of what is perhaps from

the point of view of the pianist, if not indeed from that of the
musician, the most astonishing of Bach’s harpsichord music,—the
Goldberg Variations. The story of their origin will bear repetition for
the light it throws on the mood in which they were written.
A certain Count Kaiserling, at one time Russian ambassador to the

court of Saxony, supposedly suffered from insomnia and nervous
depression. He had in attendance a clavecinist named Goldberg, a
pupil of Bach’s, who, among other duties, had by his playing to wile
away the miserable night hours of his unhappy patron. Hearing of
the great Bach through Goldberg, Kaiserling requested him to write
some harpsichord music of pleasant, cheerful character especially
for these weary vigils. Bach composed and sent back a theme and
thirty variations, which so pleased the count that he presented Bach
with a goblet filled with one hundred Louis d’or.
One cannot but smile; the mere thought of thirty variations is

soporific. Yet an examination of them will convince one that
Kaiserling must have rewarded Bach for sheer delight in the music,
not for the blessed forgetfulness in sleep to which it may have been
expected to seduce him. The quality of these variations is
inexpressibly vivacious and charming. Bach shows himself, it is true,
always the master of sounds and the science of music; but this may
be taken as the secure foundation on which he allows himself for
once to be the brilliant and even dazzling virtuoso.
With the object in view of enchanting an amateur who must have

been, ex officio, very much a man of the world at large, Bach
composed objectively. That is to say he wrote not so much to
express himself as to please another. The same might be said of two
other of the latest harpsichord works, the Musikalisches Opfer and
the Kunst der Fuge; except that in both of these masterpieces his
aim was more technical. In the Goldberg Variations he is, so to
speak, off duty.
Consequently, there is in them little trace of the stern, albeit tender

idealist, or of the teacher, or of the man sunk in the mystery of
religious devotion. There are nine canons, at every interval from the
unison to the ninth, some in contrary motion. But even in these
learned processes there is a social suavity and charm. Witness
especially the canon at the third (the ninth variation), and that at the
sixth (the eighteenth variation). Only the twenty-fifth variation seems
to show Bach entirely submerged within himself. Elsewhere he is for
the most part primarily a virtuoso. In the matter of wide skips, of
crossing the hands, and of sparkling velocity, he outruns Scarlatti. In
fact the virtuosity of the variations as a whole is far beyond Scarlatti.
To begin with, he wrote for a harpsichord with two manuals; and in

many of the variations, conspicuously in the eighth, the eleventh, the
twentieth, and the twenty-third, he availed himself to the uttermost of
the advantages of such an instrument. The hands constantly pass by
each other on their way from one extremity of the keyboard to the
other, or cross and recross. The parts which they play are
interwoven in complications which, unhappily, must forever be the
despair of the pianist. In such cases, of course, he may not justly be
compared with Scarlatti, who wrote always for one manual.
But take for example the twenty-eighth and twenty-ninth variations,

which may be played on either one or two manuals. The trills and
double trills in the former, together with the wide and sudden
crossing of the hands, savor of Paganini and Liszt. So do the
interlocked chord trills in the latter, and the airy, whirring triplets
which follow them. Indeed, leaving aside a few effects in double
notes, and certain others of the thunder and lightning variety which
were wholly beyond the possibilities of the harpsichord, the modern
pianoforte virtuoso style has little to show in advance upon the style
of the Goldberg Variations.
Furthermore, if the Goldberg Variations are thus amazing from the

point of view of the pianist, they are none the less so to the musician
regarding their general form. There is in them positively no trace of
the stereotyped form of variations of that day, which consisted either
of a repetition of the theme with more and more elaborate ornament,
or at best of a series of arabesques over the more or less bare
harmonic foundation of the theme. The theme is for Bach but the
simple germ of an idea, which, throughout the whole elaborate
series, undergoes change, transformation, metamorphosis, hardly to
be recognized in any of its varied forms, scarcely suggesting a unity
to the work as a whole. Mood and rhythm change. New ideas sprout,
seemingly quite independent of their origin. Even the harmonic
foundation is veiled and altered. Bach speaks, as it were, in beautiful
metaphors.
This conception and treatment of the variation form render it true

greatness; endow it, indeed, as a form, with immortal life. External
figurations will grow old-fashioned, or the ear will become satiated
with them. But the Goldberg Variations have an inner life that cannot
wither or decay. Bach’s warm imagination inspired them, gave them
poetry as well as brilliance. No more modern variations are quite
comparable with them except Brahms’ great series on a theme of
Handel, in which, however, there is less warmth than severity, less
imagination than art.
VIII
How shall Bach be placed in the history of music, in particular of

