Harmonic Oscillation, Komang Suardika
Harmonic Oscillation, Komang Suardika
Harmonic Oscillation, Komang Suardika
Andy Buffler
Department of Physics University of Cape Town
[email protected]
1
with significant acknowledgment to the notes of Steve Driver, who was brilliant for decades the animated gifs are from Dr. Daniel A. Russell, Kettering University (http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/)
PHY2014F What to do in this course: 1. Read the relevant sections in the textbook the course notes will guide you. 2. Do all homework and problem sets. 3. Get help early from AB, the course tutor Gary Tupper, 4. As in PHY1004W, there are no shortcuts put effort in to understand things
Problem-solving and homework Each week you will be given a take-home problem set to complete and hand in for marks ... In addition to this, you need to work through the following problems in French, in you own time, at home. You will not be asked to hand these in for marks. Get help from you friends, the course tutor, lecturer, ... Do not take shortcuts. Mastering these problems is a fundamental aspect of this course. The problems associated with Part 1 are: 1-8, 1-11, 1-12, 2-1, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, 3-8, 3-9, 3-11, 3-14, 3-15, 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, 4-7, 4-10, 4-11, 4-12, 4-13, 4-14, 4-15, 4-16, 4-17 You might find these tougher: 3-7, 3-10, 3-16, 3-17, 3-18, 4-8, 4-9
4
sin ( 2 A ) = cos A
sin ( A ) = sin A cos ( A ) = cos A tan ( A ) = tan A sin ( A B ) = sin A cos B cos A sin B cos ( A B ) = cos A cos B sin A sin B tan A tan B tan ( A B ) = 1 tan A tan B
cos ( 2 A ) = cos 2 A sin 2 A = 1 2sin 2 A 2 tan A tan ( 2 A ) = 1 tan 2 A
A+ B A B sin A + sin B = 2sin cos 2 2 A+ B A B sin A sin B = 2cos sin 2 2 A+ B A B cos A + cos B = 2cos cos 2 2 A+ B A B cos A cos B = 2sin sin 2 2
sin A sin B = 1 cos ( A B ) cos ( A + B ) 2 cos A cos B = 1 cos ( A B ) + cos ( A + B ) 2 sin A cos B = 1 sin ( A + B ) + sin ( A B ) 2 cos A sin B = 1 sin ( A + B ) sin ( A B ) 2
6
Oscillatory Phenomena
observed in many physical systems from the very small(e.g. dipole resonance in nuclei) to the very large (earthquake waves, stars,) Mechanical systems to electrical systems from violin strings to lasers
All periodic phenomena can be represented as the sum of sine and cosine functions: x(t ) = (an cos nt + bn sin nt ) useful to study the simple harmonic oscillator
7
T
3 2
4 2 t
k
Frestore
compessed
Frestore = k x
where x = x x 0
extended
and k is the spring constant [N m-1] x dp Start with the = Fnet x0 x momentum principle: dt dpx For horizontal forces on the mass: = kx dt d dx d (mvx ) = kx or m = kx dt dt dt d 2x k 2 = x 9 dt m
Frestore Fexternal
k and substitute into our DE: A cos(t + ) = A cos(t + ) m k ... which is true provided 2 = m k Therefore our solution is x(t ) = A cos(t + ) where = m10
and
m T = 2 k
0
A,
11
French page 5
Phase difference between acceleration and displacement is Phase difference between v and x (and v & a ) is
2
12
t v(t ) = A0 sin(0t + ) t
x0 = A cos( ) v0 = 0 A sin( )
2 2
v0 tan = 0 x0
and
v0 x0 + = A2 cos 2 ( ) + A2 sin 2 ( ) = A2 0
v0 A = x0 + 0
2 2
14
There are no dissipative mechanisms in our model (no friction). the total energy of the mass-spring system is conserved.
1 2
mv 2 + 1 kx 2 = constant 2
15
mv 2 + 1 kx 2 = constant 2
d 1 2 1 2 ( 2 mv + 2 kx ) = 0 dt dv dx mv + kx = 0 dt dt dv mv + kxv = 0 dt dv m + kx = 0 dt d 2x k 2 = x dt m
as before
16
French page 42
( E A2 )
kx 2 + 1 mv 2 = 1 kA2 2 2 or
v( x) = 0 A2 x 2 (useful)
17
L0
Equilibrium: Displaced:
k ( L L0 ) = mg
= k ( L L0 ) + kx
= mg + kx (upwards)
Net force on mass: mg (mg + kx) = kx (downwards) d 2x m 2 = kx dt (Same equation as for horizontal case)
19
20
French page 51
Displaced:
In displaced position, centre of mass is L L cos above the equilibrium position. Recall cos = 1
2
2!
4
4!
...
2
2
2
2
21
mgL 2
d I dt
2
and
k 2 + L2 T = 2 gL
23
Simple harmonic systems In general, to show SHM . get an equation of motion of the form:
d 2 2 = 0 dt 2
kx 2
Elasticity and Youngs modulus Floating objects Pendulums Water in a U-tube Torsional oscillations 24 The spring of air
L T = 2 g
pivot
0 =
mgL g = 2 2 1 md + mL d 2 12 L + L 12
ma = ( a 2 w g ) x
get 0 =
g l
26
Elasticity
French page 45
A F L F
L+x
F m
AYx Hence ma = L
and 0 =
AY mL
27
P, V
= P PV = constant where CV 3 Pa 0 = 4 bV
Water sloshing in a U-tube
U-tube radius a Water volume V use conservation of energy
28
2g a 2 0 = V
tough ?
h
2L
3 gh 0 = L2
0 =
15 g 26a
29
French page 60
k, M m
l 3 l 3
l 3
1 M s dx k.e. of element of spring lying between s and ds = ds l dt 2 l 2 2 M dx l 2 M dx Total kinetic energy of spring = 3 s ds = 2l dt 0 6 dt 2 2 1 dx 1 2 M dx Total energy of mass-spring system = m + kx + 2 dt 2 6 dt k giving 0 = 30 m+M 3
x3
2x 3
French page 10
Complex numbers
Consider a vector OP of length r which rotates with angular velocity The point P has coordinates y = r sin t x = r cos t
y r t
O
We see that the x coordinate of P, or the projection of OP onto the x-axis, executes SHM
and write r = x + y i j
r
P y j
31
x i
Complex numbers 2 Modify our notation to z = x + jy ... where x means a displacement in the x-direction and jy means a displacement in the y-direction
z = a + jb z a b
jb b
... really talking about vectors in the complex number plane:
j2b
Imaginary
Hence j2 = 1
z a
z = a + jb b
Real
32
Complex numbers 3
2
2!
4
4!
+ ... and
j 3 j sin = j + ... 3!
Euler relation
Hence Then
e j = cos + j sin
z = a + jb = z e z = a +b tan = b a
2 2
Imaginary
where
b = z sin
Real
33
a = z cos
e =1
j0
j 4
1 2
+j
1 2
j 2
= j
e j = 1
e j 2 = 1
34
t
x
y
Real
Now write: Ae j (t + ) = A cos(t + ) + jA sin(t + ) ... and remember that the physical quantity x (e.g. a displacement) is the real part of z : i.e. x = Re[z]
35
French page 14
d 2x 2 + 0 x = 0 dt 2
becomes
Using z = x + jy Try z = Ae j (t + )
d 2z 2 + 0 z = 0 dt 2
A( j ) 2 e j (t + ) + 2 Ae j (t + ) = 0
Therefore z = Ae j (t + )
is the most general solution A and are determined from the initial conditions.
x = Re[z] = A cos(0t + )
36
z = Ae j (t + )
dz = j Ae j (t + ) = j z dt
d 2z 2 = ( j ) Ae j (t + ) = 2 z dt 2
d 2z d 2x = Re 2 2 dt dt
37
38
continued
x = A cos 0t
[ with a little more effort we could have got the more general solution x = A cos (0t + ) ]
39
Example: 3-phase current Large scale electrical power transmission makes use of 3 phases
I1 V1 V2 V3 I2 I3
Return current
I1 + I 2 + I 3
R1
R2
R3
The three voltages are 120 out of phase with each other
V1 = V0 e jt V2 = V0 e j (t +2 3) V3 = V0 e j (t +4 3) V0 e jt t V0 e j (t +2 3)
t = 3
0
t V0 e j (t +4 3) t
41
Return current I = I1 + I 2 + I 3
V0 jt = e {1 + e j 2 3 + e j 4 3 } R =0
e j 2 3 e j 4 3
A short diversion A.C. Consider the heating effect of alternating current in a resistor. At any instant P = VI = I 2 R For I = I 0 cos t , P = I 02 R cos 2 t Then the average power heating: P = I 02 R cos 2 t I
cos t = 0
I 0 cos t t
P
cos 2 t =
1 2
I 02 R cos 2 t t
43
A.C. 2
Then the average power heating: P = I 02 R cos 2 t
1 2 I0 = I0 R = R 2 2
2
a direct current of magnitude I 0 2 would have the same heating power as an alternating current of amplitude I 0 . I 0 2 is known as the effective value of the current, or the root mean square value. With respect to the 50 Hz a.c. mains in South Africa: the r.m.s. voltage is quoted as 220 volts Hence V0
2 = 220
44
back to three phase power What is the maximum voltage between two of the lines? e.g. what is (V1 V2 )maximum ? 2V0
A.C. 3 V1 = V0 e jt V2 = V0 e j (t +2 3) V3 = V0 e j (t +4 3) V1 V2
V2 = V0 e V0
Voltage
j (t + 2 3)
V0 2V0 V1 = V0 e jt t
45
A.C. 4
V1 = V0 e jt V2 = V0 e j (t +2 3)
1 e
e j 2 3
1 e j 2 3
j 2 3
1 3 = V0 e 1 + j 2 2 = V0 e jt 3e j
jt
( )
3 2 2
( )
3 2
= 3
1 e j 2 3 = 3e j
3
= 539 volts
46
V = IR
P = I 2R
Capacitor C
Q V = C
Inductor L
Q2 W=1 2 C
dI V = L dt
where
W = 1 LI 2 2 dQ I= dt
47
R
+Q
Q Q = RI = 0 C
Vround trip
Q dQ Q = RI + = R + C dt C Differential equation
48
t RC Solution: Q(t ) = C 1 e
dQ(t ) I (t ) = dt t =
VC(t)
RC
VC = ( VR ) = ( IR ) = (1 e )
t
VR(t)
VR = ( VC )
= e
49
R +Q Q C
Energy equation for this circuit: Vround trip = RI + Q = 0 C or 0 = RI + Q = R dQ + Q C dt C dQ 1 1 = dt Write giving ln Q = t+K Q RC RC or Q(t ) = Q0 e
t RC
K = ln Q0
50
VR(t)
t t
Q0/C
RQ0 t VR = IR = e RC Q0 t = e 51 C
52
dI = RI L = 0 dt
dI R + I = dt L L Differential equation I (t ) =
Solution:
1 e R
R t L
53
t
dI (t ) R t = e L dt L
VL = ( VR ) = ( IR ) = e
t
VR(t)
VR = ( VL ) t = (1 e )
t
54
t t
dI (t ) Rt = e L dt L
R t dI (t ) VL = L = e L dt
VR(t)
VR = IR = e t
55
C Q +Q L
Oscillations in an LC circuit
Capacitor fully charged at t = 0. At t > 0, charge on capacitor decreases, giving current in the direction shown. dQ I = dt
= V
d 2Q 1 Hence: = Q 2 dt LC
56
57
58
Mechanical
displacement x velocity v mass m spring constant k
k 0 = m
Electrical
charge Q current I inductance L 1 1 capacitance C
0 =
1 LC
Q2 1 2 C LI 2
59
French page 62
Damped oscillations
We have thus far neglected all dissipative mechanisms our oscillations can continue oscillating with the same amplitude forever Various physical damping mechanisms will contribute towards the damping friction between mass and table air resistance internal friction in spring . model these by introducing a damping force which is proportional to the velocity of the oscillator
60
In these systems, the damping force R = bv deals with many damping mechanism but not all talk about viscous damping resistive damping mechanical systems electrical systems
61
k m
x
ma = kx bv d 2x dx m 2 = kx b dt dt
where
k 0 = m b = m
s-1
life time =
62
and
p 2 + p + 0 2 = 0
1 2
2 40 2
}
63
or
p= 2
2
4
0 2
2
4
0 2
0 >
2
2
4
Oscillatory behaviour
2
4
Critical damping
2
4
Overdamping
64
Case (i):
0 2 >
2
4
2 4 0 2 = ( 0 2 2 4 )
Put
12 = 0 2 2 4 2 p = 1 = j1
2 2
( x = Be
1
+ j1 t 2
) + B e( 2
j1 t
) = e
leading to x(t ) = Ae
t
2
{B e
1
j1t
+ B2 e j1t
cos(1t + )
This is an oscillatory solution A cos(1t + ) multiplied by a damping factor e t 2 . As 0 we approach our undamped oscillator.
65
no damping
cos(0t + )
e t 2 0 with damping
66
Case (ii):
0 2 =
2
4
2
2t
If 0 2 < 2 4 a system released from rest will oscillate. As is increased the oscillations decay more rapidly, until at 0 2 = 2 4 oscillation no longer occurs. [ many practical applications ]
67
Case (iii):
0 2 < 2
4
2
4
p= 2 = 2
0 2 say
2 2
2
4
is referred to as overdamping
68
0 = 5
Oscillatory
t
0 = 0.5
t
0 = 0.05
t
69
0 = 5
Oscillatory
t
0 = 0.5 0 = 0.05
t
t
70
Q: quality factor or the Q of the oscillator gives a measure of damping time period
e.g. for Q = 10
Note also 1 < 0 Damping increases the period of the oscillator, as one may intuitively expect.
71
Q=5 t Q = 15 t Q = 50 t
72
has the general solution x(t ) = Ae where 1 = 0 2 2 4 the two constants A and must be determined by some initial conditions A subtle point:
t
2
cos(1t + )
A Ae
0
t
2
73
E0 E0 e
1
E (t ) = E0 e t
e t t
Then:
dE P= = E0 e t = E dt
74
x(t ) = Ae
displacement
t
2
cos(1t + )
energy
E (t ) = E0 e
t
75
Q=
E = 0 P
1 1 1 0 Q = T 2 2
e.g. a oscillator having Q = 10 performs 1.6 cycles in one lifetime which may be regarded as quite significant damping
76
77
French page 78
We now look at oscillators which are subject to an externally applied force F (t ) = F0 cos t
F (t )
F
2
= max
F0 cos t kx bv = ma
F0 d x dx 2 + + 0 x = cos t 2 dt dt m
0 2 = k / m
= b/m
78
F0 d 2x dx 2 + + 0 x = cos t 2 dt dt m
Two parts observed to the motion of the system: Transient response: while the system continues to oscillate at its natural frequency 0 which dies out with the characteristic 1 decay time. Steady state response: at times >> 1 the response has the same frequency as the applied force Observe also that there might be a phase difference (usually a lag) between the response and the driving force For F (t ) = F0 cos t write x(t ) = A cos(t )
79
dx = j Ae j (t ) dt
and
d 2x = 2 Ae j (t ) dt 2
Substituting into our differential equation of motion: F0 jt 2 j (t ) j (t ) 2 j (t ) Ae + ( j ) Ae + 0 Ae = e m Divide by e jt since this holds for all t : ( + j + ) Ae
2 2 0
j
or
F0 j {( ) + j} A = m e F0 = ( cos + j sin ) m
2 0 2
F0 = m
80
F0 cos m
A =
Then tan =
2
2 (0 2 )
2
F0 sin m
or
A( ) =
F0 m
2 (0 2 ) 2 + 2 2
81
F0 x + x + 0 x = cos t m
2
x(t ) = A( ) cos(t ) F0 m
2 (0 2 ) 2 + 2 2
A( ) =
and
tan ( ) =
2 (0 2 )
82
Resonance
Note (for now) that A( ) has a maximum at a frequency m slightly less than 0 see later At low frequencies, 0 F0 m F0 m F0 m F0 A( ) = = 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 k 0 (0 ) + 0 + The amplitude is approximately F0 k which is the amplitude for a steady force the oscillator behaviour is determined essentially by the spring (or the capacitor) i.e. the oscillator is spring limited And
1 2 = tan ( ) = 2 2 (0 ) 0 Q 0
i.e. tan 1 is small the response is almost in phase with the driving force.
83
Resonance 2
At high frequencies, 0 F0 m F0 m F0 m A( ) = 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 (0 ) + + 4 + 2 02 Q 2 F0 = m 2 the oscillator is inertia limited And i.e.
0 1 1 0 2 = = = tan ( ) = 2 2 (0 ) Q Q
tan is small and negative
Resonance 3
In the resonance region , 0
F0 F0 F0 A( ) = = =Q 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 k 0 m 0 b (0 ) + 0
the oscillator amplitude is strongly dependent on the damping constant b it is resistance limited
F0 m
F0 m
.
85
A(0 ) =
F0 m
0 + 2 2
Resonance 4
2 2 2 Close to resonance, it is the (0 ) term which gives the rapid variation with frequency as we move away from 0 we see 1 that we will get A( ) = A(0 ) 2
when:
1 F0 / m = 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 (0 ) + 0
2 (0 2 ) = 0
F0 / m
(0 + )(0 ) = 0 20 (0 ) = 0 (0 ) =
2 then = 0
1 When A( ) = A(0 ) 2
2
86
A( ) A(0 ) A(0 )
2
F0 k
( )
3 4
0 +
2 4
0
87
French page 89
Resonance 5
At
= 0 +
and = 0
is decreased by 1
These two frequencies are known as the half power frequencies and is known as the resonance width
Q= can be understood to be
0
resonance frequency
width of resonance curve at half power points as the damping term decreases, i.e. as Q increases, the resonance curve gets sharper
88
e x(t )
t
2
slow decay
A( )
narrow resonance
89
x(t )
t
2
rapid decay
A( )
broad resonance
90
E (t ) E0 E0 e
1
Free vibration
E (t ) = E0 e t e t
Lifetime =
t
A( )
Forced vibration
Resonance width =
91
Q = 8 , m = 0.9960
92
A( ) A(m )
m 0
93
Q = 20
Q=5 Q=5 Q = 20
94
French page 92
Transients
Consider a mass-spring system which is at rest at t = 0 when a driving force is turned on.
(no damping)
Transients 2 F0 d 2x 2 + 0 x = cos t has solution x1 Say that 2 dt m d 2x and has solution x2 + 0 2 x = 0 2 dt F0 d 2x 2 + 0 x = cos t Then x1 + x2 is also a solution to 2 dt m
The complete solution of the forced-motion equation is F0 m x(t ) = B cos(0t + ) + C cos t where C = 2 (0 2 ) Initial conditions:
x = 0 at t = 0 : dx = 0 at t = 0 : dt
0 = B cos + C
= 0 or
B = C
96
0 = 0 B sin
Transients 3
Then
Beats!
Since cos t 1
2t 2
2 as expected
2 F0 m (0 2 )t 2 1 F0 2 = t then x 2 2 (0 ) 2 2m
97
Transients 4
If damping is present then:
x(t ) = Be
t
2
where:
transient term
1 = 0 2
F0 m
2
4
A( ) =
off resonance:
2 (0 2 ) 2 + 2 2
tan ( ) = 2 (0 2 )
at resonance:
98
t
2 0
t
Transient t < 5 Steady state t > 5
99
t
2
x t
Transient
t <5
100
t
2 0 A driving force F with 0
F t
The resulting displacement of the oscillator
x t
Transient beats Steady state
101
F t
switch off F
switch on F x
Initial transient
Steady state
102
French page 96
We now consider the power required to keep an oscillator vibrating with constant amplitude.
F (t ) = F0 cos t
and
x(t ) = A( ) cos(t )
v(t ) = A( )sin(t )
Power P = Fv = A( ) F0 cos t sin(t ) = A( ) F0 cos t {sin t cos cos t sin } = F0 A( ) cos 2 t sin F0 A( ) cos t sin t cos Now 1 cos t = 2
2
and
cos t sin t = 0
Therefore
P = 1 F0 A( )sin 2
103
F0 m
2 (0 2 ) 2 + 2 2
tan = 2 (0 2 ) sin = 2 (0 2 ) + 2 2
2 (0 2 ) + 2 2
P = F0
1 2
F0 m
2 (0 2 ) 2 + 2 2
or
F02 2 1 P( ) = 2 2m (0 2 ) 2 + 2 2
2 0
1 0 + 2 0 Q
2
104
F02 2 1 and P( ) = 2 2m (0 2 ) 2 + 2 2
A( ) drops to 1
P( ) P(0 )
1 2
: Full Width at
2 Half Maximum (FWHM)
P (0 )
0 at = 0
0 + 0
105
F0 m
2 2 40 (0 ) 2 + 0 2
A( ) =
F0 m
20 (0 ) 2 + 2 4
106
Near resonance A( ) =
F0 m
20 (0 ) 2 + 2 4
= 1 m 2 2
2 40 {(0 ) 2 + 2 4}
( F0 m )
F02 2 1 =m 2 8m0 (0 ) 2 + 2 4 this form is encountered in various branches of physics e.g. the Breit-Wigner formula in nuclear physics lineshape 1
( E0 E )
+ 4
2
(E = )
107
Optical resonance
Atoms behave like sharply tuned oscillators in the processes of emitting and absorbing light. Example: Fraunhofer lines in the absorption spectrum of the sun which are the result of resonant absorption processes Doppler broadening of the spectral lines is about 100 times greater than any effect due to the true lifetime of the radiating atom!
