IART I

WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN?

1
THI CONTIXT OI DISIGN
Boforo oxamining lypos of rosoarcl dosigns il is imporlanl lo bo cIoar
aboul llo roIo and purposo of rosoarcl dosign. Wo nood lo undorsland
vlal rosoarcl dosign is and vlal il is nol. Wo nood lo Inov vloro
dosign hls inlo llo vloIo rosoarcl procoss from framing a quoslion lo
hnaIIy anaIysing and roporling dala. Tlis is llo purposo of llis claplor.
Descriptinn and expIanatinn
SociaI rosoarclors asI lvo fundamonlaI lypos of rosoarcl quoslions:
1 W|ci is going on (doscriplivo rosoarcl)`
2 W|q is il going on (oxpIanalory rosoarcl)`
Dcscripiitc rcsccrc|
AIllougl somo poopIo dismiss doscriplivo rosoarcl as 'moro doscrip-
lion', good doscriplion is fundamonlaI lo llo rosoarcl onlorpriso and il
las addod immoasurabIy lo our InovIodgo of llo slapo and naluro of
our socioly. Doscriplivo rosoarcl oncompassos mucl govornmonl spon-
sorod rosoarcl incIuding llo popuIalion consus, llo coIIoclion of a vido
rango of sociaI indicalors and oconomic informalion sucl as lousoloId
oxpondiluro pallorns, limo uso sludios, ompIoymonl and crimo slalislics
and llo IiIo.
Doscriplions can bo concrolo or abslracl. A roIalivoIy concrolo doscrip-
lion migll doscribo llo ollnic mix of a communily, llo clanging ago
prohIo of a popuIalion or llo gondor mix of a vorIpIaco. AIlornalivoIy
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llo doscriplion migll asI moro abslracl quoslions sucl as 'Is llo IovoI of
sociaI inoquaIily incroasing or docIining`', 'Hov socuIar is socioly`' or
'Hov mucl povorly is lloro in llis communily`'
Accuralo doscriplions of llo IovoI of unompIoymonl or povorly lavo
lisloricaIIy pIayod a Ioy roIo in sociaI poIicy roforms (Marsl, 1982). By
domonslraling llo oxislonco of sociaI probIoms, compolonl doscriplion
can claIIongo accoplod assumplions aboul llo vay llings aro and can
provoIo aclion.
Good doscriplion provoIos llo 'vly' quoslions of oxpIanalory
rosoarcl. If vo dolocl groalor sociaI poIarizalion ovor llo Iasl 20 yoars
(i.o. llo ricl aro golling riclor and llo poor aro golling pooror) vo aro
forcod lo asI 'Wly is llis lapponing`' Bul boforo asIing 'vly`' vo musl
bo suro aboul llo facl and dimonsions of llo plonomonon of incroasing
poIarizalion. Il is aII vory voII lo dovoIop oIaboralo lloorios as lo vly
socioly migll bo moro poIarizod nov llan in llo roconl pasl, bul if llo
basic promiso is vrong (i.o. socioly is nol bocoming moro poIarizod) llon
allompls lo oxpIain a non-oxislonl plonomonon aro siIIy.
Of courso doscriplion can dogonoralo lo mindIoss facl galloring or
vlal C.W. MiIIs (1959) caIIod 'abslraclod ompiricism'. Tloro aro pIonly
of oxampIos of unfocusod survoys and caso sludios llal roporl lriviaI
informalion and faiI lo provoIo any 'vly' quoslions or provido any basis
for gonoraIizalion. Hovovor, llis is a funclion of inconsoquonliaI
doscriplions rallor llan an indiclmonl of doscriplivo rosoarcl ilsoIf.
|xp|cncicrq rcsccrc|
IxpIanalory rosoarcl focusos on u|q quoslions. Ior oxampIo, il is ono
lling lo doscribo llo crimo ralo in a counlry, lo oxamino lronds ovor limo
or lo comparo llo ralos in difforonl counlrios. Il is quilo a difforonl lling
lo dovoIop oxpIanalions aboul vly llo crimo ralo is as ligl as il is, vly
somo lypos of crimo aro incroasing or vly llo ralo is liglor in somo
counlrios llan in ollors.
Tlo vay in vlicl rosoarclors dovoIop rosoarcl dosigns is funda-
monlaIIy affoclod by vlollor llo rosoarcl quoslion is doscriplivo or
oxpIanalory. Il affocls vlal informalion is coIIoclod. Ior oxampIo, if vo
vanl lo oxpIain vly somo poopIo aro moro IiIoIy lo bo approlondod and
conviclod of crimos vo nood lo lavo lunclos aboul vly llis is so. Wo
may lavo many possibIy incompalibIo lunclos and viII nood lo coIIocl
informalion llal onabIos us lo soo vlicl lunclos vorI bosl ompiricaIIy.
Ansvoring llo 'vly' quoslions invoIvos dovoIoping ccusc| oxpIana-
lions. CausaI oxpIanalions arguo llal plonomonon Y (o.g. incomo IovoI)
is affoclod by faclor X (o.g. gondor). Somo causaI oxpIanalions viII bo
simpIo vliIo ollors viII bo moro compIox. Ior oxampIo, vo migll arguo
llal lloro is a !ircci offocl of gondor on incomo (i.o. simpIo gondor
discriminalion) (Iiguro 1.1a). Wo migll arguo for a causaI clain, sucl as
llal gondor affocls cloico of hoId of lraining vlicl in lurn affocls
2 WHAT IS RISIARCH DISIGN`
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occupalionaI oplions, vlicl aro IinIod lo opporlunilios for promolion,
vlicl in lurn affocl incomo IovoI (Iiguro 1.1b). Or vo couId posil a moro
compIox modoI invoIving a numbor of inlorroIalod causaI clains (Iiguro
1.1c).
Ivroic1io, covvrin1io no cncsn1io
IoopIo oflon confuso corroIalion vill causalion. SimpIy bocauso ono
ovonl foIIovs anollor, or lvo faclors co-vary, doos nol moan llal ono
causos llo ollor. Tlo IinI bolvoon lvo ovonls may bo coincidonlaI rallor
llan causaI.
Tloro is a corroIalion bolvoon llo numbor of hro onginos al a hro and
llo amounl of damago causod by llo hro (llo moro hro onginos llo moro
damago). Is il lloroforo roasonabIo lo concIudo llal llo numbor of hro
onginos causos llo amounl of damago` CIoarIy llo numbor of hro
onginos and llo amounl of damago viII |ci| bo duo lo somo llird faclor
sucl as llo soriousnoss of llo hro.
SimiIarIy, as llo divorco ralo clangod ovor llo lvonlioll conlury llo
crimo ralo incroasod a fov yoars Ialor. Bul llis doos nol moan llal
divorco causos crimo. Rallor llan divorco causing crimo, divorco and
crimo ralos migll boll bo duo lo ci|cr sociaI procossos sucl as socuIar-
izalion, groalor individuaIism or povorly.
ncome
level
Gender
Gender
Field of
training
Occupation
Promotion
opportunities
ncome
level
Gender
Child-care
responsibility
Occupation
Part time or full
time work
ncome
level
Field of
training
Iiguro 1.1 1|rcc iqpcs c| ccusc| rc|ciicns|ips
3 THI CONTIXT OI DISIGN
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Sludonls al foo paying privalo sclooIs lypicaIIy porform bollor in lloir
hnaI yoar of sclooIing llan lloso al govornmonl fundod sclooIs. Bul llis
nood nol bo bocauso privalo sclooIs prc!ucc bollor porformanco. Il may
bo llal allonding a privalo sclooI and bollor hnaI-yoar porformanco aro
|ci| llo oulcomo of somo ollor causo (soo Ialor discussion).
Confusing causalion vill corroIalion aIso confusos prodiclion vill
causalion and prodiclion vill oxpIanalion. Wloro lvo ovonls or clarac-
lorislics aro corroIalod vo can prodicl ono from llo ollor. Knoving llo
lypo of sclooI allondod improvos our capacily lo prodicl acadomic
acliovomonl. Bul llis doos nol moan llal llo sclooI lypo affocls aca-
domic acliovomonl. Irodicling porformanco on llo basis of sclooI lypo
doos nol loII us u|q privalo sclooI sludonls do bollor. Gcc! prc!iciicn !ccs
nci !cpcn! cn ccusc| rc|ciicns|ips. Ncr !ccs i|c c|i|iiq ic prc!ici cccurcic|q
!cmcnsircic cnqi|ing c|cui ccusc|iiq.
Rocognizing llal causalion is moro llan corroIalion liglIiglls a
probIom. WliIo vo can obsorvo corroIalion uc ccnnci c|scrtc ccusc. Wo
lavo lo in|cr causo. Tloso inforoncos lovovor aro 'nocossariIy faIIibIo . . .
|lloy] aro onIy indiroclIy IinIod lo obsorvabIos' (CooI and CampboII,
1979: 10). Bocauso our inforoncos aro faIIibIo vo musl minimizo llo
clancos of incorroclIy saying llal a roIalionslip is causaI vlon in facl il
is nol. Onc c| i|c |un!cmcnic| purpcscs c| rcsccrc| !csign in cxp|cncicrq
rcsccrc| is ic ctci! intc|i! in|crcnccs.
Dr1rvriis1ic no vvosnsiiis1ic cocrv1s or cncsn1io
Tloro aro lvo vays of llinIing aboul causos: dolorminislicaIIy and
probabiIislicaIIy. Tlo smoIor vlo donios llal lobacco causos cancor
bocauso lo smoIos loaviIy bul las nol conlraclod cancor iIIuslralos
dolorminislic causalion. IrobabiIislic causalion is iIIuslralod by loaIll
aullorilios vlo poinl lo llo incroasod clancos of cancor among smoIors.
Dolorminislic causalion is vloro variabIo X is said lo causo Y if, and
onIy if, X intcric||q producos Y. Tlal is, vlon X is prosonl llon Y viII
'nocossariIy, inovilabIy and infaIIibIy' occur (CooI and CampboII, 1979:
14). Tlis approacl sooIs lo oslabIisl causaI |cus sucl as: vlonovor valor
is loalod lo 100 C il aIvays boiIs.
In roaIily Iavs aro novor llis simpIo. Tloy viII aIvays spocify par-
licuIar ccn!iiicns undor vlicl llal Iav oporalos. Indood a groal doaI of
scionlihc invosligalion invoIvos spocifying llo condilions undor vlicl
parlicuIar Iavs oporalo. Tlus, vo migll say llal ci scc |ctc| loaling purc
valor lo 100 C viII aIvays causo valor lo boiI.
AIlornalivoIy, llo Iav migll bo slalod in llo form of 'ollor llings
boing oquaI' llon X viII aIvays produco Y. A dolorminislic vorsion of llo
roIalionslip bolvoon raco and incomo IovoI vouId say llal ollor llings
boing oquaI (ago, oducalion, porsonaIily, oxporionco olc.) llon a vlilo
porson viII |aIvays] oarn a liglor incomo llan a bIacI porson. Tlal is,
raco (X) causos incomo IovoI (Y).
4 WHAT IS RISIARCH DISIGN`
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Slalod IiIo llis llo nolion of dolorminislic causalion in llo sociaI
scioncos sounds odd. Il is lard lo concoivo of a claraclorislic or ovonl
llal viII invariabIy rosuIl in a givon oulcomo ovon if a fairIy ligll sol of
condilions is spocihod. Tlo ccmp|cxiiq of luman sociaI bolaviour and llo
su|jcciitc, mccning|u| cn! tc|unicrisiic compononls of luman bolaviour
moan llal il viII novor bo possibIo lo arrivo al causaI slalomonls of llo
lypo 'If X, and A and 8, llon Y viII aIvays foIIov.'
Mosl causaI llinIing in llo sociaI scioncos is prc|c|i|isiic rallor llan
!cicrminisiic (Suppos, 1970). Tlal is, vo vorI al llo IovoI llal a givon
faclor incroasos (or docroasos) llo probabiIily of a parlicuIar oulcomo, for
oxampIo: boing fomaIo incroasos llo probabiIily of vorIing parl limo,
raco affocls llo probabiIily of laving a ligl slalus job.
Wo can improvo probabiIislic oxpIanalions by spocifying condilions
undor vlicl X is Ioss IiIoIy and moro IiIoIy lo affocl Y. Bul vo viII novor
acliovo compIolo or dolorminislic oxpIanalions. Human bolaviour is
boll ui||c! and ccusc!: lloro is a doubIo-sidod claraclor lo luman sociaI
bolaviour. IoopIo ccnsiruci lloir sociaI vorId and lloro aro croalivo
aspocls lo luman aclion bul llis froodom and agoncy viII aIvays bo
conslrainod by llo slrucluros villin vlicl poopIo Iivo. Bocauso bolav-
iour is nol simpIy dolorminod vo cannol acliovo dolorminislic oxpIana-
lions. Hovovor, bocauso bolaviour is conslrainod vo can acliovo
probabiIislic oxpIanalions. Wo can say llal a givon faclor viII incroaso
llo IiIoIilood of a givon oulcomo bul lloro viII novor bo corlainly aboul
oulcomos.
Dospilo llo probabiIislic naluro of causaI slalomonls in llo sociaI
scioncos, mucl popuIar, idooIogicaI and poIilicaI discourso lransIalos
lloso inlo dolorminislic slalomonls. Iindings aboul llo causaI offocls of
cIass, gondor or ollnicily, for oxampIo, aro oflon road as if lloso faclors
invariabIy and compIoloIy produco parlicuIar oulcomos. Ono couId bo
forgivon for llinIing llal sociaI scionco las domonslralod llal gondor
compIoloIy and invariabIy dolorminos posilion in socioly, roIos in
famiIios, vaIuos and vays of roIaling lo ollor poopIo.
Thenry testing and thenry cnnstructinn
Allompls lo ansvor llo 'vly' quoslions in sociaI scionco aro lloorios.
Tloso lloorios vary in lloir ccmp|cxiiq (lov many variabIos and IinIs),
c|sircciicn and sccpc. To undorsland llo roIo of lloory in ompiricaI
rosoarcl il is usofuI lo dislinguisl bolvoon lvo difforonl slyIos of
rosoarcl: lloory losling and lloory buiIding (Iiguro 1.2).
1|ccrq |ui|!ing
Tloory buiIding is a procoss in vlicl rosoarcl bogins vill obsorvalions
and usos in!uciitc roasoning lo dorivo a lloory from lloso obsorvalions.
5 THI CONTIXT OI DISIGN
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Tloso lloorios allompl lo maIo sonso of obsorvalions. Bocauso llo lloory
is producod c|icr obsorvalions aro mado il is oflon caIIod pcsi |ccium
lloory (Morlon, 1968) or cx pcsi |ccic lloorizing.
Tlis form of lloory buiIding onlaiIs asIing vlollor llo obsorvalion is
c pcriicu|cr ccsc c| c mcrc gcncrc| |ccicr, or lov llo obsorvalion is inic c
pciicrn cr c sicrq. Ior oxampIo, DurIloim obsorvod llal llo suicido ralo
vas liglor among Iroloslanls llan CalloIics. Bul is roIigious afhIialion a
parlicuIar caso of somolling moro gonoraI` Of vlal moro gonoraI
plonomonon migll il bo an indicalor` Aro lloro ollor obsorvalions llal
slod Iigll on llis` Ho aIso obsorvod llal mon voro moro suicidaI llan
vomon, urban dvoIIors moro llan ruraI dvoIIors and llo sociaIIy mobiIo
moro llan llo sociaIIy slabIo. Ho arguod llal llo common faclor bolind
aII lloso obsorvalions vas llal lloso groups vlo voro mosl suicidaI
voro aIso Ioss voII sociaIIy inlogralod and oxporioncod groalor ambiguily
aboul lov lo bolavo and vlal is rigll and vrong. Ho lloorizod llal ono
of llo oxpIanalions for suicidaI bolaviour vas a sonso of normIossnoss
a disconnoclodnoss of individuaIs from lloir sociaI vorId. Of courso,
lloro may lavo boon ollor vays of accounling for lloso obsorvalions bul
al Ioasl DurIloim's oxpIanalion vas consislonl vill llo facls.
1|ccrq icsiing
In conlrasl, a lloory losling approacl |cgins vill a lloory and usos
lloory lo guido vlicl obsorvalions lo maIo: il movos from llo gonoraI
lo llo parlicuIar. Tlo obsorvalions slouId provido a losl of llo vorll
of llo lloory. Using !c!uciitc roasoning lo dorivo a sol of proposilions
from llo lloory doos llis. Wo nood lo dovoIop lloso proposilions so llal
Empirical
level
Deductive reasoning
Start
here
Obs 1 Obs 2 Obs 3 Obs 4
Obs 1 Obs 2 Obs 3 Obs 4
Conceptual-abstract
level
nductive reasoning
Empirical
level
Start
here
Theory
Conceptual-abstract
level
Theory
Iiguro 1.2 1|ccrq |ui|!ing cn! i|ccrq icsiing cpprccc|cs ic rcsccrc|
6 WHAT IS RISIARCH DISIGN`
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i| i|c i|ccrq is iruc i|cn ccricin i|ings s|cu|! |c||cu in llo roaI vorId. Wo
llon assoss vlollor lloso prodiclions aro corrocl. If lloy aro corrocl llo
lloory is supporlod. If lloy do nol loId up llon llo lloory noods lo bo
oillor rojoclod or modihod.
Ior oxampIo, vo may visl lo losl llo lloory llal il is nol divorco ilsoIf
llal affocls llo voIIboing of cliIdron bul llo IovoI of conicl bolvoon
paronls. To losl llis idoa vo can maIo prodiclions aboul llo voIIboing of
cliIdron undor difforonl famiIy condilions. Ior llo simpIo lloory llal il
is paronlaI conicl rallor llan divorco llal affocls a cliId's voIIboing
lloro aro four basic 'condilions' (soo Iiguro 1.3). Ior oacl 'condilion' llo
lloory vouId maIo difforonl prodiclions aboul llo IovoI of cliIdron's
voIIboing llal vo can oxamino.
If llo lloory llal il is paronlaI conicl rallor llan paronlaI divorco is
corrocl llo foIIoving proposilions slouId bo supporlod:
-
Prcpcsiiicn 1. c|i|!rcn in siiuciicns (c) cn! (|) ucu|! |c cuc||q uc||
c|| Tlal is, vloro paronlaI conicl is Iov, cliIdron vill divorcod
paronls viII do jusl as voII as lloso vloso paronls aro marriod.
-
Prcpcsiiicn 2. c|i|!rcn in siiuciicns (c) cn! (!) s|cu|! |c cuc||q pccr|q
c|| Tlal is, cliIdron in conicluaI coupIo famiIios viII do jusl as
badIy as cliIdron in posl-divorco famiIios vloro paronls suslain ligl
conicl.
-
Prcpcsiiicn 3. c|i|!rcn in siiuciicn (c) ui|| !c ucrsc i|cn i|csc in siiuciicn
(c) Tlal is, lloso vill marriod paronls in ligl conicl viII do
vorso llan lloso vlo lavo marriod paronls vlo aro nol in conicl.
-
Prcpcsiiicn 4. c|i|!rcn in siiuciicn (!) ui|| !c ucrsc i|cn i|csc in siiuciicn
(|) Tlal is, lloso vill divorcod paronls in ligl conicl viII do
vorso llan lloso vlo lavo divorcod paronls vlo aro nol in conicl.
-
Prcpcsiiicn 5. c|i|!rcn in siiuciicn (|) ui|| !c |ciicr i|cn i|csc in siiuciicn
(c) Tlal is, cliIdron vill divorcod paronls vlo aro nol in conicl
viII do bollor llan lloso vill marriod paronls vlo aro in conicl.
-
Prcpcsiiicn 6. c|i|!rcn in siiuciicn (c) ui|| !c |ciicr i|cn i|csc in siiuciicn
(!) Tlal is, cliIdron vill marriod paronls vlo aro nol in conicl
viII do bollor llan lloso vill divorcod paronls vlo aro in conicl.
Parents divorced?
Parental conflict
No Yes
Low (a) (b)
High (c) (d)
Iiguro 1.3 1|c rc|ciicns|ip |ciuccn !itcrcc cn! pcrcnic| ccn||ici
7 THI CONTIXT OI DISIGN
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No singIo proposilion vouId provido a compoIIing losl of llo originaI
lloory. Indood, laIon on ils ovn proposilion 3, for oxampIo, vouId
rovoaI nolling aboul llo impacl of divorco. Hovovor, laIon as a pacI-
ago, llo sci of proposilions providos a slrongor losl of llo lloory llan any
singIo proposilion.
AIllougl lloory losling and lloory buiIding aro oflon prosonlod as
aIlornalivo modos of rosoarcl lloy slouId bo parl of ono ongoing procoss
(Iiguro 1.4). TypicaIIy, lloory buiIding viII produco a pIausibIo accounl
or oxpIanalion of a sol of obsorvalions. Hovovor, sucl oxpIanalions aro
froquonlIy jusl ono of a numbor of possibIo oxpIanalions llal hl llo dala.
WliIo pIausibIo lloy aro nol nocossariIy compoIIing. Tloy roquiro
syslomalic losling vloro dala aro coIIoclod lo spocihcaIIy ovaIualo lov
voII llo oxpIanalion loIds vlon subjoclod lo a rango of cruciaI losls.
What is research design?
Hov is llo lorm 'rosoarcl dosign' lo bo usod in llis booI` An anaIogy
migll loIp. Wlon conslrucling a buiIding lloro is no poinl ordoring
maloriaIs or solling crilicaI dalos for compIolion of projocl slagos unliI vo
Inov vlal sorl of buiIding is boing conslruclod. Tlo hrsl docision is
vlollor vo nood a ligl riso ofhco buiIding, a faclory for manufacluring
maclinory, a sclooI, a rosidonliaI lomo or an aparlmonl bIocI. UnliI llis
is dono vo cannol sIolcl a pIan, oblain pormils, vorI oul a vorI
scloduIo or ordor maloriaIs.
Theory
Propositions
Collect data
Analyse
data
mplications for
propositions
New
theory
nference Deduction
Starting point of
theory building
Starting point of
theory testing
Develop measures,
sample etc.
Iiguro 1.4 1|c |cgic c| i|c rcsccrc| prcccss
8 WHAT IS RISIARCH DISIGN`
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SimiIarIy, sociaI rosoarcl noods a dosign or a slrucluro boforo dala
coIIoclion or anaIysis can commonco. A rosoarcl dosign is nci jusl a vorI
pIan. A vorI pIan dolaiIs vlal las lo bo dono lo compIolo llo projocl bul
llo vorI pIan viII ov from llo projocl's rosoarcl dosign. 1|c |unciicn c|
c rcsccrc| !csign is ic cnsurc i|ci i|c cti!cncc c|icinc! cnc||cs us ic cnsucr i|c
iniiic| ucsiicn cs uncm|igucus|q cs pcssi||c. Oblaining roIovanl ovidonco
onlaiIs spocifying llo lypo of ovidonco noodod lo ansvor llo rosoarcl
quoslion, lo losl a lloory, lo ovaIualo a programmo or lo accuraloIy
doscribo somo plonomonon. In ollor vords, vlon dosigning rosoarcl
vo nood lo asI: givon llis rosoarcl quoslion (or lloory), vlal lypo of
ovidonco is noodod lo ansvor llo quoslion (or losl llo lloory) in c
ccntincing ucq`
Rosoarcl dosign 'doaIs vill a |cgicc| probIom and nol a |cgisiicc|
probIom' (Yin, 1989: 29). Boforo a buiIdor or arclilocl can dovoIop a vorI
pIan or ordor maloriaIs lloy musl hrsl oslabIisl llo lypo of buiIding
roquirod, ils usos and llo noods of llo occupanls. Tlo vorI pIan ovs
from llis. SimiIarIy, in sociaI rosoarcl llo issuos of sampIing, mollod of
dala coIIoclion (o.g. quoslionnairo, obsorvalion, documonl anaIysis),
dosign of quoslions aro aII subsidiary lo llo mallor of 'Wlal ovidonco do
I nood lo coIIocl`'
Too oflon rosoarclors dosign quoslionnairos or bogin inlorvioving far
loo oarIy boforo llinIing llrougl vlal informalion lloy roquiro lo
ansvor lloir rosoarcl quoslions. Willoul allonding lo lloso rosoarcl
dosign mallors al llo boginning, llo concIusions dravn viII normaIIy bo
voaI and unconvincing and faiI lo ansvor llo rosoarcl quoslion.
Dcsign tcrsus mci|c!
Rosoarcl dosign is difforonl from llo mollod by vlicl dala aro
coIIoclod. Many rosoarcl mollods loxls confuso rosoarcl dosigns vill
mollods. Il is nol uncommon lo soo rosoarcl dosign lroalod as a modo of
dala coIIoclion rallor llan as a IogicaI slrucluro of llo inquiry. Bul lloro
is nolling inlrinsic aboul any rosoarcl dosign llal roquiros a parlicuIar
mollod of dala coIIoclion. AIllougl cross-soclionaI survoys aro fro-
quonlIy oqualod vill quoslionnairos and caso sludios aro oflon oqualod
vill parlicipanl obsorvalion (o.g. Wlylo's Sircci Ccrncr Scciciq, 1943),
dala for any dosign can bo coIIoclod vill any dala coIIoclion mollod
(Iiguro 1.5). Hov llo dala aro coIIoclod is irroIovanl lo llo |cgic of llo
dosign.
IaiIing lo dislinguisl bolvoon dosign and mollod Ioads lo poor
ovaIualion of dosigns. Iqualing cross-soclionaI dosigns vill quoslion-
nairos, or caso sludios vill parlicipanl obsorvalion, moans llal llo
dosigns aro oflon ovaIualod againsl llo slronglls and voaInossos of llo
mollod rallor llan lloir abiIily lo drav roIalivoIy unambiguous concIu-
sions or lo soIocl bolvoon rivaI pIausibIo lypollosos.
9 THI CONTIXT OI DISIGN
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Qcn1i1n1ivr no Qcnii1n1ivr vrsrnvcn
SimiIarIy, dosigns aro oflon oqualod vill quaIilalivo and quanlilalivo
rosoarcl mollods. SociaI survoys and oxporimonls aro froquonlIy viovod
as primo oxampIos of quanlilalivo rosoarcl and aro ovaIualod againsl llo
slronglls and voaInossos of slalislicaI, quanlilalivo rosoarcl mollods
and anaIysis. Caso sludios, on llo ollor land, aro oflon soon as primo
oxampIos of quaIilalivo rosoarcl vlicl adopls an inlorprolivo approacl
lo dala, sludios 'llings' villin lloir conloxl and considors llo subjoclivo
moanings llal poopIo bring lo lloir silualion.
Il is orronoous lo oqualo a parlicuIar rosoarcl dosign vill oillor
quanlilalivo or quaIilalivo mollods. Yin (1993), a rospoclod aullorily on
caso sludy dosign, las slrossod llo irroIovanco of llo quanlilalivo/
quaIilalivo dislinclion for caso sludios. Ho poinls oul llal:
Design
type
Method
of data
collection
Experiment
Questionnaire
nterview
(structured or
loosely
structured)
Observation
Analysis of
documents
Unobtrusive
methods
Case study
Questionnaire
nterview
(structured or
loosely
structured)
Observation
Analysis of
documents
Unobtrusive
methods
Longitudinal
design
Questionnaire
nterview
(structured or
loosely
structured)
Observation
Analysis of
documents
Unobtrusive
methods
Cross-sectional
design
Questionnaire
nterview
(structured or
loosely
structured)
Observation
Analysis of
documents
Unobtrusive
methods
Iiguro 1.5 Rc|ciicns|ip |ciuccn rcsccrc| !csign cn! pcriicu|cr !cic cc||cciicn
mci|c!s
10 WHAT IS RISIARCH DISIGN`
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a poinl of confusion . . . las boon llo unforlunalo IinIing bolvoon llo caso
sludy mollod and corlain lypos of dala coIIoclion for oxampIo lloso focusing
on quaIilalivo mollods, ollnograply, or parlicipanl obsorvalion. IoopIo lavo
llougll llal llo caso sludy mollod roquirod llom lo ombraco lloso dala
coIIoclion mollods . . . On llo conlrary, llo mollod doos nol impIy any
parlicuIar form of dala coIIoclion vlicl can bo quaIilalivo or quanlilalivo.
(1993: 32)
SimiIarIy, Marsl (1982) arguos llal quanlilalivo survoys can provido
informalion and oxpIanalions llal aro 'adoqualo al llo IovoI of moaning'.
WliIo rocognizing llal survoy rosoarcl las nol aIvays boon good al
lapping llo subjoclivo dimonsion of bolaviour, slo arguos llal:
MaIing sonso of sociaI aclion . . . is . . . lard and survoys lavo nol lradilionaIIy
boon vory good al il. Tlo oarIiosl survoy rosoarclors slarlod a lradilion . . . of
bringing llo moaning from oulsido, oillor by maIing uso of llo rosoarclor's
slocI of pIausibIo oxpIanalions . . . or by bringing il from subsidiary in-dopll
inlorviovs sprinIIing quolos . . . IiboraIIy on llo rav corroIalions dorivod from
llo survoy. Survoy rosoarcl bocamo mucl moro oxciling . . . vlon il bogan
incIuding moaningfuI dimonsions in llo sludy dosign. |Tlis las boon dono in]
lvo vays, hrslIy |by] asIing llo aclor oillor for lor roasons diroclIy, or lo
suppIy informalion aboul llo conlraI vaIuos in lor Iifo around vlicl vo may
assumo slo is orionling lor Iifo. |Tlis] invoIvos coIIocling a sufhcionlIy
compIolo picluro of llo conloxl in vlicl an aclor hnds lorsoIf llal a loam of
oulsidors may road off llo moaningfuI dimonsions. (1982: 1234)
A!cpiing c sccpiicc| cpprccc| ic cxp|cnciicns
Tlo nood for rosoarcl dosign sloms from a scoplicaI approacl lo rosoarcl
and a viov llal scionlihc InovIodgo musl aIvays bo provisionaI. Tlo
purposo of rosoarcl dosign is lo roduco llo ambiguily of mucl rosoarcl
ovidonco.
Wo can aIvays hnd somo ovidonco consislonl vill aImosl any lloory.
Hovovor, vo slouId bo scoplicaI of llo ovidonco, and rallor llan
sooIing ovidonco llal is ccnsisicni vill our lloory vo slouId sooI
ovidonco llal providos a ccmpc||ing losl of llo lloory.
Tloro aro lvo roIalod slralogios for doing llis: oIiminaling rivaI
oxpIanalions of llo ovidonco and doIiboraloIy sooIing ovidonco llal
couId !isprctc llo lloory.
Iincsisir vivni nvvo1nrsrs
A fundamonlaI slralogy of sociaI rosoarcl invoIvos ovaIualing 'pIausibIo
rivaI lypollosos'. Wo nood lo oxamino and ovaIualo aIlornalivo vays of
oxpIaining a parlicuIar plonomonon. Tlis appIios rogardIoss of vlollor
llo dala aro quanlilalivo or quaIilalivo, rogardIoss of llo parlicuIar
rosoarcl dosign (oxporimonlaI, cross-soclionaI, IongiludinaI or caso
11 THI CONTIXT OI DISIGN
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sludy), and rogardIoss of llo mollod of dala coIIoclion (o.g. obsorvalion,
quoslionnairo). Our mindsol noods lo anlicipalo aIlornalivo vays of
inlorproling hndings and lo rogard any inlorprolalion of lloso hndings
as provisionaI subjocl lo furllor losling.
Tlo idoa of ovaIualing pIausibIo rivaI lypollosos can bo iIIuslralod
using llo oxampIo of llo corroIalion bolvoon lypo of sclooI allondod and
acadomic acliovomonl. Many paronls accopl llo causaI proposilion llal
allondanco al foo paying privalo sclooIs improvos a cliId's acadomic
porformanco (Iiguro 1.6). SclooIs llomsoIvos promolo llo samo nolion
by prominonlIy advorlising lloir pass ralos and comparing llom vill
lloso of ollor sclooIs or vill nalionaI avoragos. By impIicalion lloy
proposo a causaI connoclion: 'Sond your cliId lo our sclooI and lloy viII
pass (or gol grados lo gain onlry inlo prosligious inslilulions, coursos).'
Tlo dala lloy provido aro consislonl vill lloir proposilion llal lloso
sclooIs produco bollor rosuIls.
Causal relationship
School type
Academic
achievement
Alternative explanation: selectivity on child's initial ability
Child's ability
School type
Academic
achievement
Alternative explanation: family resources
Parental
resources
Facilities in
home for study
School type
Academic
achievement
Alternative explanation: educational values
Parental
valuation of
education
Child's
valuation of
education
School type
Academic
achievement
Iiguro 1.6 Ccusc| cn! ncn-ccusc| cxp|cnciicns c| i|c rc|ciicns|ip |ciuccn
sc|cc| iqpc cn! ccc!cmic cc|ictcmcni
12 WHAT IS RISIARCH DISIGN`
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Bul lloso dala aro nol compoIIing. Tloro aro al Ioasl llroo ollor vays
of accounling for llis corroIalion villoul accopling llo causaI IinI
bolvoon sclooI lypo and acliovomonl (Iiguro 1.6). Tloro is llo sc|cciitiiq
oxpIanalion: llo moro abIo sludonls may bo sonl lo foo paying privalo
sclooIs in llo hrsl pIaco. Tloro is llo |cmi|q rcscurccs oxpIanalion: paronls
vlo can afford lo sond lloir cliIdron lo foo paying privalo sclooIs can
aIso afford ollor loIp (o.g. booIs, privalo luloring, quiol sludy spaco,
compulors). Il is llis loIp rallor llan llo lypo of sclooI llal producos llo
bollor porformanco of privalo sclooI sludonls. IinaIIy, lloro is llo famiIy
tc|ucs oxpIanalion: paronls vlo vaIuo oducalion mosl aro proparod lo
sond lloir cliIdron lo foo paying privalo sclooIs and il is llis famiIy
omplasis on oducalion, nol llo sclooIs llomsoIvos, llal producos llo
bollor acadomic porformanco. AII lloso oxpIanalions aro oquaIIy con-
sislonl vill llo obsorvalion llal privalo sclooI sludonls do bollor llan
govornmonl sclooI sludonls. Willoul coIIocling furllor ovidonco vo
cannol clooso bolvoon lloso oxpIanalions and lloroforo musl romain
opon mindod aboul vlicl ono maIos mosl ompiricaI sonso.
Tloro migll aIso bo mollodoIogicaI oxpIanalions for llo hnding llal
privalo sclooI sludonls porform bollor acadomicaIIy. Tloso mollodoIo-
gicaI issuos migll undormino any argumonl llal a causaI connoclion
oxisls. Aro llo rosuIls duo lo quoslionabIo vays of moasuring acliovo-
monl` Irom vlal rango and numbor of sclooIs voro llo dala oblainod`
On lov many casos aro llo concIusions basod` CouId llo pallorn simpIy
bo a funclion of clanco` Tloso aro aII possibIo aIlornalivo oxpIanalions
for llo hnding llal privalo sclooI sludonls porform bollor.
Good rosoarcl dosign viII anlicipalo compoling oxpIanalions |c|crc
coIIocling dala so llal roIovanl informalion for ovaIualing llo roIalivo
morils of lloso compoling oxpIanalions is oblainod. In llis oxampIo of
sclooIs and acadomic acliovomonl, llinIing aboul aIlornalivo pIausibIo
lypollosos boforoland vouId Ioad us lo hnd oul aboul llo paronls'
hnanciaI rosourcos, llo sludy rosourcos avaiIabIo in llo lomo, llo
paronls' and cliId's alliludos aboul oducalion and llo cliId's acadomic
abiIilios boforo onloring llo sclooI.
1|c |c||ccq c| c|rming i|c ccnscucni AIllougl ovidonco may bo con-
sislonl vill an iniliaI proposilion il migll bo oquaIIy consislonl vill a
rango of aIlornalivo proposilions. Too oflon poopIo do nol ovon llinI of
llo aIlornalivo lypollosos and simpIy concIudo llal sinco llo ovidonco is
consislonl vill lloir lloory llon llo lloory is lruo. Tlis form of
roasoning commils llo IogicaI |c||ccq c| c|rming i|c ccnscucni. Tlis form
of roasoning las llo foIIoving IogicaI slrucluro:
-
If A is lruo llon B slouId foIIov.
-
Wo obsorvo B.
-
Tloroforo A is lruo.
13 THI CONTIXT OI DISIGN
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If vo appIy llis Iogic lo llo lypo of sclooI and acliovomonl proposilion,
llo IogicaI slrucluro of llo sclooI lypo and acliovomonl argumonl
bocomos cIoaror.
IniliaI proposilion:
-
Irivalo sclooIs produco bollor sludonls llan do govornmonl sclooIs.
Tlo losl:
-
|| A i|cn 8 If privalo sclooIs produco bollor sludonls (A) llon lloir
sludonls slouId gol bollor hnaI marIs llan lloso from govornmonl
fundod sclooIs (B).
-
8 is iruc Irivalo sclooI sludonls do acliovo bollor hnaI marIs llan
govornmonl sclooI sludonls (obsorvo B).
-
1|crc|crc A is iruc Tloroforo privalo sclooIs do produco bollor
sludonls (A is lruo).
Bul as I lavo aIroady arguod, llo bollor porformanco of privalo sclooI
sludonls migll aIso roocl llo offocl of ollor faclors. Tlo probIom loro is
llal any numbor of oxpIanalions may bo corrocl and llo ovidonco doos
nol loIp ruIo oul many of lloso. Ior llo sociaI scionlisl llis IovoI of
indolorminacy is quilo unsalisfaclory. In offocl vo aro onIy in a posilion
lo say:
-
If A |or C, or D, or I, or I, or . . .] llon B.
-
Wo obsorvo B.
-
Tloroforo A |or C, or D, or I, or I, or . . .] is lruo.
AIllougl oxpIanalion (A) is sliII in llo running bocauso il is consislonl
vill llo obsorvalions, vo cannol say llal il is llo mosl pIausibIo
oxpIanalion. Wo nood lo losl our proposilion moro llorouglIy by
ovaIualing llo vorll of llo aIlornalivo proposilions.