pianoforte music? What part may he be said to play in the
development of the art? The paternity which most composers of the
nineteenth century rejoiced to fasten upon him, is hardly fitting. Bach
was the father of twenty-two children in this life, but musically he
died without heir. His sons Emanuel and Christian were two of the
most influential composers of the next generation; but both
discarded their father’s inheritance as of little service to them in the
forward march of music.
Even before his death Bach knew that the forms and style of music
which he had given his life to perfect and ennoble were already of
the past. That he invented a simple system of temperament in order
to afford himself the harmonic freedom necessary to his expression,
or that he devised a system of fingering which considerably
facilitated the playing of his difficult music, does not constitute him
the progenitor of the new style of the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. The composers who followed him knew little or nothing of
his music. They were far less likely to appropriate what they might
have found useful in his old-fashioned art, than to meet the problems
inherent in the new, which they served, with their own ingenuity.
Accept, if you like, Scarlatti as the founder of the modern pianoforte
style; Couperin as the creator of the salon piece. The fugue had had
its great day, and so had the suite. The flawless counterpoint of
Bach, with its involutions and its smoothness, was of too compact a
substance to serve the adolescent, transparent sonata. His
harmonies were too rich and fluent. And Bach had been but once the
Bach of the Goldberg Variations.
No; Bach’s harpsichord music attained perfection. A river flowed into

the sea. Further than this no art can go. Where a parallel excellence
seems since to have been achieved, the growth of which it was the
ultimate perfection was from another root. Bach is hardly more the
father of Beethoven, Schumann and Chopin, than Praxiteles is the
father of Michelangelo, or Sophocles of Shakespeare. But he left a
standard in music of the complete mastery and welding of all the
elements which make an art everlasting,—of form, of texture, of
noble and impassioned emotion. And by virtue of this standard which
he fixed, he has exercised over the development of music down to
the present day a greater spiritual influence than that of any other
single composer.
The harpsichord works of his great contemporary Handel are far less
significant. Several sets of suites were published in London between
1720 and 1735, also six fugues for organ or harpsichord. In the third
suite of the first set (1720) there is an air and variations. In the fifth of
the same series is the so-called ‘Harmonious Blacksmith,’ the best
known of his works for the harpsichord. It is a theme and variations.
The air and variations in B-flat major which has served as the
groundwork of a great cycle of variations by Brahms constitutes the
first number of the second series (1733). There are in other suites a
Passacaglia and two Chaconnes, all of which are monotonous series
of variations. One Chaconne has no less than sixty-two varied
repeats. In these works Handel shows little ingenuity. His technical
formulas are conventional and in general uninteresting. The dance
movements of the suites are worthier of a great composer.
Scarlatti, Couperin, and Bach are the great names of harpsichord

music; great because each stands for a supreme achievement in the
history of the art. It may be questioned whether, if the pianoforte had
not come to supplant the harpsichord, composers would have been
able to progress beyond the high marks of these three men, either in
style or in expressiveness. New forms had made their appearance, it
is true, before the death of Bach. These would have run their course
upon the harpsichord without doubt; but it is not so certain that they
could have brought to light any new resources of the instrument.
These had been not only fully appreciated by the three great men,
Scarlatti, Couperin, and Bach, but had been developed to their fullest
extent. And, indeed, it may be asked whether any music has more
faithfully expressed the emotions and the aspirations of humanity
than the harpsichord music of Bach.
FOOTNOTES:
[11] An Englishman, organist at St. George’s, Hanover Square, from 1725 to 1737,
when he became insane. He died about 1750. He had made the acquaintance of
both Scarlattis during a stay in Italy, and was instrumental in bringing D. Scarlatti’s
operas and harpsichord pieces before the British public.
[12] A learned Roman collector, born in 1778, died in 1862. Mendelssohn had the
free use of his library and wrote that as regards old Italian music it was most
complete.
[13] This collection is available to students in America. The sonatas contained in it

