TOPIC 42. THE NORMAN CONQUEST.

FRENCH INFLUENCE ON THE ENGLISH

LANGUAGE. LOANWORDS AND CALQUES.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the realm of education, the study of literature and history plays a crucial role
in shaping our understanding of the world. Both disciplines, while distinct, are deeply
intertwined, offering unique perspectives on human experiences and societal
development. Literature, with its rich tapestry of stories, poems, and essays, provides
a mirror to the past and present, reflecting the values, struggles, and aspirations of
different times. History, on the other hand, offers a chronological account of human
events, helping us to understand the contexts in which literary works were created.

By examining literature alongside history, students gain a comprehensive view

of how human thought and culture evolve. Literature often serves as a response to
historical events, capturing the emotional and intellectual climate of its time. It allows
readers to engage with the personal and collective narratives that history alone might
not fully convey. Through characters, plots, and settings, literature brings history to
life, offering insights into the human condition that transcend dates and facts.

2. THE NORMAN CONQUEST

On the northern coast of France directly across from England is a district

extending some seventy-five miles back from the Channel and knows as Normandy.
It derives its name from the bands of Northmen who settled there in the ninth and tenth
centuries, at the same time that similar bands were settling in the north and east of
England.

The Normans took important features of Frankish law, including the idea of the
jury and, with a genius for organization that shows up as clearly in the Norman
kingdom of Sicily as in Normandy and later in England, made it one of the outstanding
legal systems of the world. They accepted Christianity and began the construction of
those great Norman cathedrals that are still marvels to the modern architect. But most
important of all, for us, they soon gave up their own language and learned French. In
the eleventh century, at time of the Norman Conquest, the civilization of Normandy

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was essentially French, and the Normans were among the most advanced and
progressive of the peoples of Europe.

For some years before the Norman Conquest the relations between England
and Normandy had been fairly close. In 1002 AEthelred the Unready had married a
Norman wife and, when driven into exile by the Danes, took refuge with his brother-
in-law, the duke of Normandy. His son Edward, who had thus been brought up in
France, was almost more French than English. At all events, when in 1042 the Danish
line died out and Edward, known as the Confessor, was restored to the throne from
which his father had been driven, he brought with him a number of his Norman friends,
enriched them, and gave them important places in the government. A strong French
atmosphere pervaded the English court during the twenty-four years of his reign.

2.1. THE YEAR 1066. CONQUEST

When in January 1066, after a reign of twenty-four years, Edward the Confessor
died childless, England was again faced with the choice of a successor. Before his
death, Edward the Confessor had appointed Godwin the earl of the West Saxon
earldom to be new king, however Godwin died in 1053, his son, Harold, succeeded to
his title and influence and during the last twelve years of Edward’s reign exercised a
firm and capable influence over national affairs. The day after Edward’s death Harold
was elected king.

His election did not long go unchallenged. William, the duke of Normandy at
this time, was a second cousin to the late king. Although this relationship did not give
him any right of inheritance to the English throne, he had nevertheless been living in
expectation of becoming Edward’s successor. Edward seems to have encouraged him
in this hope. While William had been on a brief visit in England, Edward had assured
him that he should succeed him. Even Harold had been led, though unwillingly, to
acknowledge his claim. Having on one occasion fallen into William’s hands, it seems
he had been forced to swear, as the price of his freedom, not to become a candidate
or oppose William’s election. But the English had had enough of French favourites,
and when the time came Harold did not consider himself bound by his former pledge.

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 Only by force could William hope to obtain the crown to which he believed
himself entitled.

His landing was unopposed. Harold was occupied in the north of England
meeting an invasion by the king of Norway, another claimant to the throne. Hardly had
Harold triumphed in battle over the invaders when word reached him of William’s
landing. Harold was forced to meet the invader with few forces as he had. He drew up
his forces on a broad hill at Senlac, not far from Hastings, and awaited William’s attack.
The English fell into the trap. Thinking the Normans were really fleeing, a part of the
English army started in pursuit, intending to cut them down in their flight. But the
Normans made a stand, and the battle was renewed on more even terms.

Harold, always in the thick of the fight, was killed during the battle. According to
tradition, he was pierced in the eye by a Norman arrow (although the Bayeux Tapestry
supplies contradictory evidence about the arrow). In any event, his death seems to
have been instantaneous. Two of his brothers had already fallen. Deprived of their
leaders, the English became disorganized. The confusion spread. The Normans were
quick to profit by the situation, and the English were soon in full retreat. When night
fell they were fleeing in all directions, seeking safety under the cover of darkness, and
William was left in possession of the field.