Inisircn1io: iooxic rov rviorcr 1o oisvvovr 1nr 1nrovv
As voII as ovaIualing and oIiminaling aIlornalivo oxpIanalions vo
slouId rigorousIy ovaIualo our ovn lloorios. Rallor llan asIing 'Wlal
ovidonco vouId conslilulo supporl for llo lloory`', asI 'Wlal ovidonco
vouId convinco mo llal llo lloory is urcng`' Il is nol difhcuIl lo hnd
ovidonco consislonl vill a lloory. Il is mucl louglor for a lloory lo
survivo llo losl of poopIo lrying lo disprovo il.
UnforlunaloIy somo lloorios aro cIosod sysloms in vlicl any ovidonco
can bo inlorprolod as supporl for llo lloory. Sucl lloorios aro said lo bo
non-faIsihabIo. Many roIigions or boIiof sysloms can bocomo cIosod
sysloms vloroby aII ovidonco can bo accommodalod by llo lloory and
14 WHAT IS RISIARCH DISIGN`
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nolling viII clango llo mind of llo lruo boIiovor. Ixclango lloory
(Homans, 1961, BIau, 1964) is IargoIy non-faIsihabIo. Il assumos llal vo
aIvays maximizo our gains and avoid cosls. Bul vo can soo aImosl
anylling as a gain. Groal sacrihcos lo caro for a disabIod roIalivo can bo
inlorprolod as a gain (salisfaclion of loIping) rallor llan a Ioss (incomo,
limo for soIf olc.). Wo nood lo framo our proposilions and dohno our
lorms in sucl a vay llal lloy aro capabIo of boing disprovon.
Tnr vvovisioni n1cvr or scvvov1 rov 1nrovirs
Ivon vloro llo lloory is corroboralod and las survivod allompls lo
disprovo il, llo lloory romains provisionaI:
faIsihcalionism slrossos llo ambiguily of conhrmalion . . . corroboralion givos
onIy llo comforl llal llo lloory las boon loslod and survivod llo losl, llal
ovon aflor llo mosl improssivo corroboralions of prodiclions il las onIy
acliovod llo slalus of 'nol yol disconhrmod'. Tlis . . . is far from llo slalus of
'boing lruo'. (CooI and CampboII, 1979: 20)
Tloro aIvays may bo an unllougll-of oxpIanalion. Wo cannol anlicipalo
or ovaIualo ovory possibIo oxpIanalion. Tlo moro aIlornalivo oxpIana-
lions llal lavo boon oIiminalod and llo moro vo lavo lriod lo disprovo
our lloory, llo moro conhdonco vo viII lavo in il, bul vo slouId avoid
llinIing llal il is prctcn.
Hovovor vo can !isprctc a lloory. Tlo Iogic of llis is:
-
If lloory A is lruo llon B slouId foIIov.
-
B doos nci foIIov.
-
Tloroforo A is nol lruo.
So Iong as B is a vaIid losl of A llo absonco of B slouId maIo us rojocl or
roviso llo lloory. In roaIily, vo vouId nol rojocl a lloory simpIy bocauso
a singIo facl or obsorvalion doos nol hl. Boforo rojocling a pIausibIo
lloory vo vouId roquiro muIlipIo disconhrmalions using difforonl
moasuros, difforonl sampIos and difforonl mollods of dala coIIoclion and
anaIysis.
In summary, vo slouId adopl a scoplicaI approacl lo oxpIanalions.
Wo slouId anlicipalo rivaI inlorprolalions and coIIocl dala lo onabIo llo
vinnoving oul of llo voaIor oxpIanalions and llo idonlihcalion of
vlicl aIlornalivo lloorios maIo mosl ompiricaI sonso. Wo aIso nood lo
asI vlal dala vouId claIIongo llo oxpIanalion and coIIocl dala lo
ovaIualo llo lloory from llis moro domanding porspoclivo.
15 THI CONTIXT OI DISIGN
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Summary
Tlis claplor las oulIinod llo purposo of rosoarcl dosign in boll doscrip-
livo and oxpIanalory rosoarcl. In oxpIanalory rosoarcl llo purposo is
lo dovoIop and ovaIualo causaI lloorios. Tlo probabiIislic naluro of
causalion in sociaI scioncos, as opposod lo dolorminislic causalion, vas
discussod.
Rosoarcl dosign is nol roIalod lo any parlicuIar mollod of coIIocling
dala or any parlicuIar lypo of dala. Any rosoarcl dosign can, in principIo,
uso any lypo of dala coIIoclion mollod and can uso oillor quanlilalivo or
quaIilalivo dala. Rosoarcl dosign rofors lo llo siruciurc of an onquiry: il is
a IogicaI mallor rallor llan a IogislicaI ono.
Il las boon arguod llal llo conlraI roIo of rosoarcl dosign is lo
minimizo llo clanco of draving incorrocl causaI inforoncos from dala.
Dosign is a IogicaI lasI undorlaIon lo onsuro llal llo ovidonco coIIoclod
onabIos us lo ansvor quoslions or lo losl lloorios as unambiguousIy as
possibIo. Wlon dosigning rosoarcl il is ossonliaI llal vo idonlify llo lypo
of ovidonco roquirod lo ansvor llo rosoarcl quoslion in a convincing
vay. Tlis moans llal vo musl nol simpIy coIIocl ovidonco llal is con-
sislonl vill a parlicuIar lloory or oxpIanalion. Rosoarcl noods lo bo
slruclurod in sucl a vay llal llo ovidonco aIso boars on aIlornalivo rivaI
oxpIanalions and onabIos us lo idonlify vlicl of llo compoling oxpIana-
lions is mosl compoIIing ompiricaIIy. Il aIso moans llal vo musl nol
simpIy IooI for ovidonco llal supporls our favourilo lloory: vo slouId
aIso IooI for ovidonco llal las llo polonliaI lo disprovo our proforrod
oxpIanalions.
16 WHAT IS RISIARCH DISIGN`
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