are representative of Scarlatti’s style, though, of course, they represent but a small
portion of his work. The collection can be far more easily used for reference than
the cumbersome Czerny. Unfortunately the complete Italian edition is still rare in
this country.
[14] J. S. Shedlock writes in ‘The Pianoforte Sonata’: ‘The return to the opening
theme in the second section, which divides binary from sonata form, is, in
Scarlatti, non-existent.’ Out of some two hundred sonatas which I have examined,
I have found but one to disprove the statement. This one exception, No. 11 in the
Breitkopf and Härtel edition of twenty, is so perfectly in sonata form that one
cannot but wonder Scarlatti did not employ the form oftener. [Editor.]
[15] See articles by Edward J. Dent in Monthly Musical Record for September and
October, 1906.
[16] See Chrysander’s articles prefatory to his own edition (Denkmäler), edited by
Brahms, in the Monthly Musical Record for February, 1889, et seq.
[17] The pieces in one ordre may be in major or minor. The first ordre is in G, that
is the pieces in it are either in G minor or G major. The second is in D, minor and
major, the third in C, etc.
[18] That which appeared in 1713. The earlier set is not commonly reckoned
among his publications.
[19] Musiciana, Paris, 1877.
[20] The origin of the title is rather doubtful. On the first page of the manuscript
copy, which was in the hands of Christian Bach, of London, were written the
words: Fait pour les anglais. The first prelude is on a theme by Dieupart, a
composer then popular in England.

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Evaluation Technologies For Food

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Computer Vision Technology for Food Quality Evaluation,

Emerging and Traditional Technologies for Safe Healthy

Advances in Food Traceability Techniques and

Comprehensive Global Competence for World Class

Imaging Technologies and Data Processing for Food

Emerging Technologies For Promoting Food Security

Handbook of Food Science and Technology 1 Food

Food Sharing Chemical Evaluation of Durable Foods

For information on all Woodhead publications

Publisher: Matthew Deans

Ali Aghakhani Department of Food Science, Engineering and Technology,

D.A. Auñon-Calles Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM

M. Ayala-Hernández Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM

Cristiano Augusto Ballus Department of Food Science and Technology,

Aastha Bhardwaj Department of Food Technology, Jamia Hamdard

S. Chandra Agri-Chemistry Group, School of Medical and Applied Sciences,

J. Chapman School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Xu Chen College of Biological Science and Technology, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou,

Shunsheng Chen Laboratory of Aquatic Products Quality & Safety Risk

Raffaella Colombo University of Pavia, Department of Drug Sciences, Pavia, Italy

D. Cozzolino School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

R. Domı́nguez-Perles Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM

Tao Feng School of Perfume and Aroma Technology, Shanghai Institute of

M.I. Fortea Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM Universidad

J.A. Gabaldón Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM Universidad

Laleh Saleh Ghadimi Research Laboratory of Polymer, Department of Organic and

A. Gil-Izquierdo Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM Universidad

T. Gomez-Morte Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM Universidad

Abdollah Hajalilou Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Materials

Lili He Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA,

Qingyan He College of Biological Science and Technology, Fuzhou University,

Madhura Janve Department of Food Engineering & Technology, Institute of

Lakshmi E. Jayachandran Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian

Yang Jiao Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China

Anjineyulu Kothakota Agro-Processing and Technology Division, CSIR-National

Lanying Li Laboratory of Biometrology, Shanghai Institute of Measurement and

Duanquan Lin Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Ireland

Gang Liu Laboratory of Biometrology, Shanghai Institute of Measurement and

Song Miao Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Ireland

Annu Mishra MD University, Rohtak, India; Amity Institute of Nanotechnology,

M.N. Mohd Fairulnizal Cardiovascular, Diabetes and Nutrition Research Centre,

M.N. Mohd Naeem Cardiovascular, Diabetes and Nutrition Research Centre,

Jagriti Narang MD University, Rohtak, India; Amity Institute of Nanotechnology,

Debasis Nayak Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Indian

Daniela Andrade Neves School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas,

E. Núñez-Delicado Department of Food Technology & Nutrition. UCAM

Wellington da Silva Oliveira School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas,

Adele Papetti University of Pavia, Department of Drug Sciences, Pavia, Italy

A.C. Power Agri-Chemistry Group, School of Medical and Applied Sciences,

Soumya Ranjan Purohit Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian

Anu S. Raj Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of

P. Srinivasa Rao Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute

Karamatollah Rezaei Department of Food Science, Engineering and Technology,

Faisal Shah Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of

Vasudha Sharma Department of Food Technology, Jamia Hamdard (Hamdard

Aimin Shi Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of

Ewa Sikorska Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics and

Marek Sikorski Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland

Kaliramesh Siliveru Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State

Shiqing Song School of Perfume and Aroma Technology, Shanghai Institute of

Ewa Sikorska Faculty of Commodity Science, Poznan University of Economics and

Marek Sikorski Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland