The Brown bear

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Distribution and status:
The range of the
Brown bear (Ursus arc-
tos, Linneaus, 1758) is the
widest of any species of
bear in the world. Histori-
cally, it inhabited most of
t he Nort hern Hemi -
sphere: North America
(from the Arctic Ocean to
Central Mexico), Europe,
North Africa, Central
and North Asia, as well
as Japan. Due to vari-
ous human activities and direct persecution, the species has
been restricted to a fraction of its former range. This regret-
table process continues even today due to habitat loss linked
with encroaching human settlement and activities, hunting
and poaching, as well as many other reasons. Today, the
European brown bear population except the North eastern
population, linked to the Russian one consists mostly of
small, isolated populations that in many cases face an almost
certain extinction. The Carpathian population is the second
largest in Europe, and thus one of the few that can play a
crucial role in the survival of the species on the continent.
According to official estimations, approximately 40% of the
European Brown bears live in Romania. Today, the species is
strictly protected worldwide (in Romania as well) by interna-
tional agreements and national legislations alike.
lcie.org
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General characters:
Brown bears have a robust head with a prominent nose
and small, rounded ears. The eyes are small, tail is short,
and the body is of great size with a powerful build and
prominent shoulder hump. The feet present 5 digits each,
ending in long, slightly curved claws (non-retractile, reach-
ing 5-6 cm in length). Claws on the forefeet can be about
twice as long as on the hind feet.
Body length of adult individuals varies from 1.0 to 2.8 m,
shoulder height is up to 1.5 m, and length of tail is 65-210 mm.
Adult males on average are larger and more heavily built
than females. Body mass varies from 80 to 600 kg bears
in Romania weigh an average of 135-390 kg in the case of
males, respectively 95-205 kg in the case of females. Body
mass depends on the quantity and quality of available food,
as well as on the given season. The largest individuals are
found along coastal Alaska, on the Kodiak islands, in Kam-
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chatka and coastal Siberia.
Color encompasses all shades of brown, to almost black.
Generally, head and shoulders are paler in color, with darker
sides, belly, and legs. Color depends largely on the given
habitat. Pelage consists of a layer of dense, shorter inner fur
and long outer guard hair.
The dentition is made up of 36 teeth, but some individuals
present an incomplete dentition.
Potential longevity of wild brown bears is 20-30 years. In
captivity, they can reach even 30-50 years of age. Natural
mortality may be attributed to severe winters, malnutrition,
various diseases, age, in some cases infanticide (the killing
of cubs by adult male bears) and rarely to cannibalism.

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Lifestyle:
Adult brown bears are solitary except during the breed-
ing season, but home ranges overlap with no territorial
defense. Adults forage and den alone, while females forage
and den with their young. Sizes of home ranges are largely
determined by the abundance of food, but are also influenced
by age, sex, social status, physical condition of the animal,
foraging habits, habitat topography, presence of suitable
hiding places and dens, as well as the intensity of human dis-
turbance (in some cases). A strict hierarchy exists between
brown bears: the highest ranking animals are the dominant
adult males, then females with young, followed by subadults.
Home ranges of ma-
ture males encom-
pass home ranges
of several females,
whi ch may l essen
the females chance
of encountering ag-
gressive males, which
could threaten herself
or her cubs. Young adult
females tend to stay
near the maternal home
range, while young adult
males can disperse as
far as several hundreds
of kilometers from it.
A certain areas bear
population density is
varying throughout a year. It is affected by the areas to-
pography and the abundance of food available in the given
season.
Generally, bears mutually avoid each other, thus
minimizing the chance of an encounter that could end
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with injuries or even
death. Nevertheless,
periodically, close
to abundant food
sources (carrion,
areas rich in wild
berries or fruits,
agricultural fields,
garbage dumps)
brown bears can
congregate in great
numbers. In these
cases, aggressive
and dominant indi-
viduals have priority,
while subordinate animals feed in the absence of dominant
individuals. Occasionally, fights may result in the deaths of
smaller bears.
Brown bears often construct day beds in sheltered, dry
spots, with good visibility over the surroundings.
