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Modeling of
Dynamic Systems with
Engineering Applications
Modeling of
Dynamic Systems with
Engineering Applications
Clarence W. de Silva
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the
accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products
does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular
use of the MATLAB® software.
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To all my teachers, some of whom are unknown to me.
“In experimental philosophy, we are to look upon propositions inferred by general
induction from phenomena as accurately or very nearly true, notwithstanding any
contrary hypotheses that may be imagined, till such time as other phenomena occur
by which they may either be made more accurate or liable to exceptions.”
Sir Isaac Newton

Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................ xiii
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... xvii
Author............................................................................................................................................ xix
1. Introduction to Modeling......................................................................................................1
Chapter Highlights...................................................................................................................1
1.1 Objectives........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Importance and Applications of Modeling................................................................3
1.2.1 Modeling in Control.........................................................................................4
1.2.2 Modeling in Design..........................................................................................5
1.3 Dynamic Systems and Models.....................................................................................7
1.3.1 Terminology......................................................................................................7
1.3.2 Model Complexity............................................................................................8
1.4 Model Types.................................................................................................................. 11
1.4.1 Advantages of Analytical Models................................................................ 12
1.4.2 Mechatronic Systems...................................................................................... 13
1.4.3 Steps of Analytical Model Development..................................................... 15
1.4.4 Modeling Criteria and Equivalent Models................................................. 16
1.5 Organization of the Book............................................................................................ 17
Summary Sheet....................................................................................................................... 20
Steps of Analytical Model Development............................................................................. 21
Problems................................................................................................................................... 21
2. Basic Model Elements........................................................................................................... 25

Chapter Highlights................................................................................................................. 25
2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 25
2.1.1 Lumped Elements and Analogies................................................................ 26
2.1.2 Across-Variables and Through-Variables.................................................... 26
2.2 Mechanical Elements................................................................................................... 27
2.2.1 Inertia Element................................................................................................ 27
2.2.2 Spring (Stiffness or Flexibility) Element...................................................... 29
2.2.3 Damping (Dissipation) Element...................................................................30
2.3 Electrical Elements....................................................................................................... 31
2.3.1 Capacitor Element........................................................................................... 31
2.3.2 Inductor Element............................................................................................. 33
2.3.3 Resistor (Dissipation) Element......................................................................34
2.4 Fluid Elements..............................................................................................................34
2.4.1 Fluid Capacitor or Accumulator (A-Type Element).................................... 35
2.4.2 Fluid Inertor (T-Type Element)...................................................................... 35
2.4.3 Fluid Resistor (D-Type Element)................................................................... 35
2.4.4 Derivation of Constitutive Equations.......................................................... 36
2.5 Thermal Elements........................................................................................................44
2.5.1 Thermal Capacitor.......................................................................................... 45
2.5.2 Thermal Resistor............................................................................................. 46
vii
viii Contents
Biot Number................................................................................................................. 50
Linearized Radiation Resistor.................................................................................... 53
2.6 Domain Analogies.......................................................................................................54
2.6.1 Natural Oscillations....................................................................................... 55
Summary Sheet....................................................................................................................... 55
Problems................................................................................................................................... 57
3. Analytical Modeling.............................................................................................................63
Chapter Highlights.................................................................................................................63
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................63
3.2 Types of Analytical Models........................................................................................64
3.2.1 Properties of Linear Systems......................................................................... 66
3.2.2 Discrete-Time Systems................................................................................... 66
3.2.3 Lumped Model of a Distributed System..................................................... 70
Heavy Spring................................................................................................... 70
Kinetic Energy Equivalence.......................................................................... 72
Natural Frequency Equivalence................................................................... 73
3.3 Analytical Model Development................................................................................. 74
3.3.1 Steps of Model Development........................................................................ 75
3.4 State Models and Input–Output Models.................................................................. 76
3.4.1 Properties of State-Space Models................................................................. 76
State Space.......................................................................................................77
Properties of State Models.............................................................................77
3.4.2 Linear State Equations................................................................................... 78
Time-Invariant Systems.................................................................................80
3.4.3 Input–Output Models from State-Space Models........................................80
3.5 Modeling Examples ....................................................................................................83
3.5.1 Systematic Development of a State Model..................................................83
3.5.2 Modeling in Mechanical Domain................................................................84
3.5.3 Modeling in the Fluid Domain..................................................................... 89
Commutativity of Series Resistor and Inertor Elements...........................90
3.5.4 Modeling in the Thermal Domain............................................................. 100
Summary Sheet..................................................................................................................... 106
Problems................................................................................................................................. 108
4. Model Linearization........................................................................................................... 121

Chapter Highlights............................................................................................................... 121
4.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 121
4.2 Properties of Nonlinear Systems............................................................................. 122
4.2.1 Static Nonlinearity........................................................................................ 122
4.2.2 Nonlinear Characteristics of Practical Devices........................................ 123
4.2.3 Nonlinear Electrical Elements.................................................................... 126
Capacitor........................................................................................................ 126
Inductor��126
Resistor��127
4.3 Analytical Linearization Using Local Slopes......................................................... 127
4.3.1 Analytical Linearization about an Operating Point................................ 128
Equilibrium State.......................................................................................... 128
4.3.2 Nonlinear Functions of One Variable........................................................ 128
Contents ix
4.3.3 Nonlinear Functions of Two Variables...................................................... 130

4.4 Nonlinear State-Space Models................................................................................. 131
4.4.1 Linearization of State Models..................................................................... 132
4.4.2 Mitigation of System Nonlinearities.......................................................... 133
4.5 Linearization Using Experimental Data................................................................. 163
4.5.1 Torque-Speed Curves of Motors................................................................. 163
4.5.2 Experimental Linear Model for Motor Control........................................ 165
4.5.3 Experimental Linear Model of a Nonlinear System................................ 166
4.6 Other Methods of Model Linearization.................................................................. 171
4.6.1 The Calibration Curve Method................................................................... 172
4.6.2 The Equivalent Model Approach of Linearization.................................. 173
4.6.3 The Describing Function Method.............................................................. 176
4.6.4 Feedback Linearization................................................................................ 178
Summary Sheet..................................................................................................................... 180
Problems................................................................................................................................. 182
5. Linear Graphs....................................................................................................................... 199

5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 199
5.2 Variables and Sign Conventions.............................................................................. 200
5.2.1 Through-Variables and Across-Variables.................................................. 201
Sign Conventions.......................................................................................... 201
5.3 Linear-Graph Elements............................................................................................. 204
5.3.1 Single-Port Elements.................................................................................... 204
5.3.2 Source Elements............................................................................................ 205
Interaction Inhibition by Source Elements................................................ 206
5.3.3 Two-Port Elements........................................................................................ 207
Transformer................................................................................................... 207
Gyrator�� 209
5.4 Linear-Graph Equations............................................................................................ 211
5.4.1 Compatibility (Loop) Equations................................................................. 212
Number of “Primary” Loops...................................................................... 213
5.4.2 Continuity (Node) Equations...................................................................... 215
Primary Node Equations............................................................................. 215
5.4.3 Series and Parallel Connections................................................................. 217
5.5 State Models from Linear Graphs............................................................................ 218
5.5.1 Sketching of a Linear Graph........................................................................ 219
5.5.2 State Models from Linear Graphs.............................................................. 219
System Order................................................................................................. 220
Steps of Obtaining a State Model............................................................... 221
5.5.3 Characteristics of Linear Graphs................................................................222
LG Variables and Relations.........................................................................222
Topological Result.........................................................................................223
5.6 Linear-Graph Examples in Mechanical Domain................................................... 224
5.7 Linear-Graph Examples in Electrical Domain....................................................... 233
5.7.1 Amplifiers...................................................................................................... 235
Linear-Graph Representation...................................................................... 235
x Contents
5.7.2 Power-Information Transformer................................................................ 236

5.7.3 dc Motor......................................................................................................... 236
5.8 Linear-Graph Examples in Fluid Domain.............................................................. 242
5.9 Linear-Graph Examples in Thermal Domain........................................................ 249
5.9.1 Model Equations........................................................................................... 249
5.10 Linear-Graph Examples in Mixed Domains..........................................................254
Summary Sheet..................................................................................................................... 262
Problems................................................................................................................................. 264
6. Frequency-Domain Models............................................................................................... 285

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 285
6.1.1 Transfer-Function Models............................................................................... 286
6.2 Laplace and Fourier Transforms.............................................................................. 287
6.2.1 Laplace Transform........................................................................................ 287
Laplace Transform of a Derivative............................................................. 288
Laplace Transform of an Integral................................................................ 289
6.2.2 Fourier Transform......................................................................................... 290
6.3 Transfer Function....................................................................................................... 291
6.3.1 Transfer-Function Matrix............................................................................ 293
6.4 Frequency-Domain Models...................................................................................... 298
6.4.1 Frequency Transfer Function (Frequency Response Function)............. 298
Response to a Harmonic Input................................................................... 298
Magnitude (Gain) and Phase...................................................................... 299
Observations..................................................................................................300
6.4.2 Bode Diagram (Bode Plot) and Nyquist Diagram...................................300
6.4.3 Bode Diagram Using Asymptotes..............................................................304
6.5 Mechanical Impedance and Mobility.....................................................................308
6.5.1 Transfer Functions in Mechanical Systems..............................................308
Mechanical Transfer Functions................................................................... 310
Mechanical Impedance and Mobility........................................................ 311
6.5.2 Interconnection Laws................................................................................... 311
Interconnection Laws for Mechanical Impedance and Mobility........... 312
Interconnection Laws for Electrical Impedance and Admittance.......... 312
A-Type Transfer Functions and T-Type Transfer Functions................... 312
6.5.3 Transfer Functions of Basic Elements........................................................ 313
6.6 Transmissibility Function......................................................................................... 319
6.6.1 Force Transmissibility.................................................................................. 319
6.6.2 Motion Transmissibility............................................................................... 319
6.6.3 Vibration Isolation........................................................................................ 326
Force Isolation and Motion Isolation......................................................... 326
6.6.4 Maxwell’s Reciprocity Property................................................................. 332
Maxwell’s Reciprocity Property in Other Domains.................................334
Summary Sheet.....................................................................................................................334
Problems................................................................................................................................. 337
7. Transfer-Function Linear Graphs.....................................................................................345

Chapter Highlights...............................................................................................................345
7.1 Introduction................................................................................................................345
Contents xi
7.2 Circuit Reduction and Equivalent Circuits............................................................ 347