Although William had won the battle of Hastings and eliminated his rival, he had
not yet attained the English crown. It was only after he had burnt and pillaged the
southeast of England that citizens of London decided that further resistance would be
useless. Accordingly, they capitulated, and on Christmas Day 1066, William was
crowned king of England.

The Conquest of 1066, also known as the Norman Conquest, represents a landmark
event in English history. It began with the death of King Edward the Confessor in
January 1066, which left the English throne without a clear successor. Harold
Godwinson, a powerful English noble, was swiftly crowned king. However, Harold’s
claim was contested by William, Duke of Normandy, who asserted that Edward had
promised him the throne. William’s claim was bolstered by the support of the Pope,
and he prepared an invasion force to enforce his claim.

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 In September 1066, William’s fleet landed on the south coast of England. The
conflict reached its climax at the Battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066. Despite initial
success by Harold’s forces, the Normans eventually emerged victorious. Harold
Godwinson was killed in battle, reportedly by an arrow to the eye, leading to the
disintegration of organized resistance.

William’s victory was swiftly followed by his coronation as King of England on

December 25, 1066. Although he faced several uprisings and challenges to his rule,
William gradually succeeded in consolidating his control over the kingdom. The
aftermath of the conquest was transformative for England. The Norman elite replaced
many of the Anglo-Saxon nobility, leading to significant shifts in the social and political
structures of the country. The English language and culture were heavily influenced
by Norman French, and this cultural integration was further documented by the
creation of the Domesday book in 1086, a comprehensive survey of England’s lands
and resources. The Norman Conquest thus marked the beginning of a new era,
profoundly shaping the course of English history.

2.2. SETTLEMENT

William’s victory at Hastings and his subsequent coronation in London involved

more than a mere substitution of one monarch for another. One of the most important
of these consequences was the introduction of a new nobility. Many of the English
higher class had been killed on the field at Hastings. Those who escaped were treated
as traitors, and the places of both alike were filled by William’s Norman followers. He
was, in fact, acknowledged only in the southeast. It was necessary for him to enter
upon a series of campaigns and to demonstrate, often with ruthless severity, his
master of the country.

For several generations after the Conquest, the important positions and the
great estates were almost always held by Normans or men of foreign blood. In like
manner, Norman prelates were gradually introduced into all important positions in the
church. The English abbots were replaced more slowly, but as fast as vacancies
occurred through death or deprivation they were filled generally by foreigners. It is less
easy to speak with certainty of the Normans in the lower walks of life who came into
England with William’s army. Many of them doubtless remained in the island, and their
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number was increased by constant accretions throughout the rest of the eleventh
century and the whole of the next. Likewise, merchants and craftsmen from the
continent seem to have settled in England in considerable numbers. It is quite
impossible to say how many Normans and French settled in England in the century
and a half following the Conquest, but because the governing class in both church and
state was almost exclusively made up from among them, their influence was out of all
proportion to their number.

3. FRENCH INFLUENCE ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. LOANWORDS AND

CALQUES

Where two languages exist side by side for a long time and the relations
between the people speaking them are as intimate as they were in England, a
considerable transference of words from one language to the other is inevitable. As is
generally the case, the interchange was to some extent mutual. A good many English
words found their way into the French spoken in England. We are naturally less
interested in them here, because they concern rather the history of the Anglo-Norman
language. The number of French words that poured into English was unbelievably
great. There is nothing comparable to it in the previous or subsequent history of the
language.

In this movement two stages can be observed, an earlier and a later, with the
year 1250 as the approximate dividing line. The borrowings of the first stage differ from
those of the second in being much less numerous and in being more likely to show
peculiarities of Anglo-Norman phonology. When we study the French words appearing
in English before 1250, roughly 900 in number, we find that many of them were such
as the lower classes would become familiar with through contact with a French-
speaking nobility (baron, noble, dame, servant, messenger, feast, minstrel, juggler,
largess). Others, such as story, rime, lay, douzepers (the twelve peers of the
Charlemagne romances), obviously owed their introduction into English to literary
channels.

In the period after 1250 the conditions under which French words had been
making their way into English were supplemented by a new and powerful factor: those

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who had been accustomed to speaking French were turning increasingly to the use of
English.