Activity varies with environmental conditions, abundance
of food, and in some cases, the intensity of human distur-
bance. In areas with intensive human disturbance, bears
often become nocturnal and secretive, whereas elsewhere
they can be active at all hours.
Individuals communicate primarily by olfactory markings,
different postures, easily noticeable markings (for example,
clawing on tree barks), as well as vocalizations. Generally,
when two bears meet, one adopts a dominant posture, while
the other a subordinate one. Threats and fighting occur be-
tween animals of similar social status, sex and age.
Denning is an adaptation due to the scarce food avail-
ability during winter. It also plays an important role in the
survival of cubs these are born during winter, and at
first are incapable of thermoregulation, thus needing
shelter. Brown bears may dig their own dens, or use
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natural caves and rock splits. Occasionally, they can spend
the winter between the roots of fallen trees, or even under
the canopy of a tree.
During winter sleep (considered by many not to be hiber-
nation in the true sense), body temperature is reduced by
4-5C, while heart rate decreases from a normal 40-50 beats
/ min to 8-10 beats / min. Bears do not eat, drink, urinate or
defecate during this period, and live from the adipose tis-
sue gained prior to the winter. Winter sleep begins between
October and December, and spring arousal occurs between
March and April, depending on the severity of winter. In
the meanwhile, bears can loose a significant percentage
of their body mass: an average of 22% in the case of males
and 40% in the case of females (this latter is due to the large
energy expenditure during reproduction). In some areas,
during years with abundant food or mild winters, bears can
stay active all year long. Interruption of winter sleep or den
abandonment (for example, due to human disturbance), can
be risky for adults, but often is fatal for the young. In spring,
males leave their dens first, while females with new young
are last to emerge.
Feeding behavior and diet:
The omnivorous diet of brown bears is reflected by their
dentition and adaptations in the digestive tract. They have
large canines, which may be used for defense, killing prey,
and dismembering carcasses, but the molars with large
grinding areas are associated with a diet consisting largely
of vegetarian foods and invertebrates. The digestive tract
is basically a carnivore tract that has been lengthened,
to allow better digestion and absorption of plant mate-
rial. Because brown bears dont possess the specialized
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organs of herbivores (for example, the caecum), they can not
digest the structural parts of plants, but they can, however,
digest about half of the protein present in plants and most of
the starch and sugar.
Brown bears pass through three physiological stages in
their active period from spring to autumn: hypophagia (low
food intake, during spring), a stage of normal activity in
summer, and hyperphagia (high food intake, during autumn).
During autumn, it is essential that bears find nutritive, high
energy foods since this when they accumulate adipose tis-
sue, crucial for hibernation.
Brown bears may cache food to hide it from other ani-
mals. By doing this, they also slow the foods decomposition.
After covering food with branches, leafs and soil, they often
remain in the proximity, guarding it.
The brown bears vegetal diet is very rich: graminoids
and forbs are consumed primarily in their most nutritious
preflowering stages in spring and early summer; later they
switch to berries and fruits (apple, pear, plum, blackthorn,
sorb, raspberry, blackberry, cranberry, etc.). In autumn
(but sometimes also during winter and early spring), bears
consume large amounts of acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts,
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hazelnuts and walnuts. If there is a possibility, they pilfer oat,
corn, melon, potato and sugar-beet plantations. A major part
of their diet (in many habitats up to as much as 85%) consists
of vegetal origin food.
Due to its high digestibility and high nutritional value,
meat is preferred. Nevertheless, meat can be accessed only
occasionally, through: active hunting, searching for car-
casses (either died from natural causes or the prey of other
carnivores), or as baits. Contrary to popular belief, a bear that
occasionally consumes meat, will not become a blood bear
(Hungarian expression, denoting individuals with an exclu-
sively carnivore diet). Domestic animals, having been bread,
amongst others, for easy manageability, have become virtu-
ally defenseless against bears (and other large carnivores).
Nevertheless, in areas where traditional livestock guarding
techniques (shepherds, shepherd dogs and fenced shepherd
camps) are still practiced, bears rarely succeed to prey on
domestic animals. Therefore, on a European level, domestic
animals are not important food for brown bears.
Seasonally, insects, their eggs and larvae may constitute
important protein sources for bears including ants, bees and
wasps, as well as their eggs, larvae and pupas. Brown bears
also gladly consume honey.

Ontogeny and reproduction:
Brown bears exhibit a long life span, late sexual matu-
rity, protracted reproductive cycles and a low reproductive
rate. Female brown bears exhibit 2-, 3- or 4-year reproduc-
tive cycles. Duration of estrus is 10-30 days, depending on
the individual. Neither male nor female bears show sexual
interest during pre- or post-estrus periods.
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Breeding occurs
from mi d-May to
July. In this period,
females may mate
with two, or even
more males. After
successful fertiliza-
tion, embryos develop
to the bl astocyst
stage, but these do
not implant into the
uterus, as in the case
of most mammals
(including humans).
Instead, they remain
free in the uterus;
their development
is halted and only
starts again ap-
proximately 5 months later, when the female enters her win-
ter-time shelter. Around November, the blastocyst implants
and the active gestation period of only 6-8 weeks begins.
Young are born from January to March. Litter size varies
between 1 and 4, but most often is of 2-3. At birth, cubs weigh
approximately 500 g, are sightless and totally dependant
upon their mother. By 3 months, they weigh 15 kg and have
fully developed milk teeth. At first, they have circular-shaped
skulls, which later lengthen. During the first summer, young
often exhibit a whitish V-shaped neck patch, which usually
fades by the 2nd year.
Lactation lasts 1.5-2.5 years and young usually remain
with the female for 2-3 years. In the meanwhile, the mother
bear intensely protects her cubs, even against adult males
or humans. Male cubs usually reach puberty at 4.5 years
of age and their reproductive period begins before, and
extends beyond, that of females.
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Bear attacks on humans:
Brown bear behavior is unpredictable, and because of
their size and great strength, a bite or swipe with a paw can
cause a major, perhaps fatal injury to humans. A female with
young should always be avoided, as should brown bears that
are eating or defending food. Animals conditioned by feeding
(especially hand-feeding) or accessible garbage associate
people with food sources, loose their natural fear from man
and occasionally may become directly aggressive. Never-
theless, attacks against humans are not predatory attacks,
but mostly happen out of self-defense, protecting cubs or
carrion (or other food sources) from people. Several factors
may contribute to increase the level of a bears aggression.
They are, in decreasing importance: the presence of cubs,
presence of a carcass (food source), sudden encounters
(surprise the bear considers he cannot flee and thus will
charge), a bear at its den, and presence of a dog.
From the summer of 2004 to the spring of 2007 we inves-
tigated a total number
of 8 bear attacks on
humans. Out of these,
2 were fatal (2 of the
cases happened be-
fore the mentioned
period, in 2001, re-
spectively in 2003).
In 2 cases, nobody
got hurt these in-
cidents took place
in the autumn of
2006, during wild
boar hunts (hunts
with beaters). In
both cases, bears
approaching the
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hunters were shot, considering that they were preparing to
attack. In 4 cases, there is evidence that the attacks were
committed by females with cubs, while in 2 more cases it
can be presumed, that they were also caused by female
bears protecting their cubs. In one case, a dog accompany-
ing the victim attacked the bear cubs, and the mother bear
responded with an attack; 3 attacks happened during the
guarding of cornfields (see: protection of food and cubs). In
another case it can be presumed (according to improvable
information) that beforehand, unknown people, using dogs,
tried to take away the cubs from the female the bears came
upon the victim working the field while they were fleeing, and
the female killed him.
As shown by the above, most incidents can be prevented
by simply avoiding the bear, leaving it alone. Usually, bears
try to avoid meeting with a human. Even if it comes to an at-
tack, in most cases, bears abandon the human they attacked
and flee the scene.
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Damages in livestock and
human crops:
In many cases, living in the vicinity of livestock, bears
learn to exploit the chance for an easy prey. Domestic ani-
mals are virtually defenseless against large carnivores (see:
Feeding behavior and diet). Cattle are bitten on the neck,
back and head, the abdominal cavity sometimes is opened,
and the stomach and intestines are removed. Predation tar-
gets mostly calves and yearlings, and happens more often
in forested, bushy areas rather than in open ranges. A bear
feeding on a carcass is not proof that the prey was killed by
the bear. Sheep are taken when they graze, or spend the night
on prime bear feeding habitats. Most of the attacks occur in
September-October, during hyperphagia (high food intake, in
preparation for the coming winter) this is also proved by
the cases investigated by us in the period of summer 2004
spring 2007.
Traditional herding and livestock guarding techniques,
still commonly used in Romania, proved to be in most cases
sufficient to prevent bear attacks on livestock. In the case
of adequately guarded flocks (with shepherds and dogs, and
with animals fenced in for the night), most bears are chased
away in time from the flock. In many cases, even animals
that have been taken by a bear are recuperated, although
this can be a risky venture, if the bear will try to defend its
prey.
Damages in human crops occur mainly on oat, corn,
melon, potato and sugar-beet fields, as well as in orchards
and sometimes in vineyards. In most cases, damages are
caused not exclusively by bears, but also by wild boar
(damages caused by the two species are relatively difficult
to tell apart). Often, not the quantity eaten, but rather the
trampled plants (in the case of fruit trees, broken branch-
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es) make up most
of the damages. As
menti oned before,
guarding crops with
traditional methods
(dogs, making noise)
is often efficient to
prevent damages,
but demands a lot of
time and energy, and
can sometimes create
dangerous situations
for the guards them-
selves.
Generally, damages
in livestock and hu-
man crops alike rise in
numbers and gravitate in
years when bears dont have enough natural food available,
especially during autumn.
Damage prevention:
Traditional damage prevention methods were already
mentioned above. Another remarkably efficient method is
the electric fence, known and used by relatively few people
in Romania. It can be used to prevent damages caused by
bears in livestock and human crops alike (in the case of
crops, it is also adequate to prevent damages caused by
wild boar).
In the following, we will present the electric fence, as
well as its functioning and correct use.
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The electric fence:
It consists of several wires stretched in line with each
other and powered with 5000-10000 V electricity. The elec-
tricity is provided by a dry cell, a battery, or by a network
source and is converted into high voltage pulses by an
energizer. The wires are used for fencing the targeted area
(pasture, shepherd camp, agricultural field, or an orchard).
The advantage of the electric fence lies in the fact that it can
be easily and quickly mounted and relocated and that it is
also suitable for fencing in large areas.
Composition and functioning:
The fence itself is made up from wires stretched in line
with each other, which conduct the electric pulses. These
are mounted on wood, plastic, metal or fiberglass posts using
plastic insulators. At regular intervals (1-3 seconds), the en-
ergizer releases high voltage electric pulses (5000-10000 V)
into the fence. Current intensity is so low, that the system is
totally harmless for the animal (or human) touching the wires.
Nevertheless, it delivers a very unpleasant and memorable
electric shock.
As already mentioned, the electric fence can have vari-
ous power sources, depending on local conditions: dry cell,
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battery, network source (plug) or a solar panel, which is best
to be combined with a battery.
Mounting and maintenance:
Depending on the terrain, the posts must be mounted at
such a distance from each other, that the wires will always
stay stretched. The posts themselves can be home-made, of
wood, or you can purchase plastic, fiberglass or metal posts,
with a sharp lower end (thus they can be easily inserted into
the ground).
The negative pole of the energizer must be grounded. A
good grounding is essential, and for this you need to insert
into the ground at least 3, minimum 1 m long rustproof metal
bars, which will be interconnected and also connected to
the negative pole of the energizer. With an adequate ground-
ing, the bars wont deliver an electric shock, even when
touched.
The number of the wires is optional. The electric fences
that we have mounted to prevent damages caused by bears
and wild boar were of 3 wires more precisely, 2 electric
fence tapes (upper and lower) and 1 wire (in the middle). The
electric fence tape is stronger and more noticeable than the
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wire. The lower tape
was mounted at a
20-30 cm height from
the ground, with the
others at distances
of further 30-40 cm
each. Of course, in
this case, it was an
important aspect
that wild boar pig-
lets dont enter the
field.
Its important to
remember that an
electric fence is a
psychological barrier
rather than a physical
one. Fleeing bears or
wild boar cannot stop
in front of it unless they can observe the fence in time. This
is why you have to visualize the fence. The area surrounding
the fence should be clean, with a good visibility.
When the electric fence is used to protect sheep (or other
livestock), you have to keep in mind that if the livestock is kept
on a small fenced area, they can break through the installa-
tion (especially when frightened). This can be prevented by
also keeping the traditional corral or by fencing in a larger
area. Under high voltage lines, it is recommended to place
the wires perpendicular on the high voltage lines, instead of
in line with them.
The electric fence requires a minimum maintenance this
means mainly the periodical cutting of grass and other vegeta-
tion from under the wires otherwise it will short-circuit the
system, decreasing the voltage and reducing the lifespan of
the battery. Otherwise, if used properly, the battery can power
the whole system for up to several months.
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DekAttila
It is recommended to always keep the electric fence
functioning otherwise carnivores (or wild boar) can learn
how to bypass it.
In 2005, we have mounted 2 electric fences at shepherd
camps located at the foothills of the Gurghiului Mountains
(Biche area, Mure County). The two shepherd camps
had previous problems primarily with wolves, but also with
brown bears. The activity was carried out in the frame of
a project focusing on wolves, with the financial support of
the Environmental Partnership Foundation from Miercurea
Ciuc. After the electric fences were mounted, the two flocks
stopped loosing any more animals (during the time spent by
the animals inside the fenced area).
In 2006, we have mounted an electric fence in the vicinity
of Solocma village (Ghineti parish, Mure County), around a
cornfield of approximately 6 ha. The territory contained par-
cels belonging to more, than 30 local farmers. After mounting
the electric fence, damages caused by brown bears and wild
boar alike seized completely.
In both cases, the electric fences were purchased with
project funds and were donated to local farmers (or shep-
herds), for continuous use in the future. In each case, the
electric fences were purchased from AGROM-COM SRL
(Sngeorgiu de Mure, Mure County).
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Literature cited:
Pasitschniak-Arts, M. 1993. Ursus arctos. Mam-
malian Species No. 439, The American Society of
Mammalogists
Swenson, J. E., Gerstl, N., Dahle, B. s Ze-
drosser, A. 2000. Action Plan for the conservation
of the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) in Europe. Na-
ture and environment, No. 114, Council of Europe
Publishing
Sepsi, . s Kohl, I. 1997. A Krpti
barnamedvrl (ber den Karpatischen Braun-
baren), Erdlyi Mzeum Egyeslet
Knapp, A. 2006. Bear necessities. An Analysis of
Brown Bear Management and Trade in Selected
Range States and the Europen Unions Role in the
Trophy Trade, TRAFFIC Europe
Rozylowicz, L., Ivanof, N., Chiriac, S. 2004.
Protecia carnivorelor mari din Vrancea, LIFE Na-
ture LIFE02/NAT/RO/8576
Domokos, Cs., Kecsks, A. 2005. Carnivores and
humans can they peacefully coexist in Roma-
nia?, Milvus Group Bird and Nature Protection
Association
The present brochure was published in the
frame of the project Bear research and conserva-
tion in Romanias Climani and Gurghiului Moun-
tains (2006-2007). Financial support for the project
(and the brochure) was provided by Alertis Fund
for bear and nature conservation (the Netherlands).
The project represented the first phase of a long
term program, focusing on brown bears. Activities
planned for the programs next phase (see also:
program target area map):
mounting of at least 20 electric fences on
agricultural fields damaged by brown bears
systematic educational activities in local
schools
publishing and distribution of informational-
educational materials
scientific research (home ranges, concen-
tration areas, charting of dens, etc.)
elaboration and running of ecotourism
activities based on brown bears
Alertis
Fund for bear and nature conservation
The programs target area
Text: Domokos Csaba, Kecsks Attila
Design: Dek Attila
Cover design: Deak Attila, with the use of photographs
by Nicolae Serban-Parau and Domokos Csaba
Milvus Group Bird and Nature
Protection Association
Office: 540343 Tg. Mure, str. Crinului 22
Address: 540620 Tg. Mure, O.P. 3, C.P. 39
Tel./fax. +40(0)265-264726
[email protected]
www.milvus.ro