7.2.1 Thevenin’s Theorem for Electrical Circuits............................................... 347
Circuit Partitioning.......................................................................................348
Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits................................................348
7.2.2 Justification of Circuit Equivalence............................................................ 352
7.2.3 Extension into Other Domains................................................................... 353
7.3 Equivalent TF LGs..................................................................................................... 353
7.3.1 Transfer-Function LGs................................................................................. 353
7.3.2 Equivalent Mechanical Circuit Analysis Using LGs............................... 356
7.3.3 Summary of Thevenin Approach for Mechanical Circuits....................364
General Steps.................................................................................................364
7.4 Multidomain TF LGs................................................................................................. 365
7.4.1 Conversion into an Equivalent Single Domain........................................ 365
Transformer-Coupled Systems................................................................... 366
Gyrator-Coupled Systems........................................................................... 367
7.4.2 Illustrative Examples.................................................................................... 368
Summary Sheet..................................................................................................................... 380
Problems................................................................................................................................. 381
8. Simulation Block Diagrams.............................................................................................. 393

8.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 393
8.2 Block Diagrams and State-Space Models............................................................... 394
8.2.1 Transfer Functions and Block Diagrams................................................... 394
8.2.2 State-Space Models and Block Diagrams.................................................. 395
8.3 Block-Diagram Manipulation................................................................................... 397
8.3.1 Block-Diagram Manipulation and Reduction.......................................... 397
8.4 Simulation Block Diagrams...................................................................................... 399
8.4.1 Principle of Superposition........................................................................... 399
8.4.2 Superposition Method................................................................................. 401
8.4.3 Grouping Like-Derivatives Method...........................................................404
8.4.4 Factored Transfer-Function Method.......................................................... 406
8.4.5 Partial-Fraction Method............................................................................... 410
8.5 Causality and Physical Realizability....................................................................... 420
8.5.1 Proof of Causality and Physical Realizability.......................................... 420
Summary Sheet..................................................................................................................... 420
Problems.................................................................................................................................422
9. Response Analysis and Simulation................................................................................. 427

9.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 427
9.2 Analytical Solution.................................................................................................... 428
9.2.1 Homogeneous Solution................................................................................ 428
Repeated Poles.............................................................................................. 429
9.2.2 Particular Solution........................................................................................ 429
9.2.3 Impulse Response Function........................................................................ 431
Convolution Integral.................................................................................... 431
9.2.4 Stability...........................................................................................................433
9.3 First- and Second-Order Systems...........................................................................434
xii Contents
9.3.1First-Order Systems......................................................................................434
9.3.2 Second-Order Systems................................................................................. 436
Free Response of an Undamped Oscillator............................................... 436
Free Response of a Damped Oscillator...................................................... 438
9.4 Forced Response of a Damped Oscillator..............................................................443
9.4.1 Impulse Response.........................................................................................444
9.4.2 The Riddle of Zero ICs.................................................................................445
9.4.3 Step Response................................................................................................446
9.4.4 Response to Harmonic Excitation.............................................................. 447
9.5 Response Using Laplace Transform........................................................................454
9.5.1 Step Response Using Laplace Transforms................................................454
9.5.2 Incorporation of ICs...................................................................................... 455
Step Response of a First-Order System...................................................... 455
Step Response of a Second-Order System................................................. 455
9.6 Determination of ICs for Step Response................................................................ 457
9.7 Computer Simulation................................................................................................ 465
9.7.1 Use of Simulink in Computer Simulation................................................. 466
Starting Simulink.......................................................................................... 466
Basic Elements............................................................................................... 466
Building an Application............................................................................... 467
Running a Simulation.................................................................................. 468
Summary Sheet..................................................................................................................... 471
Problems................................................................................................................................. 474
Appendix A: Practical Elements and Components.............................................................. 485
Appendix B: Bond Graphs........................................................................................................ 539
Appendix C: Graph Tree Concepts for Linear Graphs........................................................ 555
Appendix D: Transform Techniques...................................................................................... 571
Appendix E: Software Tools..................................................................................................... 589
Appendix F: Review of Linear Algebra.................................................................................. 613
Appendix G: Advanced Response Analysis.........................................................................633
Index.............................................................................................................................................. 657
Preface
This book concerns modeling of engineering dynamic systems. It systematically cov-

ers methodologies of understanding and analytical representation of the dynamics of a
physical engineering system, using proper principles of science. However, the presented
concepts and approaches are applicable in nonengineering processes such as biological,
economic, and social systems as well.
The book has all the features of a course textbook and is primarily intended for a course
at the undergraduate level (typically, third or fourth year) or at the early graduate level.
In many engineering curricula, a course in modeling is a prerequisite for the first course
in control systems. In some other curricula, modeling is taught as a foundation course or
as the first part of a control systems course. Also, it is an indispensable component of a
curriculum in mechatronics. Since the book contains a wealth of practical information on
the subject, it is a valuable reference tool as well, primarily for researchers and practicing
professionals. Even though the primary emphasis of the book is on the engineering prob-
lem of model development rather than response analysis and simulation once a model is
available, these latter aspects are also covered in the book. The book distinguishes itself
from the existing books on modeling in view of the following primary features:
• It provides systematic approaches that lead to unique models (thereby removing

doubt on what method should be used in a given problem and the validity of the
end result of modeling).
• It presents modeling approaches that are applicable to problems in many physical
domains (e.g., electrical, mechanical, fluid, and thermal) and to problems of mul-
tiple domains (mixed systems).
• The presented “unified” and “integrated” approaches are rapidly becoming the
standard in the modeling of mechatronic engineering systems, and of any engi-
neering system, for that matter.
• Modeling approaches that are commonly and effectively used in electrical engi-
neering are extended to other domains, particularly mechanical, fluid, and ther-
mal domains, so that those methods can also be applied to multidomain (e.g.,
mechatronic or electromechanical or mixed) systems.
• Equivalence or approximate equivalence (to the actual physical system or to
another type of model) is considered as the primary basis in developing “equiva-
lent models” and in “model reduction” using various criteria of equivalence.
Background
In the late 1970s, I taught a mandatory undergraduate course in dynamic system model-
ing at Carnegie Mellon University. The popular textbook Introduction to System Dynamics
by Shearer, Murphy, and Richardson (Addison-Wesley, 1971) was used in this course.
This excellent classic has not been revised to date (The late Professor Arthur Murphy had
xiii
xiv Preface
contacted me to undertake the revision, but that project did not materialize due to my
other commitments and the untimely death of Professor Murphy). After I moved to the
University of British Columbia (UBC) in the late 1980s, I continued to teach the course.
During this process, I had developed a vast amount of material (including new approaches,
extensions to existing approaches, new examples, problems, and projects). Subsequently, at
UBC, there was a demand for an introductory graduate-level course as well in the subject,
which materialized about 15 years ago.
At UBC, for teaching the course on modeling in the beginning, I used my own notes and
a booklet on Control System Modeling, which I had prepared for the company Measurements
& Data Corporation (Pittsburgh, PA) and serialized in their magazine (Measurements and
Control) as a professional course. Subsequently, by incorporating as well the material that
I had developed while teaching undergraduate and graduate courses in control systems,
I published the book Modeling and Control of Engineering Systems, (Taylor & Francis/CRC
Press, 2009). Yet, I constantly felt the need for a single textbook on the subject of modeling
of dynamic engineering systems that carries the features I have listed above. The present
book satisfies that need.
Scope of the Book

Through this book, the student will learn to understand and model mechanical, thermal,
fluid, electrical, and multidomain (mixed) systems in a systematic, unified, and integrated
manner. For example, in the book I explore the identification of lumped elements such as
generalized sources (input elements), generalized capacitors (across-type energy storage
elements), generalized inductors (through-type energy storage elements), and generalized
resistors (energy dissipation elements) in different types of physical systems. I study anal-
ogies among the four main types of systems: mechanical, thermal, fluid, and electrical,
in terms of these basic lumped elements and in terms of the system variables. I introduce
and apply concepts of through- and across-variables and flow and effort variables. I study
multidomain (or mixed) systems, which consist of two or more of the basic system types
(or physical domains), as well.
I discuss tools of modeling and model representation such as linear graphs, bond graphs,
and block diagrams. A focus is to develop a unique state–space model for a given system
(Note: Generally, the state–space representation is not unique; many different state–space
models may be presented for the same system). I examine important considerations of
input, output, causality, and system order.
The linear graph model representation is extended to the frequency domain. I study
Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits and their application in nonelectrical (mechani-
cal, fluid, and thermal) systems using linear graphs. I study the conversion of a mixed-
domain system model into an equivalent model in a single domain and illustrate its
application in practical systems using examples.
Even though the emphasis of the book is on lumped-parameter models, I address the
treatment of distributed-parameter systems and their representation in the lumped-
parameter form. I give an overview of the response analysis of dynamic systems. I address
computer simulation of dynamic systems using graphical and numerical methodologies
and algorithms and also through the use of such software tools as Simulink®. The main
treatment of the book is of linear systems. However, where needed, I develop nonlinear
models. I present their linearization using several general techniques (analytical, experi-
mental, and graphical).
Preface xv
Main Features
In the present context, modeling concerns understanding and analytical representation
of the dynamics of a physical engineering system, using sound principles of science and
systematic and unified/generalized approaches. The developed model must be suitable
for meeting the subsequent purposes and tasks. For example, identification and selec-
tion of system components, system analysis and computer simulation, conceptual design,
detailed design, prototyping, instrumentation, control, tuning (adjusting system param-
eters to obtain the required performance), testing, performance evaluation, and product
qualification all are important tasks in engineering practice, and modeling plays a crucial
role in all these tasks.
The main objective of the book is to provide a convenient, useful, and affordable text-
book in the subject of Modeling of Dynamic Systems with Engineering Applications. The mate-
rial presented in the book serves as a firm foundation for the subsequent building up of
expertise in various aspects of engineering such as design, prototyping, control, instru-
mentation, experimentation, and performance analysis.
The book consists of nine chapters and seven appendices. To maintain clarity and focus
and to maximize the usefulness, the book presents its material in a manner that will be
useful to anyone with a basic engineering background, be it civil, electrical, mechanical,
manufacturing, material, mechatronic, mining, aerospace, or biomechanical. Complete
solutions to the end-of-chapter problems are provided in a Solutions Manual, which is avail-
able to instructors who adopt the book.
In addition to presenting standard material on the modeling of dynamic engineering
systems in a student-friendly and interest-arousing manner, the book somewhat deviates
from other books on the subject in the following ways:
• The book presents systematic approaches of modeling that lead to unique models
(thereby removing the doubts on what method should be used in a given problem
and the validity of the end result of modeling).
• The book provides modeling approaches that are equally applicable to problems
in many domains (electrical, mechanical, fluid, and thermal) and to problems of
multiple domains (mixed systems). Since similar (analogous) approaches are used
for modeling different domains, the presented methodologies are “unified.” Also,
in a multidomain system, since all physical domains can be modeled concur-
rently (simultaneously), while taking into account any dynamic coupling (inter-
actions) among the domains, the presented methodologies are “concurrent” (or
“integrated”).
• Popular modeling approaches that are commonly and effectively used in electri-
cal engineering are extended to other domains, particularly mechanical, fluid, and
thermal domains, so that they can also be applied to multidomain (e.g., mecha-
tronic or electromechanical) systems. Hence, the presented methods are “unified.”
• I present both bond graph and linear graph approaches of model development.
The latter approach is used more extensively.
• I present physical principles and analytical methods using simple mathematics.
• I provide a large number of worked examples, analytical examples, numerical
examples, simulations, case studies, and end-of-chapter problems (with solutions)
xvi Preface
throughout the book, and relate them to real-life situations and practical engineer-
ing applications.
• I summarize the key issues presented in the book in point form at various places
in each chapter, for easy reference, recollection, and presentation in PowerPoint
form.
• I indicate the topics covered in each chapter at the beginning of the chapter. I pro-
vide the key material, formulas, and results in each chapter in a Summary Sheet
at the end of the chapter.
• I give the useful material that cannot be conveniently integrated into the chapters
in a concise form as separate appendices at the end of the book.
• The book uses and illustrates popular software tools such as Simulink throughout.
• The book is concise, avoiding unnecessarily lengthy and uninteresting discus-
sions, for easy reference and comprehension.
• There is adequate material in the book for two 12-week courses, one at the under-
graduate level and the other at the graduate level.
• In view of the practical considerations and techniques, tools, design issues, and
engineering information presented throughout the book, and in view of the sim-
plified and snapshot style presentation, including more advanced theory and
techniques, the book serves as a useful reference tool for engineers, technicians,
project managers, and other practicing professionals in industry and research
institutions.
Clarence W. de Silva
Vancouver, Canada
MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