3.1. BUREAUCRACY (GOVERNMENTAL, ADMINISTRATIVE AND LAW) WORDS

We should expect that English would owe many of its words dealing with
government and administration to the language of those who for more than 200 years
made public affairs their chief concern. The words government, govern, administer
(loanwords) might appropriately introduce a list of such words.

It would include such fundamental terms as crown, empire, reign, royal,

sovereign, majesty, parliament, assembly, adjourn, exchequer, liberty. The word office
and the titles of many offices are likewise French: chancellor, chamberlain, governor,
viscount.

Except for the words king and queen, lord, lady, and earl, most designations of
rank are French: noble, nobility, peer, prince, princess, duke, duchess, count,
countess.

The names of many crimes and misdemeanours are French: felony, assault.
Suits involving property brought into use such words as property, estate, patrimony,
heritage, heir.

All the words mentioned above are loanwords, these are some examples of calques:
Civil service, public office, or public sector.

3.2. ECCLESIASTICAL WORDS

In monasteries and religious houses French was for a long time the usual
language. Accordingly, we find in English such French words as religion, theology,
sermon, homily, sacrament, baptism, communion, confession, penance, prayer,
orison, lesson, passion, psalmody; such indications of rank or class as clergy, clerk,
prelate, cardinal, legate, dean, chaplain, parson, pastor, vicar, sexton, abbess, novice,
friar, hermit.

Some ecclesiastical calques are: Holy Spirit, religious service, or religious order.

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3.3. FASHION, MEALS, AND SOCIAL LIFE WORDS

That the upper classes should have set the standard in fashion and dress is so
obvious and assumption that the number of French words belonging to this class
occasions no surprise. The words fashion and dress are themselves French, as are
apparel, habit, gown, robe, garment, attire, cape, cloak, coat, frock, collar, veil, train,
chemise, petticoat. So too are lace, embroidery, pleat, gusset, buckle, button, tassel,
plume, and the names of such articles as kerchief, mitten, garter, galoshes, and boots.

The colours blue, brown, vermilion, scarlet, saffron, russet, and tawny are
French borrowings of this period. Jewel, ornament, brooch, chaplet, ivory, and enamel
point to the luxuries of the wealthy, and it is significant that the names of all the more
familiar precious stones are French: turquoise, amethyst, topaz, garnet, ruby, emerald,
sapphire, pearl, diamond, not to mention crystal, coral, and beryl.

3.4. ART, LEARNING AND MEDICINE WORDS

The cultural and intellectual interests of the ruling class are reflected in words
pertaining to the arts, architecture, literature, learning, and science, especially
medicine. Such words as art, painting, sculpture, music, beauty, colour, figure, image,
tone are typical of the first class, while architecture and building have given us
cathedral, palace, mansion, chamber, ceiling, joist, cellar, garret, chimney, lintel, latch,
lattice, wicket, tower, pinnacle, turret, porch, bay, choir, cloister, baptistry, column,
pillar, base, and many similar words. Literature is represented by the word itself and
by poet, rime, prose, romance, lay, story, chronicle, tragedy, prologue, preface, title,
volume, chapter, quire, parchment, vellum, paper, and pen.

4. CONCLUSION AND TEACHING IMPLICATIONS

This topic plays a vital role in equipping learners with the tools necessary to
navigate the complexities of the English language. A thorough understanding of its
theoretical foundations and practical applications empowers them to communicate
effectively and confidently. By incorporating engaging activities and real-world
examples into lesson plans, educators can foster a deeper appreciation for it and its
role in language acquisition. This exploration provides valuable insights for developing

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effective teaching strategies to address the specific challenges and learning styles of
learners. By fostering a dynamic and interactive learning environment, educators can
empower their students to master grammar skills and become proficient
communicators in English.

Royal Decree 217/2022, of March 29, and Royal Decree 243/2022, of April 5,
at national level, and Decree 65/2022, and Decree 64/2022, of July 20, at regional
level, which regulate the educational curriculum, take into account every grammatical
aspect, including the ones developed in this essay, which are basic strategies for using
linguistic units creatively.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

- Burnley, David. The History of the English Language: a sourcebook. Routledge,

2014.

- De la Concha Muñoz, Ángeles, and Marta Cerezo Moreno. Ejes de la literatura

inglesa medieval y renacentista. Editorial Universitaria Ramón Areces. 2010.

- Durkin, Philip. Borrowed words: A history of loanwords in English. Oxford University

Press, USA, 2014.

- Hogg, Richard M., and Norman Blake, eds. The Cambridge history of the English
language. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 1992.