CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS:

PROBLEMS AND ISSUES, AND TYPES OF

CURRICULA
By
Kabaso Oliver
©2024

Introduction
The curriculum is never a value-free document. The foundations of
the curriculum are guided by some philosophical, sociological, and
psychological understanding of the what, why, and how of a
curriculum. To contextualize the curriculum development process,
Teachers and all stakeholders should be exposed to the curriculum
development process.

The term curriculum was originally defined as a course of study that

was followed by pupils attending educational institutions. It comes
from the idea of a racetrack, or the ‘course’, to be followed in a race.
Curriculum has also been defined as a plan. Plans have no impact
until they are set in motion; thus, learning activities and learning
opportunities remain only opportunities until learners become
engaged with those opportunities or activities.

Curriculum development
Curriculum development as a problem-solving process involves the
critical consideration of resources, needs, and problems for
improvement purposes. A critical component of students' cognitive
understanding is the negotiation among the many concepts and ideas
they are continually processing (Ayersman, 1995).

The curriculum is a reflection and a product of society and can

contribute to change in society. In this respect, it is necessary to
reflect on the issues to reach decisions in a dynamic and responsive
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curriculum development and education process. The purpose of this
assignment is to identify the various curricular issues and problems
in curriculum development. Change is an important component of
curriculum dynamics and we have to study and manage change for
a better future. To cope with change and emerging problems, we have
to accept a contemporary and proactive conception of problem-
solving in a life-long process, predicting future problems, thinking of
their solutions, and the actualization of these processes for the
betterment of individuals, society, and culture.

John Franklin Bobbitt (1918) said that curriculum, as an idea, has

its roots in the Latin word for race-course, explaining the curriculum
as the course of deeds and experiences through which children
become the adults they should be, for success in adult society.

Problems and issues of curriculum development

The process of curriculum development is facing serious issues.
These issues are interference of bureaucrats, the absence of
involvement of school and university teachers/lecturers, etc. Experts
sitting on curriculum development boards in MOE (Ministry of
Education) do not use academic resources properly for revising
outdated sections of school textbooks. They should seek professional
expertise and I am sure they will offer innovative solutions for
meeting the needs of curriculum development. When you are
thinking about education, the most important idea that comes to
mind is curriculum. Curriculum is a channel that school/university
administrations need for giving educational and life skills to
students.

Problems and Issues:

They are similar because both problems and issues cause debate,
concern, and conflict. Some issues can be broken down into smaller

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problems that can be solved by asking questions that can be
answered easily. Problems typically can be solved by asking, how can
something be solved. If it can be answered then the problem is solved.
If the problem cannot be answered easily and people are divided over
the problem then it becomes an issue.

Curriculum development:
The Problems of planning an effective and integrated curriculum are
not simple. A good curriculum involves hard dedicated and intelligent
work conducted on continuous basis. Curriculum development is
continuous work. It must have a philosophical psychological, social,
and economic basis. The curriculum planners have to investigate
carefully and thoroughly the nature and qualification of those for
which the curriculum is to be planned. The fundamental principle of
curriculum planning is “a student must either be selected to fit the
planned curriculum or curriculum must be planned to fit the level of
the students enrolled” (Kelly,1971p.115).

When developing or revising a curriculum one is faced with several

problems and issues. A curriculum is a planned set of activities. The
process of curriculum development is a web of moral and intellectual
purposes and beliefs that ultimately define the political, economic,
and social arrangements of any society. If the society is relatively
stable, the planner can answer many crucial questions underlying
the curriculum It is simple to shape the personality and character of
an individual. Straight hair and a an face that had seemingly never
known cosmetics.

In highly dynamic societies curriculum problems are more complex.

Decisions about aims, goals objectives, selection of major areas of
curriculum, choosing learning eexperiences, and evaluation
procedures are reached after input from various groups.

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Issues in Curriculum Development
The process of curriculum development is not a static process, but it
is a dynamic exercise that must undergo changes according to our
society’s new demands. There are many reasons for the ffailure to
develop a roper curriculum. Issues to Consider include:

1. Globalization is a constant issue. In a world of ever-increasing

complexity, what are our obligations to teach, “How the world
works”? How does faculty adapt or change educational paradigms
to be more responsive to an increasingly interconnected world and
far-reaching economic, social, political, and technological changes
resulting from globalization?

2. Looking at demographic trends, how can you meet the educational

needs, demands &expectations of its stakeholders? Educational
challenges: anticipating the knowledge, skills, critical thinking
abilities &wisdom needed for the globalized future Goal today: to
begin working on a curricular scaffold for faculty to work
collaboratively in shaping the future of education at your
institution.

Other issues in curriculum development include:

1. Outdated Curriculum
Firstly, the curriculum is outdated, and does not meet the local
needs of society. The curriculum problems are that our present
generation is learning the same knowledge that the revious two/or
maybe three generations have learned As students from different
parts of the world get difficult mathematical and scientific knowledge
throughactivity-based learning, our students are forced to
learnscientific concepts through cramming.

For example, in school textbooks, there are many scientific and

factual mistakes. It is a sad situation that experts designing school
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textbooks of sciences/mathematics at the secondary level do not pay
attention to the concept of scientific and facts correctly.

2. Involvement of government officials

Secondly, the involvement of government officers in the development
of curriculum is proving harmful to our education system. Someone
could suggest that the current process of curriculum development is
based on a uniform policy for the whole country that has its
particular aims and goals, but I think that it is not possible to apply
national educational policy to different regions of the country with
equality.
For example, there are many underdeveloped areas where parents do
not have adequate resources to send their children to schools. The
drop-out rate from schools is high because parents cannot afford the
expense of education easily. Hence, a new educational policy has to
be made by government officers for poor students, so that their
problems of education can be solved. One way of doing this is to build
schools, where students are allowed to study in the evening time, and
where books having basic knowledge about core subjects such as
English, Mathematics and Science, as well as comparative studies
are taught by trained teachers.

3. Lack of academic research

Thirdly, the problem that the process of curriculum development
faces in Afghanistan is improper academic research for writing school
textbooks. We can point out that those experts sitting on the
curriculum development boards use materials of their own choice for
instruction in schools. I must say that most of the time the chosen
content is not up to the mark. This should go through textbooks
approved by a board system in the country, it becomes clear that no
suitable research/evaluation system is created to revise the
curriculum.
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4. Absence of school teachers’ involvement
Fourthly, it is seen that the academic experience of teachers from
different schools is also not considered in designing and revising
school curricula. Daniel Tanner and Laurel N. Tanner in their book,
“Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice,” suggest that
without the intelligent participation of school teachers, meaningful
curriculum development will not be achieved.

Tanner and Tanner say that teachers, who are involved in bringing
out educational change, accept and adopt the new ideas more quickly
than those teachers who are not involved in carrying out change.
Useful evidence suggests that in countries where well-educated
teachers were not involved in the curriculum development process,
they did not accept new changes in school textbooks.

5. Result of weak academic skills of researchers

With a lack of academic skills in researchers responsible for
designing curricula for schools, the most important feature of the
curriculum, i.e. content suffers a lot. Students follow a rote learning
process because the content of their books does not match their
educational skills.

To make students problem-solvers, I would argue that our books

must contain questions that relate to problems we face in our daily
lives. By answering those questions, students will learn to solve
issues in difficult situations. For example, while studying the concept
of speed in science, students must be given questions related to real-
life examples of speed such as the speed of a car, etc., so that they
know the application of the concept. MOE (Ministry of Education)
must contribute to solving curriculum problems in our country
Zambia. MOE should have developed a curriculum that provides
activity-based learning to students and gives problem-solving skills

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to them. Peace and prosperity are not impossible in Zambia if our
local and national leaders pay respect to their national interest.

Factors Affecting Curriculum Development

Factors affecting Curriculum Development include:
1. Lack of Sequence
2. Economic Problems
3. Political Interference
4. Inadequate Evaluation
5. Disapproval of society
6. Curriculum more Urbanized
7. Lack of Teaching Material
8. Lack of In-services Training
9. Teachers Reluctant to Accept Change
10. Lack of commitment of National Philosophy

1. Lack of Sequence:
There is little coordination among the committees working on
curriculum development at various stages. When a student
completes his studies at a particular stage and enters the next
stage, he finds himself helpless. The concepts being taught at this
stage are quite strange. Needed that learning experiences selected
and organized for every stage should follow the previous one and
should be sequential in form.

2. Economic Problems:
Change in curriculum needs financial support.• New teaching
materials are required.• Teachers need to be provided with in-
service training and equipped with new teaching materials
textbooks are to be revised to fulfill the changing needs of society.•
Supportive personnel are required to assist the teachers in the
effective implementation of new curriculum designs.

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3. Political Interference:
It would be tempting, to argue that education should be taken out
of politics. An educational will expect political parties to clarify
their general educational aims and policies, which concern broad
social issues.• Every person coming into power brings with him
his vested interests and few educational plans for the nation, in
such an atmosphere educationists are likely to suffer from
frustration

4. Inadequate Evaluation:
If the evaluation is to be of any educational worth, it cannot be
regarded, as it is in most schools worldwide, an evaluation must
become an integral part of the total learning process and not an
appendage to it.

5. Disapproval of society:
The school curriculum according to Lawton is essentially a
selection from the culture of society. Certain aspects of our ways
of life, certain kinds of “knowledge”, certain values and attitudes
are regarded as so important that their transmission to the next
generation is very necessary.

6. Curriculum more Urbanized:

Uniformity has always been misinterpreted.• About seventy
percent of the total population is settled in rural areas. But the
same courses are being offered in rural and urban schools, when
urban children come with a certain background of language, for
example; Nyanja or Bemba with either subject such as social
studies, general science, etc. The need is to design a separate
curriculum for rural areas.

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7. Lack of Teaching Material:
Many of the educational programmers are fain due to a lack of
teaching materials. This master system was introduced in the
institution of higher education. It faced many problems due to a
lack of textbooks and other teaching materials. However, teacher
too, takes a little interest but the major factor for its failure is a
shortage of instructional materials.

8. Lack of In-services Training:

When new curricula designed are brought into practice the
teachers are not properly introduced to new learning activities and
teaching strategies. If teachers are to be mobilized in support of
curriculum change, both initial and in-service teacher education
must convince them of their crucial role in promoting innovation.
It provides a place where teachers can find solutions to practice
they have encountered in the classroom.

9. Teacher Reluctant to Accept Change:

It is a universal phenomenon that teachers are considered to be
conservative.• They have reasons for being unwilling to change
their approaches, not least because they have an investment in
knowledge and skills, which tend to be devalued by the passage of
time; they face the natural human temptation to resist any change
that may render their stock in trade obstacle. Secondary always
opposed new curricula as they are supposed to pay more attention
to new concepts and ideas

10. Lack of commitment to National Philosophy:

A workable educational policy is always based on a philosophy.
Every nation has a philosophical way of life. Due to a lack of
philosophy, we are unable to derive consistent educational
objectives.
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Types of Curricula
1. Overt, explicit, or written curriculum
It is simply that which is written as part of formal instruction of
schooling experiences. It may refer to a curriculum document, texts,
films, and supportive teaching materials that are overtly chosen to
support the intentional instructional agenda of a school. Thus, the
overt curriculum is usually confined to those written understandings
and directions formally designated and reviewed by administrators,
curriculum directors, and teachers, often collectively. It appears in
state and local documents like state standards, district curriculum
guides, course of study, scope and sequence charts, and teachers’
planning documents given to schools

2. Societal curriculum (or social curricula)

As defined by Cortes (1981). Cortes defines this curriculum as:…[the]
massive, ongoing, informal curriculum of family, peer groups,
neighborhoods, churches, organizations, occupations, mass media,
and other socializing forces that “educate” all of us throughout our
lives. This type of curriculum can now be expanded to include the
powerful effects of social media (YouTube; Facebook; Twitter;
Pinterest, etc) and how it actively helps create new perspectives and
can help shape both individual and public opinion.

3. Hidden Curriculum
Hidden curriculum refers to the unwritten, unofficial, and often
unintended lessons, values, and perspectives that students learn in
school. While the “formal” curriculum consists of the courses,
lessons, and learning activities students participate in, as well as the
knowledge and skills educators intentionally teach to students, the
hidden curriculum consists of the unspoken or implicit academic,
social, and cultural messages that are communicated to students

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while they are in school. It is an unintended curriculum that is not
planned but may modify behavior or influence learning outcomes
that transpire in school.

The hidden curriculum begins early in a child's education. Students

learn to form opinions and ideas about their environment and their
classmates. For example, children learn 'appropriate' ways to act at
school, meaning what's going to make them popular with teachers
and students. They also learn what is expected of them; for example,
many students pick up on the fact that year-end test scores are what
really matter.

4. Null Curriculum
That which we do not teach, thus giving students the message that
these elements are not important in their educational experiences or
our society. Eisner offers some major points as he concludes his
discussion of the null curriculum. The major point I have been trying
to make thus far is that schools have consequences not only by virtue
of what they teach, but also by virtue of what they neglect to teach.
What students cannot consider, what they don’t process they are
unable to use, have consequences for the kinds of lives they lead.
From Eisner’s perspective, the null curriculum is simply that which
is not taught in schools. Somehow, somewhere, some people are
empowered to make conscious decisions as to what is to be included
and what is to be excluded from the overt (written) curriculum. Since
it is physically impossible to teach everything in schools, many topics
and subject areas must be intentionally excluded from the written
curriculum.

Null curriculum refers to what is not taught but actually should be

taught in school according to the needs of society. For example,
environmental education, gender or sex education, life education,

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career planning education, local culture and history education
courses are still empty in some schools.

5. Phantom curriculum
Media and its uses have become important issues in schools.
Exposure to different types of media often provides illustrative
contexts for class discussions, relevant examples, and common icons
and metaphors that make learning and content more meaningful to
the real lives and interests of today's students. In the Information Age
media has become a very strong type of curriculum over which
teachers and parents have little or no control. Type of learning has a
name and definition. It is called the phantom curriculum. It can be
defined as - "The messages prevalent in and through exposure to any
type of media. These components and messages play a major part in
enculturation and socializing students into the predominant meta-
culture, or in acculturating students into narrower or generational
subcultures."

6. Concomitant Curriculum
What is taught, or emphasized at home, or those experiences that are
part of a family’s experiences, or related experiences sanctioned by
the family. (This type of curriculum may be received at church, in the
context of religious expression, lessons on values, ethics or morals,
molded behaviors, or social experiences based on the family’s
preferences.)

7. Rhetorical curriculum
It comes from those professionals involved in concept formation and
content changes; from those educational initiatives resulting from
decisions based on national and state reports, public speeches, from
texts critiquing outdated educational practices. The rhetorical

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curriculum may also come from the publicized works offering
updates in pedagogical knowledge.

8. Curriculum in Use
The formal curriculum (written or overt) comprises those things in
textbooks, and content and concepts in the district curriculum
guides. However, those “formal” elements are frequently not taught.
The curriculum-in-use is the actual curriculum that is delivered and
presented by each teacher.

9. Received curriculum
Those things that students actually take out of classrooms; are those
concepts and content that are truly learned and remembered.

10. The internal Curriculum

Processes, content, and knowledge combined with the experiences
and realities of the learner to create new knowledge. While educators
should be aware of this curriculum, they have little control over the
internal curriculum since it is unique to each student.