please contact:
The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA, 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com
Acknowledgments
Many individuals have assisted in the preparation of this book, but it is not practical to
acknowledge all such assistance here. First, I wish to recognize the contributions, both direct
and direct, of my graduate students, research associates, and technical staff. Particular
mention should be made of Peter Jiahong Chen, my research associate, who assisted with
some of the graphics in the book. I am particularly grateful to Jonathan W. Plant, exec-
utive editor, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, for his great enthusiasm and support
throughout the project. This project would not have been possible if not for his constant
encouragement, advice, and drive. Richard Tressider of CRC Press and Mathi Ganesan of
codeMantra should be acknowledged here for their contribution in the production of the
book. Finally, I wish to acknowledge here the unwavering love and s upport of my wife
and children.
xvii
Author
Dr. Clarence W. de Silva, P.E., Fellow ASME and Fellow IEEE, is a professor of mechanical
engineering at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. He has occupied
the following chair professorships:
• Senior Canada Research Chair professorship in mechatronics and industrial

automation
• NSERC-BC Packers Research Chair in industrial automation
• Mobil Endowed Chair Professorship
He has served as a faculty member at Carnegie Mellon University (1978–87) and as a

Fulbright Visiting Professor at the University of Cambridge (1987/88).
He has earned PhD degrees from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1978) and the
University of Cambridge, England (1998), and an honorary D.Eng. degree from University
of Waterloo (2008); Honorary Professorship of Xiamen University, China; and Honorary
Chair Professorship of National Taiwan University of Science and Technology.
Other Fellowships: Fellow, Royal Society of Canada; Fellow, Canadian Academy of
Engineering; Lilly Fellow at Carnegie Mellon University; NASA-ASEE Fellow; Senior
Fulbright Fellow at Cambridge University; Fellow of the Advanced Systems Institute of
BC; Killam Fellow; Erskine Fellow at University of Canterbury; Professorial Fellow at
University of Melbourne; and Peter Wall Scholar at the University of British Columbia.
Awards: Paynter Outstanding Investigator Award and Takahashi Education Award,
ASME Dynamic Systems & Control Division; Killam Research Prize; Outstanding
Engineering Educator Award, IEEE Canada; Lifetime Achievement Award, World
Automation Congress; IEEE Third Millennium Medal; Meritorious Achievement Award,
Association of Professional Engineers of BC; and Outstanding Contribution Award, IEEE
Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Society. Also, he has made 40 keynote addresses at inter-
national conferences.
Editorial Duties: Served on 14 journals including IEEE Trans. Control System Technology
and Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement & Control, Trans. ASME; editor-in-chief,
International Journal of Control and Intelligent Systems; editor-in-chief, International Journal
of Knowledge-Based Intelligent Engineering Systems; senior technical editor, Measurements
and Control; and regional editor, North America, Engineering Applications of Artificial
Intelligence—IFAC International Journal.
Publications: 24 technical books, 19 edited books, 51 book chapters, 245 journal articles,
and over 270 conference papers.
Recent Books: Sensor Systems (Taylor & Francis/CRC, 2017); Sensors and Actuators:
Engineering System Instrumentation (2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis/CRC, 2016); Mechanics of
Materials (Taylor & Francis/CRC, 2014), Mechatronics: A Foundation Course (Taylor & Francis/
CRC, 2010); Modeling and Control of Engineering Systems (Taylor & Francis/CRC, 2009);
Vibration: Fundamentals and Practice, 2nd Ed. (Taylor & Francis/CRC, 2007); Mechatronics; An
Integrated Approach (Taylor & Francis/CRC, 2005); and Soft Computing and Intelligent Systems
Design: Theory, Tools, and Applications (Addison Wesley, 2004).
xix
1
Introduction to Modeling
Chapter Highlights
• Objectives of the Chapter
• Importance and Applications of Modeling
• Modeling in Control
• Modeling in Design
• Dynamic Systems and Models
• Model Complexity
• Model Types
• Analytical Models
• Mechatronic Systems
• Steps of Analytical Model Development
1.1 Objectives
This book concerns modeling of engineering dynamic systems. In this context first we
need to explore what a dynamic system is; what is meant by modeling; and how to model a
dynamic system. We will address all three topics in detail throughout the book. In brief, a
dynamic system is a system where the “rates of changes” of its response (output) cannot be
neglected. A model is a “representation” of a system. There are many types of engineering
dynamic systems and many types of models, as we will learn. The book primarily con-
cerns analytical modeling. We will learn a systematic way to develop an analytical model
for an engineering dynamic system.
The main learning objectives of the book are the following:
• Understand the formal meanings of a dynamic system, control system, mecha-

tronic system, and multidomain (mixed) system.
• Recognize different types of models (e.g., physical, analytical, computer, experi-
mental) and their importance, usage, comparative advantages and disadvantages.
1
2 Modeling of Dynamic Systems with Engineering Applications
• Learn the concepts of input (excitation), output (response), causality (cause-effect,

what are inputs and what are outputs), and order (dynamic size) in the context of
a dynamic system (or dynamic model).
• Understand the concepts of through-variables, across-variables, flow variables,
and effort variables, and their relationship to state variables.
• Recognize similarities and analogies among the four system domains: mechani-
cal, electrical, fluid, and thermal.
• Understand the “mechatronic” approach (i.e., the “integrated” or “concurrent”
approach) to modeling a multidomain (i.e., mixed) system, which consists of two
or more basic system domains: all domains are modeled simultaneously.
• Understand the “unified” approach to modeling a multidomain system: similar
(i.e., analogous) methods are used to model the different domains
• Understand the key steps of development of a unified, integrated, and systematic
approach for modeling an engineering dynamic system.
• Apply in a systematic manner, the unified and integrated approach of modeling to
develop a state-space model.
• Obtain a linear model of a nonlinear dynamic system, both analytically and
experimentally
• Apply the concepts of block diagram in modeling a dynamic system.
• Understand and apply a graphical approach (linear graph or bond graph) for mod-
eling; in particular, to develop a state-space model.
• Understand the frequency-domain concepts of modeling; particularly, the concepts
of “generalized” impedance, equivalent circuits, and circuit reduction of electrical
systems and apply them to mechanical, fluid, thermal, and mixed systems.
• Study the response analysis of a linear dynamic model.
• Understand the analytical and computational basis of computer simulation of a
dynamic system
• Apply a common tool of computer simulation to an engineering dynamic system.
Design, development, modification, operation, control, and performance monitoring/

evaluation of an engineering system require a sufficient understanding of the system
and a suitable “representation” of the system. In other words, a “model” of the system
is required for these practical activities. Any model is an idealization of the actual sys-
tem. Properties established and results derived in various “model-based approaches”
are associated with the model rather than the actual system, whereas the excitations
(inputs) are applied to and the responses (outputs) are observed or measured from the
actual system. This distinction is very important particularly in the context of the pres-
ent treatment.
An engineering system may consist of several different physical types of components,
belonging to such physical “domains” as mechanical, electrical, fluid, and thermal. It is
termed a multidomain (or mixed) system. Furthermore, it may contain multifunctional compo-
nents; for example, a piezoelectric component, which can function as both a sensor and an
actuator, is a multifunctional device. It is useful to use analogous procedures for modeling
multidomain and multifunctional components. Then the domain models or functional models
can be can be developed in a “unified” and “concurrent” manner, and systematically “inte-
grated” to obtain the overall model.
Introduction to Modeling 3
Analytical models may be developed for mechanical, electrical, fluid, and thermal sys-
tems in a rather analogous manner, because some clear analogies are present among these
four types of systems. This is a focus of the book. In view of the existing analogy, then, a
unified (analogous), integrated (concurrent), and systematic (having clear steps) approach
may be adopted in the modeling, analysis, design, control, and evaluation of an engineer-
ing system. The integrated approach is indeed the “mechatronic” approach to model-
ing. The unified approach goes beyond that and exploits domain similarities (analogies).
In summary then, the studies and developments of the present book target a modeling
approach that has the following characteristics:
• Realization of a “unique” model (the modeling procedure leads to a single model)

• Physically meaningful (e.g., the system variables, particularly the state variables,
have physical meaning)
• Systematic (follows a clearly indicated sequence of modeling steps)
• Integrated (concurrent; considers all physical domains of the system simultane-
ously, while including “coupling” or “dynamic interactions” that exist among
them)
• Unified (exploits analogies or similarities among different physical domains and
uses similar/analogous procedures to model the dynamics in those domains)
1.2 Importance and Applications of Modeling

A dynamic model may be indispensable in a variety of engineering applications. The
types of uses of a dynamic model include the following:
• Analysis of a dynamic system (particularly using mathematical methods and

tools, even when the actual system is not available or developed yet)
• Computer simulation, which can incorporate various types of models including
mathematical (analytical) dynamic models
• Design of a dynamic system (prior to building the system; it may assist making the
decision to build or not)
• Modification of a dynamic system (or its model or design, prior to the actual task
of physical modification of the system)
• Instrumentation of a dynamic system. Instruments (such as sensors, actuators,
signal conditioning, and component interconnecting hardware) needed for the
operation and/or performance improvement of a dynamic system may be estab-
lished, selected/sized, and analyzed through modeling and simulation
• Control or assistance in the physical operation of a dynamic system (e.g., for model-
based control and for generating control/performance specifications)
• Testing of a dynamic system (where a test regiment is simulated and evalu-
ated through analytical and computational means), and in product qualification
(where, an available good-quality product is further tested and evaluated to deter-
mine whether it is suitable for a specialized application (e.g., seismic qualification
of components of a nuclear power plant; qualification of computer hardware)
• Performance evaluation (including on-line monitoring) of a system to detect

deviations and diagnose malfunctions and faults (using a model as the refer-
ence for good performance).
Dynamic modeling is applicable in all branches of engineering (aerospace, biomechani-

cal, chemical, civil, electrical and computer, manufacturing, material, mechanical, mecha-
tronic, mining, etc.). Analytical models are quite useful in predicting the dynamic behavior
(response) of a system for various types of excitations (inputs). For example, vibration is a
dynamic phenomenon and its analysis, practical utilization, and effective control require
a good understanding (model) of the vibrating system. Computer-based studies (e.g., com-
puter simulation) may be carried out using analytical models while incorporating suit-
able values for the system parameters (mass, stiffness, damping, capacitance, inductance,
resistance, and so on). A model may be employed for designing an engineering system for
proper performance. Therefore, the system is first developed (designed) using a model,
which is much easier (quick, flexible, inexpensive) to modify than a physical system. In the
context of product testing, for example, analytical models are commonly used to develop
test specifications and the input signals that are applied to the exciter in the test procedure.
Dynamic effects and interactions in the test object, the excitation system, and their inter-
faces may be studied in this manner. Product qualification is the procedure that is used to
establish the capability of a good-quality product to withstand a specified set of operating
conditions, in a specialized application. In product qualification by testing, the operating
conditions are generated and applied to the test object by an exciter (e.g., shaker). In prod-
uct qualification by analysis, a suitable analytical model of the product replaces the physi-
cal test specimen that is used in product qualification by testing. In the area of automatic
control, models are used in a variety of ways, as discussed next.
1.2.1 Modeling in Control
The ways models are used in automatic control include the following:
• An analytical model of the control system is needed for representation, mathemat-

ical analysis and computer simulation of the system
• A model of the system to be controlled (i.e., plant, process) may be used to develop
the performance specifications, based on which a controller is developed for the
system. For example, in model-referenced adaptive control, a “reference model” dic-
tates the desired behavior that is expected under control (see Figure 1.1). This is
an implicit way of using a model to represent performance specifications. Then
the controller seeks (by changing—adapting the controller parameters) to drive
the actual behavior of the plant toward the desired behavior as dictated by the
reference model
• In model-based control, a dynamic model of the actual process is employed to
develop the necessary control schemes
• In the early stages of design of a control system, some (or all) parts of the desired
system may not exist. In this context, a model of the anticipated system, particu-
larly an analytical model or a computer model, can be very useful, economical,
and time efficient in the design of the control system. In view of the complexity of
a design process, particularly when striving for an optimal design, it is useful to
incorporate system modeling as a tool for design iteration.
System System
inputs Drive Plant outputs
controller (process)
Feedback
controller
Parameter
adjustment
Error
signal e
Reference
model –
FIGURE 1.1
The scheme of model-referenced adaptive control.
In general, modeling is an “optimistic” approach where we attempt to accurately repre-

sent the system by a model, possibly optimize the model, and then use it to design, imple-
ment (or modify), and evaluate the system expecting (optimistically) that the implemented
system will operate faithfully as represented by the model. On the other hand, control is
a “pessimistic” approach where we suspect that the system will not behave according to
the requirements (possibly as specified by a model) and then use sensing/monitoring and
feedback control to make sure that the system performance meets the expectations.
1.2.2 Modeling in Design
Modeling and design can go hand-in-hand, in an iterative manner. Of course, in the begin-
ning of a design process, the desired system does not exist. Then, a model of the antici-
pated system can be very useful. In view of the complexity of a design process, particularly
when striving for an optimal design, it is useful to incorporate system modeling as a tool
for design iteration particularly because prototyping can become very costly and time-
consuming. Initially, by knowing some information about the system (e.g., intended func-
tions, performance specifications, past experience and knowledge of related or similar
systems) and using the design objectives, it is possible to develop a model of sufficient
(low to moderate) detail and complexity. Through mathematical analysis and by carrying
out computer simulations of the model it will be possible to generate useful information
that will guide the design process (e.g., generation of a preliminary design). In this man-
ner, iteratively, design decisions can be made and the model can be refined using the avail-
able (improved) design. This iterative link between modeling and design is schematically
shown in Figure 1.2.
It is expected that an integrated (i.e., mechatronic) and unified (i.e., use of analogous
methodologies for different physical domains) approach for modeling and design will
result in higher quality of products and services, improved performance, and increased
reliability, while approaching some form of optimality. This will enable the development
and production of multidomain or mixed (e.g., electromechanical) systems efficiently, rap-
idly, and economically. When performing an integrated design of a multidomain system,
Purpose, performance
specifications, past Design objectives/
knowledge, etc. specifications
Performance Design
System prediction Design System decisions
model refinement design
Model
refinement
FIGURE 1.2
Link between modeling and design.
the concepts of energy/power present a unifying thread. The reasons are clear. First, in
a multidomain system, ports of power/energy transfer exist, which link the dynamics of
various domains (mechanical, electrical, fluid, and thermal). Hence, modeling, analysis,
and optimization of a multidomain system can be carried out using a hybrid-system for-
mulation (a model) that integrates various aspects of different domains of the system in
a unified manner. Second, an optimal design may aim for minimal energy dissipation
and maximum energy efficiency. There are related implications; for example, greater dis-
sipation of energy will mean reduced overall efficiency and increased thermal problems,
noise, vibration, malfunctions, wear and tear, and increased environmental impact. Again,
a hybrid model that presents an accurate picture of the energy/power flow within the
system will present an appropriate framework for the multidomain design. We can use
linear graph models in particular, as discussed in Chapter 5, for this purpose, in an effec-
tive manner.
A design may use excessive safety factors and worst-case specifications (e.g., for mechan-
ical loads and electrical loads). This will not provide an optimal design and may not lead
to the most efficient performance. Designing for optimal performance may not necessar-
ily lead to the most economical (least costly) design, however. When arriving at a truly
optimal design, an objective function that takes into account all important factors (perfor-
mance, quality, cost, speed, ease of operation, safety, environmental impact, etc.) has to be
optimized. A complete design process for an engineering system should generate the nec-
essary details for production or assembly of the system. It is clear from this discussion that
what is preferred is a “unified” and “integrated” approach of modeling-design-control.
Note: Traditionally, an “integrated” approach that treats all domains concurrently is
termed a “mechatronic” approach. However, in this book we will call a modeling approach
that is both integrated and unified (i.e., one that exploits domain similarities/analogies) as
mechatronic modeling. A formal definition of mechatronics is “synergistic application of
mechanics, electronics, control engineering, and computer science in the development of
electromechanical products and systems, through integrated design.”
1.3 Dynamic Systems and Models

Each interacted component or element of an engineering system will possess an input-
output (or cause-effect, or causal) relationship. A dynamic system is one whose response
variables (which are functions of time) have non-negligible “rates” of change. Also, its
present output depends not only on the present input but also on some historical infor-
mation (e.g., previous input or output). A more formal mathematical definition can be
given, but it is adequate to state here that a typical engineering system, which needs to
be controlled, is a dynamic system. A model is some form of representation of a practical
system. In particular, an analytical model (or mathematical model) comprises equations (e.g.,
differential equations) or an equivalent set of information, which represents the system
to a required degree of accuracy. Alternatively, a set of curves, digital data (e.g., arrays or
tables, files) stored in a computer or in some medium, and other numerical data—rather
than a set of equations—may be termed a model, strictly a numerical model. In particular,
an experimental model is a (numerical) model obtained from a set of test data (input–output
data) through physical experimentation of the actual system. A representative analytical
model can be established or “identified” from a numerical model (or from experimental
input–output data). The related subject is called “model identification” or “system iden-
tification” in the field of automatic control. A dynamic model is a representation of a
dynamic system.
1.3.1 Terminology
A general schematic representation of a dynamic system is shown in Figure 1.3. The sys-
tem is demarcated by a boundary, which may be either real (physical) or imaginary (vir-
tual). What is outside this boundary is the environment of the system. There are inputs,
which enter the system from the environment and there are outputs, which are generated
by the system and provided to the environment. Some useful terms concerning dynamic
systems are defined below.
System: Collection of interacting components of interest, demarcated by a system

boundary.
Dynamic System: A system whose rates of changes of response/state variables can-
not be neglected.
Plant or Process: The system to be controlled.
Inputs: Excitations (known or unknown; deliberate/desired or undesired) applied
to the system.
Outputs: Responses (desired or undesired) of the system.
State Variables: A minimal set of variables that completely identify the “dynamic”
state of a system. Note: If the state variables at one state in time and the inputs from
that state up to a future state in time are known, the future state can be completely
determined.
Control System: A system that includes at least the plant and its controller. It may
include other subsystems and components (e.g., sensors, signal conditioning and
modification devices).
Environment
Outputs
(response)
Dynamic system
(Physical laws, state

variables, system
parameters)
Inputs
(excitations)
System
boundary
FIGURE 1.3
Nomenclature of a dynamic system.
Dynamic systems are not necessarily engineering, physical, or man-made systems even
though the focus of the present book is on engineering systems. Examples of dynamic
systems with some inputs and outputs are given in Table 1.1. Exercise: add to this list some
other inputs and outputs.
1.3.2 Model Complexity
It is unrealistic to attempt to develop a “universal model” that will incorporate all con-
ceivable aspects of the system. For example, an automobile model that simultaneously
represents ride quality, power, speed, energy consumption, traction characteristics, han-
dling, structural strength, capacity, load characteristics, cost, safety, and so on is not very
practical and can be intractably complex. The model should be as simple as possible, and
may address only a few specific aspects of interest in the particular study or application.
Approximate modeling and model reduction are relevant topics in this context.
TABLE 1.1
Examples of Dynamic Systems
System Examples of Inputs Examples of Outputs
Human body Neuroelectric pulses (due to external stimuli), Muscle contractions, body movements,
desirable stimuli, distractions cursing, unlawful activity
Company Information that is used for operation, decisions that Information that constitutes company
represent executive commands, etc., weakening of product, decisions that represent output
stock market, price increase of raw material, drop information, finished products, wastage,
in demand or product market value (e.g., due to product quality deterioration
deteriorated product quality)
Power plant Fuel rate, change in environmental conditions (e.g., Electric power, pollution rate, drop in
temperature), increase in operating costs production, noise
Automobile Steering wheel movement, road disturbances, effect Front wheel turn, direction of heading,
of an accident on the automobile, weather ride quality deterioration, noise, motion
deterioration causing an accident
Robot Voltage to joint motors, external force on end Joint motions, end effector motion,
effector (e.g., from a collision), noise component in wrong pose/heading (response error)
input signal
Note: These will also depend on the system boundary, as considered in the particular example. Then categorize
them as: known and deliberately applied inputs; unknown and/or undesirable inputs (e.g., distur-
bances); desirable (or deliberate) outputs; and undesirable outputs, for each of these systems.
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MR. GRAHAM arrived the next day. Harebell flew into his arms with a little choking sob.
"I've not properly enjoyed myself once, since we said good-bye," she cried pathetically;
"and England isn't 'home' as everybody calls it in India. It isn't one bit home to me! And I
haven't even seen an animal since I came! Not a single one!"
Mrs. Keith had left the room, so Harebell poured out her soul with perfect freedom.
"How very disobliging of the animals!" said Mr. Graham with twinkling eyes. "For we do
have some in England, you know."
"There ought to be horses, and cows, and cats, and dogs, and all kinds of pigs and
chickens," went on Harebell gravely. "I've seen them in books that come from England, so
I know. And there isn't one; no, not a little one in this house!"
She spread out her small hands tragically.
"At the bottom of the garden there is a stable," she continued. "Andy uses it for wood, and
all kinds of rubbish. He says when this house was first built, the man of it kept a horse and
trap. Aunt Diana doesn't like animals; but then, she can't like anything, poor thing—"
Harebell dropped her voice to a whisper.
"She's the snow queen, and has a lump of ice where her heart used to be!"
With big eyes she waited to see the result her statement would have upon Mr. Graham.
He looked at her gravely; then he said:
"Ice is easily melted, you know."
"By tears, hot tears," said Harebell very thoughtfully; "or by fire and sun. That's what
people tell me. I haven't seen any ice yet, you know. But I feel it from the top of my head
to the bottom of my toes. It's all over the house."
Here she waved her hands again.
"And, Mr. Graham, I'm getting silenter and silenter; and if it wasn't for doing lessons with
the Rectory children, I think my heart would break."
"It's only grown-up hearts that break," said Mr. Graham. "I assure you that yours will be
quite safe for a long time yet."
"That's how Andy talks; but I thought you'd understand better. Andy laughs at everything I
say—every single thing!"
"I'm not laughing, but I'm glad to hear about the Rectory children. Who are they?"
"Well, you see, I haven't really got to know them yet; but they're sure to be nice, don't
you think so? The boy is called Peter, that's an ugly name I think. I wonder and wonder
who will be my real friend. I don't think I can like them both; not for a private and special
friend, you know. It must be one or the other."
"I should think you and the girl would chum up; you would have the same tastes."
"But we mightn't at all," said Harebell hastily. "I like animals, not dolls; and I like men and
boys much better than women and girls. I always wish I'd been born a boy."
"You're a thorough little woman," said Mr. Graham emphatically. "Don't you make any
mistake about it. You're mass of contradiction and moods."
Harebell's under-lip quivered.
In moment Mr. Graham altered his tone.
"My dear child, you'll enjoy both your young friends. And now listen to an idea that has
just come into my head!"
Harebell brightened up and clapped her hands.
"There! That's how you used to speak on board! And your ideas were always lovely."
"I know what a daring little rider you were in India. Supposing I were to produce a small
pony from somewhere, do you think your aunt would give him a home in her stable?"
Of course Harebell went into ecstasies. She danced up and down and flung her arms round
Mr. Graham's neck.
"Oh, you darling! Oh, what a glorious idea! Oh, let me call Aunt Diana at once!"
"No, no; I am a prudent man. I will talk to her about it when you are not here."
She sobered down then, but her tongue went chattering on, and when Mrs. Keith came
back into the room, she could not keep it still.
Mr. Graham stayed to lunch, and then had his private interview with Mrs. Keith. She was
very hard to persuade.
"I have no one to attend to a pony."
"Couldn't a lad come in from the village? Let me stand the extra expense. She has always
ridden. It seems a pity to drop it."
"She will not be able to indulge in such expensive tastes when she grows up."
"We will hope her future husband may be able to gratify them," said Mr. Graham. "I don't
think Harebell is the sort to remain unmarried for long."
Mrs. Keith looked very stern; then suddenly she gave way.
"If you really wish to make her a present of a pony, I will make arrangements for its keep.
But I do not know who will accompany her when she rides out."
"Let her trot about the country lanes alone. It won't hurt her. Limit her to a certain time
and locality, if you like. You will find her obedient; but she needs a certain amount of
freedom to grow. I have known her since she was a baby."
He got his way, and his departure was sweetened to Harebell by the thought of the
pleasure in front of her. She got hold of her aunt's hand and squeezed it in her excitement.
"I do thank you. I shall always and for ever be good now. A pony of my own will be simply
glorious! You see, Aunt Diana, horses really understand you if you talk to them; they're
like dogs, and I do want somebody to talk to."
"You will have the Rectory children as companions," said her aunt coldly. "I want you to
understand that this pony must not distract you from your lessons. You are a very ignorant
little girl, and have a great deal of lost time to make up."
Harebell could not be quenched. She fled out to Andy and informed him that she was
simply "riotously happy."
"I can't think where you get your words from!" he said, shaking his head. "'Happy' is good
enough for any one."
"Daddy used to say 'riotously.' I've heard him often. It means, Andy, that I'm bursting with
joy! Just think what I've got in front of me!"
In a few days' time her lessons began. She walked to the Rectory one bright morning and
was received by Mrs. Garland, who took her straight to the schoolroom. It was not yet nine
o'clock. The governess was not there; but Peter and Nan came forward and shook hands
with her.
"You'll have to know me now," said Harebell with twinkling eyes.
Mrs. Garland left them together. The little girls eyed each other silently.
"I wish you were a boy," said Peter gloomily.
Harebell laughed.
"So do I! But I like to play with boys. I knew two boys in India; they had a screechy whiny
sister, who always wanted to play with us, and then cried when she did. They had to go to
school in England. I was sorry when they went."
"I'm not a screechy whiny sister," said Nan, tossing her head like a war horse. "I can do
everything the same as Peter, and I can run as fast."
Then Harebell began to tell them of the pony she was going to have.
"I feel he'll be a more deep friend than you," she announced. "Because he'll belong to me,
and to no one else."
"We have a donkey," said Nan, "who gallops faster than a horse."
"Then we can have races."
Miss Forster's entrance at this moment stopped further conversation. She greeted Harebell
kindly, but in a business-like fashion, and lessons began without further delay.
Of course Harebell was woefully backward, though in reading and writing she was as good
as the other two children. But though backward, she was intelligent, and interested in
everything that she was told. In the middle of lessons, she suddenly looked up at the
governess with her bright eyes.
"I suppose you know all about everything?" she said.
"Not by any means. I only know so much more than you do, that it is my business to teach
you."
Harebell thought over this, then she leant her arms on the table and asked earnestly:
"Are there enough books in the world to tell you about everything? There are simply
thousands of things I want to know!"
"Take your arms off the table and go on with your sum. After lessons are over, you can ask
me questions."
Harebell obeyed instantly, but she was ready with her questions before she went home.
"Grown-up people always turn away when I ask them about things, or they laugh," said
Harebell. "Now you promise not to do either, will you?"
Miss Forster promised, a glint of amusement in her eyes, which happily Harebell did not
see. Nan and Peter stared at her with open mouth and eyes. She talked to their governess
as if she were her equal.
"The first thing I want to know is about spells," Harebell said earnestly. "Spells for making
ice people melt specially. There must be some. And spells for making poor dumb things
talk; or for making us understand what they say. Chairs and tables have their lives as well
as us, haven't they? They were alive and moving when they were trees. You see, I like
talking, and if I'm in a room by myself, I look round to see who I'd like to talk to. But they
never answer back, and I'm perfectly certain if I could find the right spell, they would.
Perhaps I mean I want to break the spell and make them speak; that's what I want."
"You're a funny child," Miss Forster said gravely. "I suppose you believe in witches, and
fairies, and all that sort of thing?"
Harebell's eyes glowed. She gave a little mysterious nod.
"In India I've seen—oh, I can't tell you—but I know there are fairies in England! Dad used
to tell me about them. They dance in the woods. I haven't seen a wood yet. It's like a
jungle without the wild beasts and snakes. Do tell me if there's a book of spells."
"Oh yes, there are a good many," said Miss Forster; "but they belong to a past age. I can
give you a spell for making an ice person melt—only one thing will do it."
"Do tell me."
"I'll write it on a paper and give it to you. You can read it, and think over it, and try it
when you get home."
Harebell was enchanted. She hardly spoke to Nan and Peter, but trotted home with a piece