intensity
5850
5900
5950
6000
108
wavelength ()
Nuclear resonance
Nuclear cross sections ( E ) display resonances at certain energies, which depend on the particular reaction and incident energy E0 Many of these resonances can be well-described by the equation
(E) =
4 ( E0 E ) +1 2
2
( E0 )
: FWHM
109
Atomic nuclei are limited to only a few discrete orientations when placed in a magnetic field. protons have only two orientations and can be caused to flip from one state to the other, in a magnetic field, by injecting electromagnetic radiation of just the right frequency for protons in a magnetic field of 5000 G, the resonance frequency is about 21 MHz can observe a voltage which varies (resonantly) as a function of frequency and can be described by V ( B) = 4 ( B0 B ) V0
2
( B )
+1
nuclear magnetic resonance Nobel Prize in physics (1952): F. Bloch and E.M. Purcell
110
V0 e I
jt
Phasor:
t
I Re
111
V0 e jt I L V0 e
jt
= VL Im
dI d VL = L = L ( I 0 e jt ) = j LI dt dt
V0 jt V0 VL I = = ( j )e jt e = j L j L L
I0
V0 j(t e I = L
2)
j = e j
VL0 VL
t
I
112
Re
V0 e I
jt
Im
I0
t
VC VC0 I Re
113
A resistive circuit
An inductive circuit
A capacitive circuit
114
I V0 cos t R L C
d 2Q dQ 1 L 2 + R + Q = V0 cos t dt dt C I= dQ dt
115
1 R + j L + I =V jC
LRC circuit 2
the impedance Z
call R + j L +
1 jC
Circuit element
resistance inductance capacitance
Impendence
R j L j C
116
LRC circuit 3
Write V = IZ Z1 Z1 Z2 Z = Z1 + Z 2 1 1 1 = + Z Z1 Z 2
Z2
and tan =
( L 1 C )
R
117
LRC circuit 4
I V0 cos t R L C = V0 e jt V I= = Z R + j ( L 1 C ) = V0 e jt R + ( L 1 C )
2 2
e j e
j (t )
V0 R + ( L 1 C )
2 2
V0 R 2 + ( L 1 C ) V0 R 2 + ( L 1 C )
2 2
cos (t )
118
LRC circuit 5
V = IZ VL VL VC
VR = IR VC
At high frequencies the impedance of the inductance is dominant, the phase lag is positive, i.e. the current lags the voltage.
119
LRC circuit 6
I VR = IR VL
V = IZ
VL VC VC At low frequencies the impedance of the capacitance is dominant, the phase lag is negative, i.e. the current leads the voltage.
120
LRC circuit 7
The amplitude and phase lag depend on frequency. as ( L 1 C ) 0 the current amplitude is a maximum. 1 For L = C , 2 = 1 LC
i.e. the amplitude is a maximum when the applied frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the (undamped) oscillator. 1 At resonance L = the circuit behaves like a C pure resistance. V I = 0 cos t =0 R
121
I ( ) I (0 ) I (0 ) 2
phase 2 lag 4 0
( )
0 +
4 2
122
R C L
dQ dt R 1 = and 123 L LC
d 2Q dQ 2 2 + + 0 Q = 0 dt dt
with 0 =
k b
x
R m C V0 cos t
F0 d x dx 2 + + 0 x = cos t 2 dt dt m b = m k = m
2 0
d 2Q dQ 1 + Q = V0 cos t L 2 +R dt dt C R = L
02 =
1 LC
Hence
tan ( ) = 2 (0 2 )
tan ( ) = 2 (0 2 )
124
Frequency (kHz)
125