11. The electronic curriculum

Those lessons are learned through searching the Internet for
information, or through using e-forms of communication. (Wilson,
2004) This type of curriculum may be either formal or informal, and
inherent lessons may be overt or covert, good or bad, correct or
incorrect depending on one’s views.

Students who use the Internet on a regular basis, both for

recreational purposes (as in blogs, wikis, chatrooms, instant
messenger, online conversations, or personal e-mails and sites like
Twitter, Facebook, or Youtube) and for personal online research and
information gathering are bombarded with all types of media and
messages. Much of this information may be factually correct,
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informative, or even entertaining or inspirational. But there is also a
great deal of other e-information that may be very incorrect, dated,
passé, biased, perverse, or even manipulative.

12. Supported Curriculum

The supported curriculum continues to have a strong influence on
the taught curriculum, especially for elementary teachers, who teach
four or five subjects. The textbook is often their major source of
content knowledge. It includes all the facilities and materials that will
help the teacher in implementing the curriculum for a successful
teaching-learning process

13. Assessed Curriculum

A tested or evaluated curriculum where teachers use paper-and-
pencil tests, practical exams, and/or portfolios to assess the
student's progress and for them to determine the extent of their
teaching during and after each topic they teach.

The Assessed curriculum seems to have the strongest influence on

the curriculum taught. In an era of accountability, teachers are
understandably concerned about how their students perform on
tests. Much classroom time is spent on developing test-wiseness and
on practice questions similar to those that will appear on district,
state, and national tests. And in almost every class, students ask the
perennial question: "Will this be on the test?" There is a positive side
to this emphasis on tests when they take the form of performance
assessments.

14. Extra Curriculum

The school project programs. An activity at a school or college
pursued in addition to the normal course of study

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Conclusion
Regardless of the model used, curriculum design /development will
include a rationale (or argument for the value of the curriculum),
goals, objectives or purposes, the audience for whom it is intended,
a timeline, chosen subject matter, ideas or plans for teaching,
suggestions for instructional materials to be used, assessments, and
suggested resources. Some curriculum design models are highly
prescriptive and insist that the curriculum begins with a statement
of outcomes that become the driving force for choosing objectives,
specific subject content, strategies, and the like.

Other curriculum design models are more emergent. That is, they
assume the curriculum designer will have a general purpose in mind,
but will leave room for objectives, subject content, strategies, and
assessments to emerge in the process of teacher-student planning.

References
Beane I. A., Toefer C. F., & Alessi S. J. (1986). Curriculum planning
and development. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Bilbao, P. P., Lucido, P. I., Iringan, T. C., & Javier, R. B. (2008).

Curriculum development. Manila: Lorimar Publishing Inc.

Kelly A. (1999). The curriculum: Theory and practice. London: Paul

Chapman.

McNeil J. D. (1990). Curriculum: A comprehensive introduction. Los

Angeles: Harper Collins.

Murray, P. (1993). Curriculum development & design (5th ed). Sydney:

Allen and Unwin.

Mridula, P. (2007). Principles of curriculum reforms. New Delhi:

Vedams eBooks Ltd.

Oliva, P.F. (2001). Developing the Curriculum. 5th ed. N.Y.: Longman.
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Ornstein, A.C. & Hunkins, F.P. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations,
Principles, and Issues Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Rao, V. K. (2005). Principles of curriculum. New Delhi: APH

Publishing Co.

Sharma, R. C. (2002). Modern methods of curriculum organization.

New Delhi: Manohar Book Service.

Wiles, J. W. & Bondi, J. C. (2011). Curriculum development: A guide

to practice (8th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Curriculum development
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AAkKSgSChJA

Introduction to curriculum
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dN8oeQoz9NQ&feature=related

Importance of the syllabus in teaching—Part 1

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T7xLD4XfqAw&feature=related

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