of paper squeezed tightly in her hand. When she got up to her room she read it. Only two
words:
"Love them."
She was very disappointed at first; then she thought about it, and nodded approval.
"Gerda loved Kay, and I have to love Aunt Diana, but mustn't say anything about it to any
one. I must do it in secret. I don't quite know how to do it, but I'll try."
It was a happy day when her pony arrived. Andy insisted on taking charge of it himself. He
only asked his mistress for a little lad, three days a week, to help him in the garden.
"I was brought up in a stable myself," said Andy proudly, as he patted the brown, silky
coat of the little Welsh pony. And Harebell promptly added:
"Like Jesus Christ. I'm sure you must have been a very good child, Andy. You ought to
have been."
"There you go now," remonstrated Andy, "like lightning for coupling up things, and never
very seemly or respectful to the Almighty, I says! My father was head groom to Lord
Walters, and I sat on a horse afore I was in breeches."
Mrs. Keith inspected the pony in silence. Harebell covered him with kisses.
"I am so glad Mr. Graham did not tell me his name. For I shall choose one myself for him.
He is my pony and he must have a beautiful name."
When she went to the Rectory the next day her thoughts were full of it. The children had
half an hour's interval in the morning, when they generally played in the garden; but it
was wet, and Harebell was perfectly content to be in the schoolroom.
"I have to find a name for him, and I shall get it from the Bible," she announced. "It's sure
to be a good one, then."
"There are no ponies mentioned in the Bible," said Peter. "I can give you a dozen. 'Soft
Eye,' Tommy, Brownie, Silky. Is he a he?"
Harebell nodded.
"I shall choose it from the Revelations," she said, "because that's the book of glories."
She took hold of her Bible, which was in her satchel, and sat down on the floor by the
window to study it.
"Let me help you," said Nan.
But Harebell shook her off.
"You don't understand what I want, Nan; it must be a name which no one else on earth
has. He is so very special!"
"You make such a fuss over everything," said Nan a little sulkily.
She and her brother were not quite sure whether they liked this new comrade of theirs.
She was so very self-sufficient and dictatorial. They longed to snub her, but at present
were rather afraid of her. The half-hour had nearly gone, before Harebell found her name,
then she lept to her feet.
"Hurrah! I've found it. I shall call him 'Chrysoprasus.'"
She could hardly pronounce the word.
"I've never heard that before," said Peter.
"It's almost the last chapter; it's one of the precious stones in the beautiful city. I love a
long name, don't you? A precious stone is a jewel. All the natives have lots of jewels in
India. I know all about them, and my pony is a jewel to me, and very, very, very precious."
Then her thoughts took another turn.
"Do you know Miss Triggs? She likes Revelations, she told me so. She talks very interesting
about heaven."
"She's a dressmaker," said Nan; "what a funny girl you are, to talk to a dressmaker about
heaven!"
"Why? She likes it. She was talking to me of the Door into the Kingdom. Have you got
through yet? Sometimes I think I have, and sometimes I think I haven't!"
"What door?" asked Nan with interest.
"The Door," replied Harebell a little impatiently. "We're all outside or inside the Kingdom,
and the Door gets us in."
"Do you mean the Kingdom of England?" questioned Peter. "We only read about kingdoms
in our history-books."
"No, I mean God's kingdom. The Kingdom of Heaven."
"We can't get into heaven before we die," said Peter conclusively.
"We can get into this kingdom any day we want to; Miss Triggs said so."
Harebell was beginning to get rather hot in the discussion. Then Miss Forster came into the
room, and lessons were recommenced. When they were over, Harebell put on her hat and
coat to return home, and Peter and Nan accompanied her to the garden gate. They met
the Rector who was coming in. He always had a kindly word for Harebell, and she at once
seized the opportunity.
"Mr. Garland, you know all about God's Kingdom, don't you? And what you say must be
right. Peter and Nan won't believe me. Can't we get into the Kingdom of Heaven before we
die?"
"Indeed you can," said the Rector, smiling down upon the eager face uplifted to him. "We
ought to be the subjects of that kingdom down here."
Then he looked at the children in front of him, and said: "Of such is the Kingdom of
Heaven."
"And we ought to get inside it, oughtn't we?" pursued Harebell. "Not stay outside."
"I hope you are inside it," said the Rector gravely.
Harebell shook her head doubtfully. "I'm not so sure about it."
Then she remembered her pony, and flew off along the road, waving a farewell to the
children.
"She's a funny girl," said Peter, "her mind is all tumbled up and pours out anyhow!"
His father laughed.
"I think I like her," said Nan, "because she says things so different to everybody else; but,
dad dear, she's going to call her pony a most awful name in Revelations—a Chris—
something!"
"That doesn't tell me much," said the Rector. "Now run along in, I want to speak to your
mother."
"Aunt Diana," said Harebell at dinner; "do you know much about christenings? When I was
in India a lady—the governor's wife—christened a yacht. There were pictures of it, and dad
told me she poured a bottle of wine over it. Babies have water—what should my pony
have? Would it be wicked to christen him like a baby? God made him, didn't he? He
belongs to God just as much as a baby does."
"Don't you know that animals have no souls?" said Mrs. Keith. "You cannot play at such
games. Ponies don't require christening."
"But I'm giving him a name," said Harebell. "Couldn't I have a little drop of wine, just in a
medicine bottle?"
"Most certainly not. You are talking nonsense. Go on with your dinner."
Harebell next consulted Andy.
"I don't see why Chrysoprasus shouldn't have a proper christening. Will you come into the
stable this afternoon and let us do it?"
"Oh, I'll come fast enough. But I don't like your name. 'Tis a foreign one, reckon. Indian, I
should say."
"It's in the Bible; it's a beautiful one."
She insisted upon having a ceremony, and dragged Andy off with her. Then she persuaded
Lucy, the housemaid, to come as a looker-on. She robed herself in a soft Indian shawl, and
having coaxed Mrs. Andrew to give her some home-made lemonade in a bottle, she poured
it very solemnly over her pony's head.
"I name thee Chrysoprasus. And Chrysoprasus thou shalt be called to the end of thy life."
Then she made Lucy and Andy cry out with her: "Long life to Chrysoprasus! Hip, hip,
hurrah!"
And after this performance was over she went out for her first ride.
Her Aunt had stipulated that Andy should go with her for the first time. The old man came
back and informed his mistress that Harebell was a born rider, and had a perfect seat and
hand.
"And the pony is as quiet with her as a sheep," he ejaculated. "She won't come to harm in
our quiet lanes."
So Harebell was allowed an hour's ride every day, directly after lunch in the afternoon, and
that hour was a golden time with her. Her cheeks began to get rosy, and her thin little face
to fill out.
Mrs. Keith took very little notice of her, beyond seeing her at her meals, and for a short
time in the evening before she went to bed. Harebell grew accustomed to her aunt's silent
ways, and lost her first awe of her; but she told herself over and over again that she could
never love her. She talked a great deal to her pony, and no longer felt lonely.
And her lessons at the Rectory became more and more interesting to her.
Peter, Nan, and herself soon became the greatest friends.
"England is a very nice place after all," she told Goody one day.
And Goody assented to the sentiment with much fervour.
CHAPTER IV
TOM
ONE day Harebell paid a visit to Miss Triggs. She rode over to the village to post a letter for
her aunt, and saw the little dressmaker at her cottage door. It was a very easy matter to
tie Chrysoprasus to the gate-post.
"May I come in and see your little house?" Harebell asked.
Miss Triggs led the way proudly into her best parlour. The window was shrouded with
flowers and muslin curtains. There were fashion papers on the round table, and an
unfinished dress or two hanging up on the wall. Harebell thought it a very pretty room;
she admired the dried grasses on the chimneypiece, and the bright-coloured pictures on
the walls. Then she looked at an illuminated text over the door.
"'He hath clothed me with the garments of salvation. He hath covered me with the robe of
righteousness.'"
"Is that a text?" she asked.
"Yes, isn't it a nice one for a dressmaker?" said Miss Triggs brightly. "I make clothes for
people's bodies, but the Lord makes clothes for our souls."
Harebell looked at her with bright grave eyes.
"You're a very good person," she said reflectively. "Do you know, I don't know whether I'm
through the Door or not. I have asked God to take me through, but I don't feel any
different. How do you know whether you're through or not?"
"That's where faith comes in," said Miss Triggs, with a beautiful smile on her face.
"If you kneel down and ask Jesus to take you through, He will. And you must believe He
has done it. Why, my dear, you've just to hold out your arms to Him. He loves you; He
wants to have you in His Kingdom. Of course He does. He opened the Door into the
Kingdom when He died upon the Cross. It has been standing wide open ever since for us
all to go through. You won't have any difficulty in getting through—but there's a lot of
difficulties after."
"Tell me."
"Well, p'r'aps I shouldn't say so, for He makes it easy. 'Tis the life of the Kingdom. We have
to live like children of the Kingdom."
"Subjects," corrected Harebell. "A king has subjects in his Kingdom; Mr. Garland said so. I
like the word subject much better than a child. It—it sounds more important and grown-
up. I'm a subject if I'm through."
"You'll have to obey the laws, and fight and work for your King."
Harebell nodded.
"I know what the laws are—the ten commandments."
Then, with a child's inconsequence, she changed the subject.
"I want to see your brother. Is he here?"
Miss Triggs' bright smile faded.
"No, dear, he isn't. He spends most of his time away from me. Will you come in and see
my mother? She dearly loves a visitor."
So Harebell went into a bright shining kitchen at the back of the house. There was a
sewing-machine in one corner and a table littered with work. Miss Triggs' mother sat in an
armchair by the fire. She was very old, but she looked at Harebell with bright eyes.
Harebell shook hands with her, and began to talk.
Miss Triggs went away for a few minutes, and in her absence Harebell asked eagerly:
"Mrs. Triggs, who do you like best, your wicked son or your good daughter?"
The old lady raised her head.
"I'll have nobody comin' here and abusin' my son, that I won't. He may be foolish, but he
be my boy, and he be very good to his old mother."
"Oh!" said Harebell, abashed. "I—I—thought he was a drunkard. I would like to see him."
But Mrs. Triggs muttered angrily to herself, and when Miss Triggs came back, she could not
soothe her.
"'Tis you a-callin' your brother such names and tellin' the whole place of his failin'. Take
the little maid away. She be like the rest, just abusin' of him, like as you've teached her!"
Harebell retreated to the door, frightened at the old woman shaking her fist in her face.
"Tell her I'm sorry, Miss Triggs."
Miss Triggs led her out of the cottage.
"Yes—yes, dear, 'tis only mother's way. She loves my brother like a mother, you know, and
can't bear any one to miscall him."
Harebell mounted her pony and rode thoughtfully away. But a little farther on, she
happened to meet Tom Triggs. He was slouching along with his hands in his pocket. For a
moment he looked up and eyed her.
Harebell's spirits rose at once.
"Are you Miss Triggs' brother? I hoped I would see you. I've been to see your cottage."
"Seen the old woman? Yes, I be Tom Triggs right enough. A thorough bad un, so they say."
He gave a surly laugh.

"But your old mother is very angry with me," said Harebell looking at him with interest.
"Because—you promise not to be angry—I called you her wicked son."
The man's surliness vanished. His eyes twinkled. "You were a bold little un. An' what did
her say?"
"I can't tell you, but she was very angry, and Miss Triggs says she loves you, and that's
why it was." Then Harebell said cautiously: "Do you drink all day long? Isn't it rather
difficult? Now I like eating better than drinking. I wonder if I was to eat all day long
whether it would be wicked? I should have to choose my food, for I certainly couldn't eat
porridge or bread-and-butter all that time. I think I could manage a good many jam tarts."
Tom Triggs laughed; he straightened himself up and stroked the nose of her pony. Then
Harebell told him his name, and they were deep in talk over ponies' names and their habits
and tricks, when the Rector came up. Tom Triggs lowered his head, and slouched off, but
not before Harebell had called after him:
"Good-bye; I hope I shall see you another day."
Then, with an explanatory wave of her hand after the retreating figure, she said:
"It's Miss Triggs' brother, and I like him. I think he and me are going to be friends."
"I wish he could be persuaded to do some work," said Mr. Garland rather sadly.
"Has he got any he ought to do?" asked Harebell.
"He's a carpenter by trade. But nobody will employ him, as he won't stick at any job, and
lives half his days at the 'Black Swan,' spending his sister's hard-earned money."
"Can't you tell him not to?" said the little girl with knitted brows.
The Rector looked at her with a smile and sigh.
"I am afraid my words are wasted. He and I have had many a talk. When a man makes
drink his master, he cannot get away from it."
"I suppose," said Harebell softly, "God could get him away."
"Yes, little one. God alone can help him now."
"If he gets through the Door, he'll be all right. I'll ask him."
The Rector did not quite understand her. Then he asked after her aunt.
"Aunt Diana is always well, I think, like me. She hasn't melted yet."
The Rector shook his head at her.
"Ah! You little know your aunt's troubles," he said, and then with a nod, he passed on, and
Harebell rode home very thoughtfully.
She tackled Andy as he was cleaning the silver in the pantry after tea.
"Andy, what are Aunt Diana's troubles? I didn't know she had any."
"Most on us have troubles," said Andy slowly; "and some take 'em softly, and some hardly,
but have 'em we must."
"I haven't any just now," said Harebell. "Of course I've had a lot—chiefly in India, you
know—mostly deaths I've had. They get killed so quickly in India—'specially puppies. Has
Aunt Diana had many deaths belonging to her?"
Andy shook his head mysteriously.
"Ay, death would have been better, I'm thinkin'; 'twas a bad time for her. But there, I
reckon she'd rather have it over again than be without the master as she is."
"Who is the master?"
"Why, Colonel Keith, to be sure."
"Is he dead?"
Andy lowered his voice.
"Hush you now, and don't be speakin' of it to a soul. The Colonel is not dead—just away in
foreign parts. You see, he were very strong-willed, and so is she, and they are both hot-
tempered, and he used to struggle hard—that I know to be a fact—to get the better of it,
but her sharp words didn't help, and then one day there were a fine rumpus, and she said
she'd rather be chained to a brute beast than to him—I heard her myself; but she were so
hot that she didn't know rightly what she were saying, and he says:"
"'All right, I snap your chains, and you are free!'"
"With that he walks right out of the door, and never comes back again, nor sends her one
word, and that were six years ago last Christmas. But I knows, he be alive, for he always
giv' me a pocket gardener's di'ry every Christmas. Me and him were very good friends;
and if you believe me, that pocket di'ry have never missed coming to me every Christmas
since he went."
Harebell's face was a study; surprise, excitement, and keen interest flitted across it.
"Oh," she said, "poor Aunt Diana! How she must want to see him!"
"She's turned hard and cold, but her heart inside be right," said Andy. "I seed her take up
my di'ry one day when I laid it on my pantry table, and when she put it down, her lips
were all of a quiver."
"Could we write to him and ask him to come back?"
"Bless your little heart, nobody knows which quarter of the globe he be in—"
"What relation is he of mine?"
"I s'pose as how he be an uncle, eh?"
"Uncle what?"
"Uncle Herbert; but don't you go for to mention his name, or you'll get old Andy into
trouble."
"I'll only mention him to God," said Harebell, rather loftily; "and I'll ask God not to tell
anybody, if you like."
Andy turned away his head.
"'Tis something scandalous the way she talks of the Almighty," he informed Goody later
on; "and yet 'tis done quite innocent like. 'Tis to be hoped the Almighty understands her,
for I'm sure I don't."
"A good lot has happened to me to-day, darling Chris," said Harebell softly in the ear of
her pony, as she wished him good-night that evening. She was getting quite accustomed
to give him her confidences.
"It's a great comfort to tell secrets to some one who can't talk," she said to herself.
"You see, Chris, I've heard about one new man, and I've made friends with another, and
it's very exciting to hear about an uncle of mine who I never knew belonged to me. I'm
very sorry Uncle Herbert was so cross and ran away, but I dare say he's quite good now,
sitting in some corner by himself and thinking about Aunt Diana. It's dreadful not to be
able to tell him how unhappy she is without him. If he knew she wanted him, he would
come tearing back to-morrow. Of course my best plan will be to ask God if He will be kind
enough to make him understand. In a dream, or something like that. But I'll leave Him to
do it the way He likes best. Isn't it nice, Chris, to have God knowing about everybody and
everything and able to speak all over the world in the same minute? wonder if you
understand about Him? He made you, so I expect He speaks to you sometimes."
She was a long time over her prayers that evening. Goody waxed rather impatient.
"It's just chattering, not praying that you're doing," she said a little severely, when at last
with a happy sigh, Harebell got up from her knees.
Harebell looked up at her solemnly.
"Why, I've been pouring out, simply pouring," she said. "I had an awful lot to pray about."
Goody shook her head in disapproval, but she had learnt not to argue with Harebell.
Harebell never rested till she had another interview with Tom Triggs; and this time she was
perched on the garden wall, when he slouched by.
Mrs. Keith had gone out to tea, and Harebell was left to play alone in the garden. She
beamed all over when she saw who it was.
"If I jumped, could you catch me?" she asked.
Tom looked quite alarmed.
"You'd break your legs. Don't ye try it."
"But if there was a fire, and this was a window, you'd have to catch me," said Harebell.
"But there ain't a fire," argued Tom.
She sat swinging her small legs to and fro, looking down upon him with bright interested
eyes.
"I wish," she said slowly, "that you would have a sweet little cottage of your own, Tom,
with some nice little children, then you could ask me to tea. I should love to come."
Tom laughed. He took out his pipe and began to fill it with tobacco from a greasy tin box in
his pocket.
"Cottages and children cost money," he said. "I'm stony broke."
"But you could work for money, couldn't you? And give up drinking beer, that costs a lot of
money."
"Ah," said Tom, "this 'ere pipe and a mug o' beer be better company than anybody else.
The women and children be only a burden."
"I didn't say anything about women," said Harebell; "but I s'pose you'd have to have a
wife to mind the children when you went to work."
Tom looked at her with twinkling eyes. Then his mood changed. He clenched one on his
fists.
"Little missy, I'd give this 'ere right hand o' mine to be quit o' the drink sometimes. There
was a lass once who loved me. She and me had set our hearts on that there cottage top o'
village agen the old oak. We was for havin' our banns cried, an' I were so dazed wi' the
luck in front o' me, I went and drunk more'n a man ought, and then visited my maid, afore
the stuff had worked itself out o' me. She were one o' the Maxworthy stock, and held her
head high, an' she sent me off, and would have none o' me. So that sent me to the devil!"
"Oh," interrupted Harebell, "I'm sure you didn't go to him. He doesn't live in this world,
you know."
"But he does, right enough, missy. He have a tight hold of me—he and the drink together."
Harebell looked startled, then she smiled reassuring. "I know Somebody Who'll make you
all right, and so do you."
Tom shook his head; he was ashamed of himself for giving his confidence to this small
maiden; but he was attracted by her earnest trustful eyes, and did not seem able to help
himself.
"I'D GET SOME GLUE, I THINK, AND STICK MY LIFE TOGETHER," SAID HAREBELL.
"Why, of course, God will. He always helps us to be good. I know what I'd do if I were
you."
"What?"
"I'd get some glue, I think, and stick my lips together, and put some cotton-wool up my
nose, and then I would walk past the public-house six times running, and say a kind of
spell. I'll make up one for you and bring it to you to-morrow. Will you promise to meet me
outside the cottage you meant to live in? I will go with Chris. I know the old oak—"
"I'll be there—what time?"
"It mustn't be after four. Half-past three, because I ride then—"
Tom nodded, then slouched off; and Harebell watched till he was out of sight.
"What a funny man he is!" she said to herself. Then she settled down on the wall to
compose a "spell." From a tiny child on her father's knee she had been accustomed to help
him make up rhymes, and after a good deal of frowning and muttering, she evolved the
following:—
Beer, beer!
Call me not here!
I shall drink no more,
For it makes me poor.
Beer, beer!
Though you're so near,
I can say good-bye
Without a cry.
So never no more
Will I cross the door
Where beer is sold
Till I'm dead and cold.
Beer, beer, you've spoilt my life,
And now I'll go and get a wife.
She was very pleased with this composition, and climbing down from the wall, she ran
indoors, and copied it out in her best handwriting, on the largest sheet of paper she could
find. It was shown to Andy, who was awestruck at such a production, as Harebell hoped he
would be.
"It's a piece of po'try, Andy. You didn't know I could write po'try, did you? I shall write book
upon book when I grow up. It's a kind of spell, you know. To say to yourself when you're
passing public-houses and want to have a glass of beer."
"But what on earth do you know about beer?" questioned Andy.
"I have friends," said Harebell in a remote tone.
Andy shook his head slowly backwards and forwards.
"You'll never grow up," he muttered. "Your head be too big for your body."
CHAPTER V
AN ACCIDENT
HAREBELL arrived first at the little cottage the next day. It was a picture, with its thatched
roof, and beehives against the wall, and spring bulbs pushing themselves out of the
ground. An old bed-ridden woman lived there, with a niece who looked after her.
The oak was magnificent, and spread its branches in all directions. Tom appeared, still
smoking his pipe. He looked heavy-eyed and rather surly, but could not keep away from
Harebell, and when she presented her rhyme to him, he read it slowly through, weighing
every word.
She drew up her pony on the secluded side of the oak-tree. Tom leant against the old
trunk, and scratched his head as he slowly read the verses.
"Hum!" he remarked, "I don't understand this here!"
"So never no more

Will I cross the door
Where beer is sold
Till I'm dead and cold."
"Will I be doin' it after I'm dead, d'you mean?"
"Oh no," said Harebell earnestly. "I hope you'll be in heaven then. You see 'cold' goes with
'sold'; if people are dead they're quite cold—my ayah told me they were. It means you'll
never go into a public-house for all your life."
"That do seem hard," said Tom thoughtfully; then he read the last two lines and
brightened up.
"Aye, that be it, missy. 'I'll go and get a wife.' First-rate poet you be!"
He chuckled and repeated several times:
"Beer, beer, you've spoilt my life,

And now I'll go and get a wife."
"Then you'll have a dear little cottage and some work," said Harebell. "Will you promise me
you'll say this over, while you walk outside the 'Black Swan' to-day? It's a spell—it will
work, I know it will."
Tom rubbed his head again.
Harebell continued:
"You must get the wife you meant to get. She will forgive you. Where is she?"
"Bless yer heart, she married five years ago and is in Canada now, I hear tell, wi' a long
fam'ly!"
Harebell's face dropped.
"Well, we must find another. Which shall we find first, Tom? The cottage, or the wife, or the
work? Isn't it a pity, people are living here. Oh, look! There's a woman coming out!"
The cottage door had opened, and a young woman came down the path; she had a
pleasant smiling face, and carried a basket on her arm. When she reached the gate, she
paused. It was in a rotten condition, and one of the hinges was off. She had to untie a
piece of rope. Tom looked on with interest.
"Afternoon, Mr. Triggs," the young woman said brightly.
"Arternoon!" was the gruff response. "Seems as if a bit o' carpentering were wanted
there."
"I wish you'd come and do it for us. My aunt would be so glad to have it mended."
Tom said nothing.
She waited for a moment, smiled at Harebell, then walked away towards the village.
Harebell bent over from her pony and touched Tom's shoulder.
"You've got your work, Tom; you must mend that gate, and give up beer, and next week
marry that woman, and then come and live in this cottage! Oh, it's turning out lovely!"
She clapped her hands gaily. Chris started at once for home, but Harebell pulled him in.
"Tom, promise me you will!" she cried. "Promise!"
Tom shook his head. He bent his eyes upon her paper.
"Beer and I can't do without each other!" he muttered.
Then Harebell grew serious.
"Do you know the old woman who lives there? Let's go and see her."
"No, no, I bain't acquainted, I couldn't make so free of her door!"
Harebell was silent; then suddenly her eyes glowed.
"Oh, Tom! Of course there's a better way for you. The door reminds me—you must get
through the Door of the Kingdom, and then you'll belong to God, and He will help you. God
can do anything, you know."
Tom looked at her in a puzzled sort of way.
Then Harebell began her explanation:
"It's like this," she said, "there's a Door we can't see, but it's wide open and it leads into
God's Kingdom. We've all got to go through it. Your sister knows about it, for she told me
—and I think I'm through. If you're through you're a subjec'—a King's subjec'—and no
King's subjec' could ever get drunk—it would be so disgraceful, wouldn't it? You just walk
through, Tom—now at once, where you are—it doesn't take any time."
"I don't know what you be driving at!" said Tom. "What door?"
Harebell bent her head and whispered:
"I must say it very soft to be respeck'ful. It's the Lord Jesus Christ, Tom. I learnt the text,
'I am the Door,' He said, 'by Me, if any man enter in, he shall be saved.' You've got to shut
your eyes and hold your arms out, and say very soft: 'Take me through, Jesus, I come to
You, and I ask You to take me through!' I did it in bed a few nights ago. I stood right up in
bed and did it. And I feel—I feel I'm through!"
Tom gazed at her in silence.
"You get through to-night, Tom. I'm sure Jesus will let you through; He says 'any man,'
you see, and I wasn't a man at all, and yet I feel I'm through. You're the proper sort he
wants."
Tom turned round.
"Good arternoon, missy—I'll read your po'try, I promise you!"
Harebell looked after his retreating figure wistfully.
"I've muddled it all up, Chris—and I'm sure God can help him better than my spell."
She did not know that her words, "You're the proper sort he wants," rang in poor Tom's
ears all that day and night.
"Harebell," said her aunt that same evening, when she was sitting by her side hemming a
towel, "I hear you have been seen talking to a man called Tom Triggs, a rough bad man. I
shall not be able to let you ride about alone, if you pick up undesirable acquaintances.
What possessed you to speak to such a man at all?"
"Oh, Aunt Diana, I'm getting so fond of him! He is so nice to me—and we talk about such
interesting things—cottages, and wives, and work, and beer—and even the Kingdom's
Door!"
Mrs. Keith looked with cold hard eyes at the little girl.
"Explain yourself more clearly and don't talk so fast. When did you first meet him?"
"He belongs to Miss Triggs. He's her brother, and Mrs. Triggs was angry when I called him
wicked. I don't think he's really wicked, Aunt Diana; he wants to give up drinking beer, but
he can't. You see, he was going to have a wife once, but she wouldn't marry him, and then
he—he went to the devil!"
Harebell's voice sank to an awed whisper.
"I don't know quite what that means but he won't be with the devil any longer if he gets
through the Door. I told him about it, and then he went away from me—and I gave him a
spell to say about beer—I made it up myself. Would you like to hear it?"
"I cannot have you talking to such men. You must have nothing more to do with him."
"Oh, please let me, Aunt Diana—I'm so very very interested in him! Please don't say I'm
not to speak to him. Why, we've thought of a cottage, and a wife, and some work—and if
he never touches beer again you'll let me have him for a friend—"
Mrs. Keith's lips compressed themselves together very tightly.
"I never argue. You are never to speak to him again."
Harebell had up to this moment been such a quiet sedate little girl in her aunt's presence
that Mrs. Keith hardly realized how deeply things touched her.
Her cheeks crimsoned now and her eyes flashed. She brought down one of her feet on the
floor with an angry stamp.
"I shall speak to him! I shall run away from you! I don't like you at all. You aren't a bit kind
to me, like Tom Triggs, and I like him ever so much better than I do you!"
Then she dashed down her work and fled from the room, banging the door passionately
behind her.
Mrs. Keith sat quite still for a few minutes, then she rang the bell.
Andy appeared with a scared face.
"Send Goodheart to me—"
So Goody was summoned.

"Find Miss Harebell and put her straight to bed. She has been very naughty."
Then Mrs. Keith took up a library book and tried to dismiss her small niece from her mind.
Harebell meanwhile was in the stable, sobbing passionately, with her arms round her
pony's neck.
Andy found her and brought her back to the house. She sobbed on till she reached her
bedroom, and then flung herself down on the soft woolly rug before the fire, refusing to
speak to Goody or to be comforted.
"Whatever have you been doing? You're to go to bed at once," said Goody, looking quite
worried, as she drew Harebell towards her and begun brushing out her hair.
"Oh, Aunt Diana is so cruel! She's just breaking my heart, and Tom will never be made
good—never, never! Me and him were going to plan it all out, and she says I'm never to
speak to him again. I shall! I shall!"
"If it's Tom Triggs you're speaking of, your aunt is quite right. He's not fit to be with a little
girl like you!"
"But he's going to be different."
"It's high time he was, but he'll never alter, never!"
Harebell sobbed on miserably.
When Goody told her to say her prayers, she shook her head.
"I don't want to. I feel so wicked, and I won't be good yet. I—I hate Aunt Diana! I wish I
had never known her!"
"You're a very naughty little girl," said Goody severely. She did not leave her till she was in
bed; then Harebell lay quite still in the dark, and from being very angry, she now began to
feel very lonely and frightened.
"God has turned His back on me; I know He has. I believe he has put me outside the Door
of His Kingdom. He won't come near me to-night, and He'll take His angels away, and then
the devil will come and get hold of me. Oh, what shall I do! I must say my prayers, but I
expect I shan't be listened to, as I've been so naughty."
"Say you're sorry and ask to be forgiven," whispered Harebell's conscience.
But she was not ready yet to say that she was sorry.
She began to pity herself.
"Aunt Diana was very provoking, she made me angry; she's unkind; she likes to tell me
not to do what I want to do; and me and Tom were going to try to be good, together. She
doesn't want Tom to be good, she wants him to be wicked, and she makes me wicked too!"
"She is your aunt and is grown-up; and you're only a little girl, and must do what she tells
you," said conscience.
"I won't!" said Harebell, and she said it out loud.

Then the door creaked and slowly opened, and in a panic of fright Harebell hid her head
under the clothes.
She heard a slow steady footstep across the room, and then a hand touched the bed.
Harebell was beside herself with terror.
"Go away, devil!" she screamed. "I'm going to be good! Oh, God! God, come to me! I'm
sorry, I'm sorry! I will be good! Take the devil away!"
The bedclothes were firmly taken away from her head, and Harebell saw through half-shut
eyes, her aunt standing with a candle in her hand.
The trembling child put out her hand.
"Oh, please forgive me, Aunt Diana! I'm sorry I was naughty. I'm so glad you're not the
devil. I thought it was him!"
Mrs. Keith put her hand on Harebell's forehead; it was moist with perspiration, and the
child's face was a deathly white. Her terror had been very real. She clung hold of her
aunt's hand.
"Just stay with me. I'm so frightened. I have been so wicked, and I wouldn't say my
prayers, and then of course God went away and left me. Do ask him to come back."
"I'm glad to hear you say you are sorry," said Mrs. Keith in a low even tone, "for you quite
shocked me by your passion."
"Do forgive me."
"I will let it pass. We will say no more about it."
"Will God forgive me?"
"Ask Him."
"Don't go away just yet. I won't be long."
Mrs. Keith sat down, and Harebell began to whisper in a shaky voice. Then she got out of
bed and knelt down, and said her evening prayer.
When she was back in bed again, her aunt stooped down and kissed her.
"Good-night, Harebell. Go to sleep."
Harebell took hold of her hand.
"Do you think God is taking care of me again?"
"Yes."
"Oh, I'm so glad."
Her curly head dropped back on her pillow. Exhausted by her grief and fright, she fell
asleep.
The next day found her bright and happy again. She went to her lessons as usual, but just
as she was leaving the Rectory, Mr. Garland called her.

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Modeling of Dynamic Systems with

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Modeling and Analysis of Dynamic Systems, Third Edition

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Radio Systems Engineering Steven W. Ellingson

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-9848-8 (Hardback)

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the CRC Press Web site at

“In experimental philosophy, we are to look upon propositions inferred by general

induction from phenomena as accurately or very nearly true, notwithstanding any

by which they may either be made more accurate or liable to exceptions.”

Sir Isaac Newton

2. Basic Model Elements........................................................................................................... 25

4. Model Linearization........................................................................................................... 121

4.3.3 Nonlinear Functions of Two Variables...................................................... 130

5. Linear Graphs....................................................................................................................... 199

5.7.2 Power-Information Transformer................................................................ 236

6. Frequency-Domain Models............................................................................................... 285

7. Transfer-Function Linear Graphs.....................................................................................345

7.2 Circuit Reduction and Equivalent Circuits............................................................ 347

8. Simulation Block Diagrams.............................................................................................. 393

9. Response Analysis and Simulation................................................................................. 427

This book concerns modeling of engineering dynamic systems. It systematically cov-

• It provides systematic approaches that lead to unique models (thereby removing

Scope of the Book

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

The MathWorks, Inc.

• Senior Canada Research Chair professorship in mechatronics and industrial

He has served as a faculty member at Carnegie Mellon University (1978–87) and as a

• Understand the formal meanings of a dynamic system, control system, mecha-

• Learn the concepts of input (excitation), output (response), causality (cause-effect,

Design, development, modification, operation, control, and performance monitoring/

• Realization of a “unique” model (the modeling procedure leads to a single model)

1.2 Importance and Applications of Modeling

• Analysis of a dynamic system (particularly using mathematical methods and

• Performance evaluation (including on-line monitoring) of a system to detect

Dynamic modeling is applicable in all branches of engineering (aerospace, biomechani-

• An analytical model of the control system is needed for representation, mathemat-

In general, modeling is an “optimistic” approach where we attempt to accurately repre-

1.3 Dynamic Systems and Models

System: Collection of interacting components of interest, demarcated by a system

(Physical laws, state

She spread out her small hands tragically.

Harebell dropped her voice to a whisper.

He looked at her gravely; then he said:

"Ice is easily melted, you know."

Here she waved her hands again.

Harebell's under-lip quivered.

In moment Mr. Graham altered his tone.

Harebell brightened up and clapped her hands.

"I have no one to attend to a pony."

"You'll have to know me now," said Harebell with twinkling eyes.

"I wish you were a boy," said Peter gloomily.

"Then we can have races."

4.3.3 Nonlinear Functions of Two Variables...................................................... 130

5.7.2 Power-Information Transformer................................................................ 236

7.2 Circuit Reduction and Equivalent Circuits............................................................ 347

1.2 Importance and Applications of Modeling

1.3 Dynamic Systems and Models